Surveying Rev
Surveying Rev
Surveying Rev
angular and linear measurements to establish the The extensive use of surveying instruments came
form, extent, and relative position of points, during the early days of the Roman Empire.
lines, and areas on or near the surface of the
earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
through applied mathematics and the use of ASTROLABE invented by Hipparchus in 140 BC and
specialized equipment and techniques. further improved by Ptolemy used to determine the
altitude of stars
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING TELESCOPE invented by Lippershey (1607) Galileo
1. PLANE SURVEYING a type of surveying where constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
the earth is considered as a flat surface, and observations in 1609. Only used in surveying after the
where distances and areas involved are of cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced
limited extent TRANSIT invented by Young and Draper (1830) The
2. GEODETIC SURVEYING surveys of wide extent universal surveying instrument
which take into account the spheroidal shape SEMICIRCUMFERENTOR used to measure and lay off
of the earth angles and establish lines of sight by employing peep
TYPES OF SURVEYS sights
CADASTRAL SURVEYS - closed surveys in urban and PLANE TABLE used in field mapping. Consists of a
rural locations to determine and define property lines board attached to a tripod and can be leveled or
and boundaries, corners, and areas. rotated to any direction
CITY SURVEYS - surveys in the city for planning DIOPTRA invented by Heron of Alexandria. used in
expansions, locating property lines, fixing reference leveling and measuring horizontal and vertical angles
monuments, determining physical features of land, ROMAN GROMA for aligning or sighting points
and preparing maps. consists of cross arms with suspended plumb lines
CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS - surveys done at a fixed at right angles and pivoted upon a vertical staff.
construction site to provide data LIBELLA used by Assyrians and Egyptians. had an A-
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground frame with a plumb line suspended from its apex.
configuration, and location and elevation of used to determine the horizontal
structures. VERNIER invented by Pierre Vernier a short auxillary
FORESTRY SURVEYS - survey in connection with forest scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an
management and mensuration, and the production instrument to determine the fractional parts of the
and conservation of forest lands. main scale without interpolating.
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS surveys made to map DIOPTER developed by Greeks in 130 BC used for
shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water leveling, laying off right angles, and measuring
surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. horizontal and vertical angles.
INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS known as optical tooling COMPASS for determining direction of lines and
surveys for ship building, construction and assembly calculating angles between lines. Consists of a
of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and magnetized steel needle which points at the magnetic
complex machinery, and for industries requiring very north
accurate dimensional layouts. GUNTER’S CHAIN invented by Sir Edmund Gunter
MINE SURVEYS surveys to determine the position of (1620) – used for taping distances. 66 ft long and
all underground excavations and surface mine contains 100 links
structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining claims, CHOROBATES for leveling work consists of a
determine geological formations, calculate excavated horizontal straight-edge about 6 long, a groove 2.5 cm
volumes, and establish lines and grades for other deep and 1.5 m long on top. water is poured into the
related mining work. groove for leveling
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS survey which uses MERCHET for measuring time and Meridian. used by
photographs taken with specially designed cameras Chaldeans in 4000 BC consists of a slotted palm leaf
either from airplanes or ground stations. through which to sight and a bracket from which a
ROUTE SURVEYS determination of alignment, grades, plumb bob was suspended.
earthwork quantities, location of natural and artificial
objects in connection with the planning, design, and
construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals,
transmission lines, and other linear projects.
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS surveys to determine the
shape of the ground, the location and elevation of
natural and artificial features upon it.
MEASUREMENT process of determining the extent, INFORMATION FOUND IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS
size, or dimension of a particular 1. Title of the Field Work or Name of Project
quantity in comparison to a given 2. Time of Day and Date
standard. 3. Weather Conditions
4. Names of Group Members and Their Designations
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS 5. List of Equipment
DIRECT MEASUREMENTS comparison of the
measured quantity with a standard measuring unit THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
(makes use of instruments to measure the quantity) 1. Chief of Party responsible for the overall direction,
INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS made when it is not supervision, and operational control of the survey
possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a party.
quantity 2. Assistant Chief of Party assists the chief of party in
the accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey
THE METER party.
proposed in 1789 by French scientists to 3. Instrument Man sets up, levels, and operates the
establish a system suitable for all times and surveying instruments.
all peoples, and which could be based upon 4. Technician responsible for the use and operation of
permanent natural standards all electronic instruments required in the field.
5. Computer performs all computations of survey data
originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the and works out necessary computational checks
earth’s meridional quadrant required in the field.
6. Recorder keeps the record of all sketches,
Effective January 1, 1983, the English System was drawings, measurements, and observations taken in
officially phased out in the Philippines and only the the field.
modern metric system was allowed to be used. The 7. Head Tapeman responsible for the accuracy and
metric conversion was signed into law in 1978 by speed of all linear measurements with tape. Carries
Pres. Marcos. The metric system prescribed the use the zero end of the tape ahead
of the International System of Units (SI) as 8. Rear Tapeman assists the head tapeman during
established by the General Conference on Weights taping operations and in other related work. Holds the
and Measures and as modified by the local Metric 30-m end or any intermediate meter mark of the tape
System Board to suit Philippine Conditions. during measurement
9. Flagman holds the flagpole or range pole at
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT selected points as directed by the instrument man.
