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1944
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TRAINING DIVISION* BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS* U.S. NAVY

 ~

ISSUED BY TRAINI-NG DIVISION

BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS
UNITED STATES NAVY
A U G U S T 1 9 4 3
 ARCTIC SENSE
In operating airplanes in the Far North there are several manners, customs,
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
and usages to be practiced which are useful in keeping you from making an egg of
OF THB
yourself in front of the Eskimos.
TRAINING DIVISION * BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS
UNITED STATES NAVY

Gunnery Sense Aleutian Sense

Oxygen Sense Manners Sense
Prisoner Sense Air Information Sense
Parachute Sense Flat Hatting Sense
Dunking Sense
Using Your Navy Wings Don't Kill Your Friends
Flight Quarters Study-and-How
There's No Substitute for Marksmanship In flight, for instance, if you overlook precautions against icing, you may
boost your stalling speed to a point where you wind up with your plane sticking
out of the top of an igloo. The Eskimo looks upon his igloo as his castle, and he
Aerology Series may regard this as an unfriendly act.
Ice Formation on Aircraft Fog
Thunderstorms Air Masses and Fronts
*General Circulation System *The Life Cycle of the Cyclone
*The Warm Front *The Weather Map

*Forthcoming

On the ground also there are certain practices to be observed. Parking your
plane with the brakes locked "ON" will insure your plane staying right where H
is-probably until the spring thaw. While this may give you the chance to win
1
hosts of friends among the natives, it will lose you the admiration of the Operations
Officer-an experie:11-ce more devastating than tangling with several Zeros.

you'll want to give heed to the advice in this booklet on the rules that comprise
Arctic Sense.
WHEN YOU PARK A PLANE ON ICE
On the water it's a good idea to keep your taxiing. to a minimum and to pro- in the Arctic, you must be certain of two things:
ceed slowly. Otherwise you'll cover your plane with spray, which is a bad thing 1. That it's going to stay there until you want to take it away. (There is no
future in finding that your plane is wandering around on an ice floe with the
Japanese current taking it farther away from you every minute.)

because the spray turns to ice, and the airworthiness of ice has never proved
satisfactory. 2. That when you want to take it away, it's going to be in a frame of mind to
So unless you are interested in sitting on an iceberg for the duration, or emerg- cooperate. (In case you think a plane can't have a mind of its own, try starting
ing as a well-preserved fossil from the Great Glacier in the year 21,943 A. D., it in subzero weather without preheating the oil!)
2 3
 There ara several ways to make your plane behave. The first, of course, is By the way, your crew must be instructed not to touch metal tools with their
to make sure of the surface beneath when you park it. Wherever there is ice or bare hands in freezing weather. The skin will come off on the metal when they put
snow, it is a good precaution to put a layer of fabric, straw, green boughs or other the tools down.
insulation under the wheels so they won't stick to the surface.
Otherwise, when your plane is moved, you are likely to find that your tires YOUR PLANE HATES THE COLD
have stuck to the ice and have carpeted the surface with two parallel strips of Should you have to leave your plane out in the cold,
rubber. you probably will have to humor it to get it back to normal flying condition.
Your brakes should be locked "OFF," because if they aren't, ice may form When you have to leave your aircraft parked out for the night, leave the escape
through condensation in the brake linings and lock them. As tires do not make hatch or some other hatch partly open so that air can circulate in the cabin or
good skis, this is a disadvantage at the take-off. cockpit. This will prevent the windows from frosting up. When your plane is to
To make sure your plane stays put, it's a good idea. to provide mooring
anchors. A mooring line can be made fast to a log or heavy branch, which is then
buried in the snow. After water is poured over it, the anchor freezes solidly and
is secure. Sacks, boxes, and other containers can ' be filled with sand or gravel to
serve as anchorage points.
When parking on ice, two holes may be drilled about a foot apart, and the
mooring line passed under the solid-ice crosspiece between the two holes. The
ice may be too deep to penetrate, but two pits can be dug and a hole chipped
through the intervening ice barrier to serve as the anchor point.

