Introduction To Logic

NAME : Bayer Jarod

SEMESTER : 5TH SEMESTER,2023
COURSE : Humanities (HMNT 159)

Introduction to Logic: A Comprehensive Guide to Critical Thinking
I. Introduction
We will look at the ideas and strategies of critical thinking in this Logic course. Logic is the
study of argument and reasoning, and it is necessary for constructing clear and logical
arguments, making informed judgments, and assessing other people's assertions. In this lecture,
we will define logic and examine its relevance before delving into the many varieties of logic
and their historical background. You will have a thorough grasp of logic and its applications in
numerous domains by the conclusion of this lesson, as well as the skills to critically assess
arguments and make solid judgements.
II. Propositional Logic
Proposed logic, also known as sentential reasoning, is a branch of logic that deals with assertions
that may be true or untrue. In this part, we can see at the fundamentals of propositional logic.
A. Introduction to Propositional Logic

The validity or falsehood of statements is the focus of propositional logic. A proposition is a
declarative statement with two possible outcomes: true or untrue. Proposition examples include
"The heavens is blue," "2+2=4," and "All humans are mortal."
B. Propositional Connectives
Propositional connectives are words or symbols that are used to connect propositions and create
more complex statements. The main propositional connectives are:
1. Negation: Denoted by the symbol ¬ or ~, negation is used to express the opposite of a

proposition. For example, if p represents the proposition "It is raining," then ¬p represents the
proposition "It is not raining."
2. Conjunction: Denoted by the symbol ⊥ or &, conjunction is used to express that two
propositions are true at the same time. For example, if p represents the proposition "It is raining"
and q represents the proposition "It is cold," then p ⊥ q represents the proposition "It is raining
and it is cold."
3. Disjunction: Denoted by the symbol ⊦ or |, disjunction is used to express that at least one of
two propositions is true. For example, if p represents the proposition "It is raining" and q
represents the proposition "It is snowing," then p ⊦ q represents the proposition "It is raining or it
is snowing."

NAME : Bayer Jarod

4. Implication: Denoted by the symbol →, implication is used to express that one proposition
implies another. For example, if p represents the proposition "It is raining" and q represents the
proposition "The ground is wet," then p → q represents the proposition "If it is raining, then the
ground is wet."
5. Equivalence: Denoted by the symbol ↔, equivalence is used to express that two propositions
have the same truth value. For example, if p represents the proposition "It is raining" and q
represents the proposition "The streets are wet," then p ↔ q represents the proposition "It is
raining if and only if the streets are wet."
C. Truth Tables
A truth table is a table that displays the truth values of a compound statement for all feasible
permutations of its component propositions' truth values. In propositional logic, truth tables are
important for analyzing the validity of arguments.
D. Logical Equivalence
Two propositions are logically equivalent if they have the same truth value under all possible
conditions. Logical equivalence can be demonstrated using truth tables.
E. Conditional Statements
Conditional statements are statements that assert that one proposition implies another. In
propositional logic, conditional statements are represented by the implication connective. A
conditional statement is true if the antecedent implies the consequent.
F. Quantifiers
Quantifiers are used in predicate logic to indicate the extent to which a predicate applies to a
subject. There are two main quantifiers: the universal quantifier (∀), which indicates that the
predicate applies to all members of a set, and the existential quantifier (∃), which indicates that
the predicate applies to at least one member of a set.
III. Predicate Logic
Predicate logic, also known as first-order logic, is a more advanced branch of logic that allows
for the analysis of the internal structure of propositions and the relationships between them. In
this part, we will look at the fundamentals of predicate logic.
A. Introduction to Predicate Logic

Predicate logic extends propositional logic by introducing variables, predicates, and quantifiers.
A function that accepts an input and returns the truth value is known as a predicate. For example,

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"x is blue" is a predicate that takes an object x as an argument and returns either true or false
depending on whether x is blue or not.
B. Quantifiers
In predicate logic, quantifiers are used to express the extent to which a predicate applies to a
subject. The universal quantifier (∀) is used to express that a predicate applies to all members of
a set, while the existential quantifier (∃) is used to express that a predicate applies to at least one
member of a set.
C. Predicates
A predicate is a function that takes an argument and returns a truth value. Predicates are used to
express properties of objects or relations between objects. For example, "x is taller than y" is a
predicate that takes two objects x and y as arguments and returns either true or false depending
on whether x is taller than y or not.
D. Functions
A function is a relation between sets that assigns to each member of the domain exactly one
member of the range. Functions are used in predicate logic to represent properties of objects or
relations between objects. For example, "f(x) = 2x" is a function that takes a number x as an
argument and returns a number that is twice x.
E. Identity
Identity is a relation that holds between an object and itself. In predicate logic, the identity
relation is denoted by the symbol =. For example, "x=x" is a true statement that expresses the
identity of x.
Overall, predicate logic provides a powerful tool for analyzing the structure of complex
propositions and reasoning about the relationships between objects and properties.
IV. Deductive Reasoning
Deductive thinking is a kind of reasoning that derives a conclusion from premises that are
presumed to be true. In this part, we will look at the fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
A. Introduction to Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is derived from premises that are
assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning is used in mathematics, philosophy, and science to
prove theorems, formulate theories, and make predictions.