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements 10. Rodman holds the stadia or leveling rod when
2. Angular Measurements sights are to be taken on it.
11. Pacer checks all linear measurements made by the
Angular Measurements tapeman. May also perform the job of the rodman.
Radian – SI unit for plane angles (the angle subtended 12. Axeman/Lineman clears the line of sight of trees,
by an arc of a circle having a length equal to the radius brush, and other obstructions in wooded country.
of a circle) 13. Aidman renders first aid treatment to members of
a. Sexagesimal Units - the degree, minute, second the survey party who are involved in snake or insect
b. Centesimal Units - uses grads (360° = 400 grads) bites, accidents and other health issues. May also be
designated as assistant instrument man.
the grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes and 14. Utilitymen renders other forms of assistance
the minute is divided into 100 centesimal seconds needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief
of party.
SURVEYING FIELD NOTES - constitute the
only reliable and permanent record of actual work ERROR difference between the true value and the
done in the field measured value of a quantity
FIELD NOTEBOOK - used to record the field notes MISTAKES inaccuracies in measurements which occur
because some aspect of a surveying operation is
TYPES OF NOTES performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
1. Sketches inattention, poor judgment, and improper
2. Tabulations execution.
3. Explanatory Notes BLUNDER – Large mistakes
4. Computations
5. Combination of the above
TYPES OF ERRORS
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS one which will always
have the same sign and magnitude as long as field
conditions remain constant and unchanged.
ACCIDENTAL ERRORS the occurrence of such errors
are matters of chance as they are likely
to be positive or negative, and may tend in part to
compensate or average out according to laws of
probability.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS due to imperfections of
the instrument used, either from faults in their
construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use.
2. NATURAL ERRORS caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth.
3. PERSONAL ERRORS arise from the limitations of the
senses of sight, touch and hearing of the human
observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate.
ACCURACY - how close a given measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.
PRECISION - degree of refinement and consistency
with which any physical measurement is made
PROBABILITY - number of times something will
probably occur over the range of possible
occurrences. In dealing with probability, it is assumed
that we only refer to accidental errors and that all
systematic errors and mistakes are eliminated.
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
1. small errors occur more often than large ones and
that they are more probable
2. large errors happen infrequently and are less
probable
3. positive and negative errors of the same size
happen with equal frequency, and they are equally
probable
4. the mean of an infinite number of observations is
the most probable value
Sun Signals
Heliotropes Those signals which reflect the rays of the
Factors to be consider in selecting a figure
sun towards the station of observation, are known as
• Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral heliotropes.
• Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably squares • Such signals can only be used in clear weather.
• Centered polygons should be regular
• No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should Night Signals While making observations at
be small night, night signals are used.
• The angles of simple triangles should not be less
than 45° Various types of night signals are:
• In case of quadrilaterals no angle should be less than
Various forms of oil lamps with a reflector. These are
30°. used for sights less than 80 km.
• In case of centered polygons, no angle should be Acetylene lamps designed by captain G.T. McCaw.
less than 40° These are used for sights more than 80 km.
• The sides of the figures should be of comparable
length
Opaque Signals Distance between the stations
• The opaque, or non-luminous signals used during • If the intervening ground does not obstruct the
day intervisibility, the distance of horizon from the station
• Various forms and the ones most commonly used of known elevation is given by the following formula
are the following
- Pole Signal Relative elevation of the stations
- Target Signal • Distance between two stations A and B of heights
- Pole and Brush Signals hA and hB respectively is D.
- Stone Cairn • DA and DB are the distances of visible horizon from
- Beacon A and B respectively and hB ′ required elevation at B
Pole Signal It consists of a round pole above the datum
painted black and white in alternate and is supported • Since DB = D − DA, hB ′ can be calculated and
vertically over the station mark on a tripod. checked whether to be raised above the ground.
Target Signal It consists of a pole carrying two • Normally the line of sight is kept at 3m
square or rectangular targets placed at right angles to above the ground as the refraction is
each other maximum near the ground
Pole and Brush Signals It consists of a straight pole
about 2·5 meter long with a bunch of long grass tied Base Line measurements
symmetrically round the top making a cross • Field work for base line measurement is carried out
Stone Cairn It consists of stones built up to a height of by two groups as setting out group and the
3 meters in a conical shape. measuring group
Beacon It consists of red and white cloth tied round • After the measurements the most probable length is
the three straight poles. calculated applying the following corrections
Tower A tower is erected at the triangulation station • Corrections for base line measurement
when the station or the signal or both are to be • Correction for the absolute length
elevated to make indivisibility between station • Correction for temperature
• Correction for pull or tension
Reconnaissance • Correction for Sag
• Objective of the reconnaissance is to plan a system • Correction for slope
of triangulation in accordance with the specifications • Correction for alignment
laid down for the type of triangulation • Reduction to mean sea level
• Reconnaissance team should prepare a well-defined • Axis signal correction
description of the stations selected by them due to
• Correction for the unequal height
two main reasons
• Reduction to Chord to arc
Criteria for selection of triangulation stations
• Triangulation stations must be selected
carefully
• It can save a lot of time and funds by keeping
the following key points in mind
• Triangulation stations should be intervisible.
• Stations should be easily accessible with
instruments.
• Station should form well-conditioned
triangles.
• Stations should be located so that the survey
lines are neither too small nor too long
• Cost of clearing and cutting and building
towers should be minimum
• No line of sight should pass over the industrial
areas to avoid irregular atmospheric
refraction