remain on "alert," heat must be applied to the turrets, bomb sights, and other
l armament equipment so that they are always ready to go.
,I Before you try to fly your plane, make sure that all ice and snow are cleared
from the fuselage and plane surfaces. Never take off with even light frost on the
/./
wings. Whenever you suspect prop ice, clean it off, or use the anti-icer while
running up the engines.
When there are sharp temperature changes from moderate to extreme cold,
condensation may cause ice to form inside the wings and hull, as well as on the out-
side surfaces. Usually heat is the only way to get rid of it, as chipping may dam-
age the plane. But you must make sure that all controls and mechanisms are free
Other mooring methods may be devised, but under all circumstances, mooring and unobstructed.
-lines must be taut to keep the plane from rocking in the wind. A slack line is You should make sure also that fuel-tank vents are free from ice, since con-
dangerous. densation may cause droplets of water to form in the vent line. This will freeze
4 5
and cause stoppages. In extremely cold weather, water also condenses in the fuel In an emergency, when you have no containers or heaters, if the temperature is
and oil tanks, and therefore the sumps mu'3t be drained frequently. not below 20° F., here is a trick for starting your engine that often will work:
Whatever you do, don't use a blow-torch on the outer surface of leakproof tanks I. Use normal oil dilution procedure before you shut down your engines.
to heat their contents. The liner will melt and foul the oil system. 2. After shut-down, drain enough oil to bring the oil level down to two-thirds
of capacity.
3. Restart the engines and run with covers over the cooler, if necessary, until
oil temperature is above 122° F.
4. With the engines still running at 1,000 r. p. m., add enough gasoline at the
oil filter neck to fill the system. This gives you a 2: 1 ratio of oil to fuel and will
dilute the oil adjacent to the tank hopper.
ALL 5. Shut the engines off, and restart after 20-30 minutes and give a second nor-
f"~! mal dilution procedure, followed by a final shut-down.
The procedure outlined is strictly an EMERGENCY MEASURE. Remember
that when the fuel evaporates, your normal oil supply is reduced, and that has to be
enough to get you to a new oil supply.
If you are encountering extreme cold and have no way to keep your engines
warm, it may be necessary to keep them running at frequent intervals during the
lay-over period. You can do this, however, only when you have sufficient fuel
There are various types of equipment in use for heating parts of your aircraft, available to keep the engines warm, and to fly you to the nearest place where you can
its armament and lubricants. Each type calls for special handling. Upon being get more fuel.
assigned to an Arctic station, familiarize yourself with this equipment. Make
sure that your plane gets the best possible use out of it, and that nobody abuses it.
Specific directions are given for operating all types of heaters. See that your plane
crew follows these directions implicitly.
IT'S LIFE INSURANCE!
Sometimes you may be operating where heating equipment
isn't available. That's when you'll wish you'd learned how to make a fire by rub-
bing two sticks together, but even if you weren't a Boy Scout in your youth, there
are some things you can do that will mark you as an expert mechanized woodsman.
After a flight when temperatures are 20° F. or below, and immersion heaters
aren't handy, drain all your engine oil into clean containers and store them in a
shelter where the temperature is above freezing. If you haven't any warm storage
space, heat the oil on a stove or any other source of heat until it is free flowing,
then pour it back into the oil tanks immediately before starting the engines.
When containers and heating facilities are not available, drain all the oil out If you have a warm place to store your battery, it is a good idea to remove it
on the ground and replace it with fresh oil later. Never mind what you've heard from your plane when the temperature drops to 20° F. Lacking a storage place
about a petroleum shortage. It is essential to get the oil out of the crankcase in where the temperature is above freezing, there is no point in removing the battery.
subzero weather, or it will solidify so that you can't get it out. It may be necessary to build up the battery with a portable generator before you
6 1
can start the engine. In any event, never operate electrically heated flying suits, Your plane hasn't much traction, and therefore it hasn't much maneuverability.
turrets, or other electrical devices unless there is a generator in operation. They If the wind is gusty, the plane may be blown off the ice entirely before you can
pull the battery down too fast when it isn't recharging. regain control of it.