NAME : Bayer Jarod

B. Validity and Soundness

A deductive argument is said to be valid if the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it is valid and all of its premises are true.
C. Rules of Inference
Rules of inference are used in deductive reasoning to derive a conclusion from a set of premises.
Examples of rules of inference include modus ponens, modus tollens, and transitivity.
D. Formal Proofs
A formal proof is a rigorous, step-by-step argument that demonstrates the validity of a deductive
argument. Formal proofs are used in mathematics and computer science to prove theorems and
verify the correctness of algorithms.
E. Counterexamples
A counterexample is a specific case that contradicts a general statement. In deductive reasoning,
counterexamples are used to show that a deductive argument is invalid.
Overall, deductive reasoning provides a rigorous and systematic approach to deriving

conclusions from assumptions. By carefully analyzing the structure of arguments and using rules
of inference, we can construct valid and sound deductive arguments that are essential for the
development of mathematics, philosophy, and science.
V. Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn based on a pattern of

observations or data. In this section, we will explore the basics of inductive reasoning.
A. Introduction to Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn based on a pattern of
observations or data. Inductive reasoning is used in many areas of science, including biology,
physics, and psychology.
B. Inductive Generalization
Inductive generalization is the process of drawing a general conclusion from specific
observations. For instance, if we see that all of the swans we've seen are white, we may conclude
that all swans are white.
C. Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is a process of using data to test a hypothesis or theory. In science, hypotheses

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are tested through observations and experiments. If the data supports the hypothesis, it is
accepted as a working theory.
D. Causal Reasoning
Causal reasoning is the process of identifying a cause-and-effect relationship between two
events. Causal reasoning is used in many areas of science, including epidemiology and
psychology.
E. Probability Reasoning
Probability reasoning is the process of using probability theory to draw conclusions about events.
Probability reasoning is used in many areas of science, including genetics and finance.
Overall, inductive reasoning provides a powerful tool for understanding the patterns and
relationships that exist in data. By carefully analyzing observations and using principles of
probability and hypothesis testing, we can draw conclusions that help us make sense of the world
around us.
VI. Informal Logic
Informal logic is a branch of logic that deals with arguments in everyday language and discourse.
In this section, we will explore the basics of informal logic.
A. Introduction to Informal Logic

Informal logic is concerned with arguments that occur in everyday life, as opposed to the more
formal arguments of mathematics and philosophy. Informal logic is used to analyze arguments in
fields such as politics, law, and advertising.
B. Fallacies
A fallacy is a type of error in reasoning that occurs when an argument appears to be valid, but in
fact is not. Common fallacies include ad hominem, straw man, and false dilemma.
C. Informal Fallacies
Informal fallacies are types of errors in reasoning that occur in everyday language and discourse.
Informal fallacies include appeal to emotion, appeal to authority, and slippery slope.
D. Argument Evaluation
The process of evaluating an argument involves assessing the strength of the evidence presented
and the logical structure of the argument. In informal logic, arguments are evaluated based on
their soundness and persuasiveness.

NAME : Bayer Jarod

E. Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of using language to persuade or influence others. In informal logic, rhetoric is
often used to analyze the techniques used in persuasive arguments, such as emotional appeals
and loaded language.
Overall, informal logic provides a framework for analyzing arguments that occur in everyday
life. By understanding the types of fallacies that can occur in informal arguments, and by
evaluating the strength of evidence presented, we can become better critical thinkers and more
effective communicators.
VII. Applications of Logic
Logic has many practical applications in various fields. In this section, we will explore some of
the applications of logic.
A. Mathematics
Logic forms the foundation of mathematics. Mathematical proofs use deductive reasoning to
demonstrate the truth of mathematical statements.
B. Philosophy
Logic is an essential tool in philosophical inquiry. Philosophers use logical analysis to explore
concepts such as truth, knowledge, and morality.
C. Computer Science
Logic is used in computer science to design and verify the correctness of computer programs and
algorithms.
D. Law
Logic is an important tool in legal reasoning. Lawyers use logical analysis to construct
arguments and evaluate evidence in legal cases.
E. Science
Logic is used in scientific inquiry to analyze and evaluate hypotheses and theories. Scientists use
both deductive and inductive reasoning to draw conclusions from observations and data.
F. Business
Logic is used in business to analyze data and make informed decisions. Business analysts use
logical reasoning to identify patterns and trends in data, and to develop strategies for improving
business performance.

NAME : Bayer Jarod

Overall, logic has many practical applications in various fields. By using logical reasoning to
analyze arguments, evaluate evidence, and make informed decisions, we can improve our
understanding of the world and become more effective problem-solvers.
VIII. Conclusion
In conclusion, logic is a fundamental tool for understanding and analyzing arguments and
patterns of reasoning. Propositional logic and predicate logic provide the basis for deductive
reasoning, while inductive reasoning is used to draw conclusions based on patterns of
observations and data. Informal logic provides a framework for analyzing arguments that occur
in everyday life, and logic has many practical applications in fields such as mathematics,
philosophy, computer science, law, science, and business. By studying and applying the
principles of logic, we can become better critical thinkers and more effective communicators.

Introduction To Logic

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Introduction To Logic

Uploaded by

NAME : Bayer Jarod

Introduction to Logic: A Comprehensive Guide to Critical Thinking

II. Propositional Logic

A. Introduction to Propositional Logic

1. Negation: Denoted by the symbol ¬ or ~, negation is used to express the opposite of a

III. Predicate Logic

A. Introduction to Predicate Logic

IV. Deductive Reasoning

A. Introduction to Deductive Reasoning

B. Validity and Soundness

Overall, deductive reasoning provides a rigorous and systematic approach to deriving

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn based on a pattern of

A. Introduction to Inductive Reasoning

VI. Informal Logic

A. Introduction to Informal Logic

VII. Applications of Logic

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