STARTING THE ENGINE

It takes considerable prrrmng to start an engme m cold
weather. Turn the engine over by hand three or four revolutions. Give a priming, If your aircraft is on skis, special technique is called for. It usually is neces-
then engage the starter, and while the engine is being turned over, give the primer sary to break them loose from the snow before take-off, and it's highly desirable
several short, sharp strokes until the engine catches. to make sure that both skis are loose, or the plane will pivot and twist its under-
When you have a suitable heater, you can get an easier start by directing a
hot-air blast into the carburetor air intake, but be careful not to injure the equip-
ment, your crew, or yourself. If you haven't a heater, you sometimes can get an
easier start by placing a hot rock immediately in front of the carburetor air inlet.
Don't let it fall into the intake!
J\1oisture forms quickly on spark plugs during cold-weather starts. After
three or four unsuccessful attempts, it's good to take at least one spark plug out
of each cylinder and heat them to around 150° F. to remove the ice and to dry the
points.
Warm-up can be hastened if carburetor air is put on hot as soon as the engine
is firing regularly. But apply the heat slowly, and only in the amount the engine
will take without backfiring.
GETTING OFF THE GROUND, AND GETTING BACK
If the snow is heavy enough to interfere with
your take-off run, but isn't deep enough to keep you from taxiing, taxi slowly up
and down the take-off course several times to pack down a runway before you try
to take off. The depth and hardness of the snow and the size of your plane's wheels carriage. You can break the skis loose by jarring them with a heavy piece of
will determine whether take-off or landing is practicable. wood or by having the crew rock the aircraft violently with the engine running.
In landing or taking off on a narrow strip of clear ice, watch out for cross winds. Generally, you can avoid this difficulty by parking your plane with the skis resting
8 536090°-43-2 9
on planks, cloth, or even spruce branches, since this will prevent the skis from freez- WHEN YOU'RE IN THE AIR
ing to the ground or snow.
It's a good idea to have one or two stiff corn brooms stowed in the plane
to sweep frost or snow from the wings. The leading edge, particularly the upper
curvature, and the forward part of the upper wing surface, are the critical areas.
Spruce boughs, if trees are available, can be used as brooms.
TAKING OFF
In taxiing, skis will stick if you stop, and unless the snow is hard
and well-packed, a fully loaded airplane i's hard to break loose again without a
ground crew. If you have to stop, taxi in a circle two or three times and stop
the plane in its own tracks.
A plane is hard to steer on skis, and usually a ground crew is essential for
parking in a confined space. It's good practice to have a line secured to each land-
ing gear strut in order that the ground crew may assist without walking in the
slipstream, which can cause frostbite on a cold day.

~~---~
a complete cycle two or three times to keep them from freezing in the ''UP'' position.
You have instructions on how to operate heaters, electric suits, defrosters,
deicers, and on how to regulate shutters to maintain temperature within safe
limits. Read them and follow them.

A plane has a tendency to skid while taxiing on skis, so watch it on the turns
to make sure it doesn't get out of control and slide into a drift. If you encounter
slush, keep moving until you reach dry snow again.
In taking off, you can shorten the run on skis by a technique similar to a sea-
plane take-off-dropping the tail slightly before placing it on the step. Temperature inversions are common in the Arctic, and the ground air may
When taking off from wet or deep snow on skis, it's advisable to make a set of be as much as 90° F. colder than that at high altitude. The thing to do is avoid
tracks while taxiing downwind, then turn and make a take-off on these tracks. excessive cooling when you're letting down. You can do this by lowering your
10 11
landing gear and using partial flaps to come down slowly. Keep plenty of power terrain, and it's like flying in a bowl of milk. Some Arctic tragedies have resulted
on, and regulate the shutters so that your engine doesn't cool off too quickly. from pilots trusting their depth perception under these conditions. There is an
If you can, keep the head temperature above 212° F. and oil temperature above incident in which a patrol plane actually flew to a safe landing on an ice cap without
85° F. during all let-downs. Lower readings may result in your engine cutting the pilot being aware that he was anywhere close to the surface.
out or failing when you advance your throttle. In sustained flight you generally can rely on your instruments to counter
In some planes an increase in the oil temperature these conditions, but when you are coming in for a landing, you must rely on your
may mean that oil is congealing in the cooler. You wits. Flares which set up a black smoke will help you greatly in landing. If
can correct this condition-and you'd better!-by these are lacking, about the best you can do is to jettison dark objects from the
closing the cooler shutters. During a long descent plane so that they will show up against the snow and help you to determine the
you can use the oil-dilution system to prevent con- ground level.
gealing in the cooler when closing the cooler shut- Whatever you do, don't underestimate the effect of Arctic lighting and weather
ters isn't enough. on your depth perception. Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, whose experience in
As you well know, carburetor icing is less likely such matters is unparalleled, says it is the greatest hazard you can encounter in
under extreme conditions of cold than when free Arc tic flying.
0
• air temperature is between 30° and 40° F. It's
not a bad idea, though, to apply some carburetor
' heat for a minute or two every half hour during
flight to keep the adapter from icing up. It's also
a good move to rev up the propellers about 200
r. p. m. and vary your throttle setting every half
hour. It throws off prop ice and keeps the butter-
fly valve in the carburetor from sticking. Return
to normal cruising conditions as soon as the tachom-
eter shows that the cycle is completed.
Your gunners should operate their - ·---~ ....
___.-..,..
turrets frequently during flight. Once
they figure out what would happen if ARCTIC WATER PILOTING
the turret got sluggish just as a tar-
Don't cast off from a buoy as soon as an engine catches.
get came in sight, you'll probably
In the Arctic, engines have a way of quitting on you unless they are thoroughly
have to caution them against keeping
warmed up, and you want to make sure you aren't drifting around helplessly with
the turrets moving all the time. no power, playing tag ·w ith a lot of icebergs.
There's no percentage in wrestling
Surface ice is a hazard to take-offs and landings. It should be standard
with a reluctant turret when you are in range of a bandit. Gunners are amazingly practice in Arctic waters to have a boat patrol your take-off path so that you can
quick to sense this. be sure your course is clear. If there is broken ice, have a boat precede you over
Pilots who have explored the Arctic and Antarctic for years confess that they the take-off path, to clear the way for you.
still are baffled by uncertain visibility conditions that they have encountered there. You have been told before-but be sure you remember-Don't Wait For Ice
On the basis of their experience, you must be wary of your depth perception. With To Form. PREVENT IT! Don't wait until you get ice, to go on alternate air.
cert-ain types of overcast it is absolutely impossible to distinguish the sky from the Shift as soon as you suspect that you may possibly get ice. (It might not hurt
12 13
 you to review the booklet ICE FORMATION ON AIRCRAFT, which has been that ice moves with .the tides. Sometimes you can forecast its presence that
issued by the Training Division of the Bureau of Aeronautics.) way.
You'll get choppy seas in the Arctic, and therefore it's best to land your
airplane full-stall in the daytime and power-stall at night.
It is a good idea to be familiar with inland lakes and airports. If visibility is
bad at your base, you may want to use them as alternates.
Keep yourself and your crew as dry and warm as you can, not only for com-
fort but for protection. Boats should have canvas screens to keep from taking
water and drenching all hands while en route to moored planes. It's impossible
to keep flight clothes from getting wet, but you can change them. Hot food is a
good antidote for chill. Fortunately, it's normal to want hot food and hot coffee
in the Arctic climate. You won't have any trouble indoctrinating your crew with
the idea of keeping warm that way.
IN CASE YOU CAMP OUT IN THE ARCTIC
In spite of anything glamorous you may have
read by Jack London or Robert W. Service, it's no picnic to spend the night in the
open during an Arctic winter. Don't do it if you can help it, and if you have to
do it because of a forced landing, make it as easy on yourself as you can.
Before you land, drag the landing area and look over the surface of the water
to make sure there is no ice in your proposed landing area. Many of your take-

i·
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I

Every flight during winter outside the local area of established Arctic bases
should carry the following equipment for each member of the crew, with priority
in the order given:
offs and landings will be at night, but usually lights will be set out for you by the 1. Eiderdown sleeping bag.
tender or the shore station. In any case, if your landing is near the shore, remember 2. Emergency rations and matches.

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II

3. Emergency clothing:
I

j
the wind. Get as much sleep as you can with your feet toward the fire. If the
Footgear. cold wakes you, get up immediately and build up your fire, and warm yourself by
Parka.
exercising. But don't get up a sweat. Damp clothes will cause freezing. Take
Woolen underwear.
Woolen socks. off whatever garments are necessary to prevent perspiring while exercising.
4. Emergency kit-gun, ammunition, fishline, fire-building materials, primus stove, Don't attempt to travel unless you have adequate equipment and have had
ax, and other essentials. previous Arctic experience. THERE ARE TWO EXCEPTIONS TO THIS
There is no point in playing hide-and-seek with the pilots who are sent out to RULE-you should travel from your plane if you are positive of your position and
look for you if you are forced down. Stay on your prearranged flight course all know that shelter is within easy reach. And if searchers are not likely to reach you,
the time. Except in extreme cases, it's better to land or crash land the plane than you simply have to travel.
to bail out. Frozen lakes make good emergency airports, and you can crash land
in many valleys, on slopes, and even on ice floes.
If you are forced down, first determine whether the plane is still flyable.
Take every necessary precaution for starting the engine when you are ready to
shove off. Then look at once to your own protection.
Set up emergency signals or improvise markers that can be seen readily. Be
ready to fire your signal pistol or set up a smoke smudge if planes pass over head
l
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Above all, don't lose your head. You can survive many days without food ii
you relax and get plenty of sleep.
SIGNALS FOR SEARCHERS
Signal with colored parachute flares when you hear
aircraft overhead at night.
Trample "S O S" in the snow, if it isn't too deep. Make the letters at least
It may be necessary to stay in the plane; but, generally speaking, additional 200 feet high and outline them in evergreen boughs if possible.
comfort will be obtained if you establish a camp. A patrol plane hull has been Keep a fire going. If a plane is approaching, make smoke by throwing any of
called the coldest place in the world. Make camp in some nearby sheltered place these materials on the fire:
and get together a supply of firewood. If worst comes to worst, you can drain Gasoline and oil mixture.
some gasoline from the fuel sump to get your fire going. Even if your oil congeals, · Chunks of congealed oil or animal fat.
it will help in startiiJ.g your fire. Inner tubes, rubber hose, or floor mats.
Hollow out a place in the snow for sleeping, in a location that is protected from
16 536090°-43-3 17

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11

I
!

,
' .
!I - ,,. 0 'ft

I \ "'

2. Use several layers of light clothing in preference to a single heavy layer-

they are warmer. Inner clothes should be fluffy and porous; only pure wool under-
wear is suitable for the Arctic. Outer clothing should be wind-resistant and water-
TAKE YOUR BEAR STEAKS RARE repellent, but should not be waterproof, because waterproof clothing won't permit
Your emergency ration provides a balanced diet for the moisture on your body to dry. Avoid overheating by exertion. Perspiration ca.n
as long as it lasts. It takes quite a lot of sugar and animal fat to keep you healthy be as deadly as a ducking in ice water.
over a long period of time in the Arctic. Fresh meat alone, if it is fatty, will keep
you [going for an indefinite period. But don't overcook it. Long exposure to heat
ruins vitamins and leads to scurvy. Maybe you prefer having a well-done steak
Bordelaise at Delmonico's but above latitude 50, you'd better eat your meat rare-
or even raw-whether you like it or not.
HINTS TO ARCTIC CAMPERS
If a forced landing makes you an unwilling member of
the Arctic Camping Club, remember these do's and don'ts. They will save you
some misery and help you to get back to the station, where you can bore your mess-
mates with your experiences as an explorer:
1. Avoid sunburn and snow-blindness. You can get either or both in bright ·
overcast as well as clear weather. Protect your eyes and face as much as you can.
If you haven't colored goggles, blacken your cheeks and the bridge of your nose
with charcoal. You can make an eyeshield by burning holes slightly smaller than Tight clothing is dangerous, because it impairs circulation and increases the
your eyes in a piece of wood about a half inch thick and fastening it in place with a possibility of freezing. Wet clothing is another danger. Carry extra dry socks
piece of cord. Don't use metal objects for eyeshades, and don't let metal objects and underclothes. If you get wet, remove and dry the wet clothes as soon as you
touch your skin. can, or you may be severely frostbitten.
18 19
 You can dry clothing by laying it loosely on sticks in a perforated oil drum will need a felt or burlap inner sole. If there is even a remote chance that the
with a small fire beneath the drum toward the back. You can also dry clothes b; temperature is going down to 20 below, keep your socks dry! You can't keep your
hanging them on sticks in the smoke of an open fire.
feet from perspiring, but you can, and you must, change into dry socks. Remem-
ber, you are literally on your own two feet if rescue fails. (It is a good idea to tape
your heels with adhesive to prevent blisters.)
It is equally important that you take care of your hands. Tight gloves cause
your hands to freeze, and that is extremely dangerous. If they become numb,
you can't even light matches. Make sure that you don't lose your gloves. It's a
good precaution to have them tied to a string around your neck. If your hands
get cold, warm them by putting them in your armpits or groin.

D3:mp clothing can also be dried by the heat of your body. A pair of socks
or a smt of underwear, for example, may be dried by placing it inside your shirt
during the day.

4. Only eiderdown sleeping bags are {lntirely satisfactory in the Arctic, and
they should be dried thoroughly at least every 3 days. The less clothing you wear
inside the bag, the drier and more comfortable it will be. During the daytime it is
necessary to get the warm air out of the bag, turning it inside out or putting your
arm inside the bag and pumping it like a bellows. Otherwise, rime ice forms at
the edges, and if this goes on day after day the bag loses its warmth.
5. Try to get a heated shelter built, if you can. (It tiakes a week to dry a
handkerchief out-of-doors in the Arctic at 50° F.) Hard-packed snowdrifts can
be hollowed out to provide shelter for one or two men under a canvas rigged
on skis. If you need a semipermanent camp, you can cut blocks out of hard-packed
3. Tight shoes cause frozen feet. Your shoes ought to be big enough to let snow to build a windbreak or a snow house like an igloo. It is also feasible to use
you wear two or more pairs of woolen socks. If you are traveling far on foot, you the wing of the plane as a roof and build a four-walled shelter beneath it with snow
20
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 blocks chopped out with a bush hook. A tent is all right if you pitch it where it it should be taken off the fire and set on brush or some other insulating material to
won't be covered by drifting snow; a windbreak of snow blocks timber tarpaulin cool slightly. This cooks the meat thoroughly without destroying vitamins.
or engme '
. covers on the windward side of the tent will prevent this. '
Incidentally ' Fish should always be boiled if possible. Small animals or small chunks of
tent stakes won't work in the snow; fasten your guy ropes to poles and bury them: meat can be roasted over an open fire on a stick. Meat should be cooked rare and
A_ lean-to can be made from a framework of poles covered thickly on three sides
with, evergreen boughs, with the twigs pointed downward.
?· Now, as to heat: A candle burning in a tin can will raise the tempera-
ture m a small tent or shelter. Of course, if you have a heater, that's the answer
b_ut you can always make a fire inside your shelter, if you provide sufficient ventila~
ti_on. By the way, any type of heater, whether it burns wood, coal, gasoline, or
oil,_ produces carbon-monoxide fumes that are deadly in an unventilated shelter.
It 1s an easy death, but very permanent. Make sure of your ventilation-sacrific-
ing a bit of heat, if necessary. ·
Make a back · drop for any fire in the open, using snow blocks or a tarpaulin.

without removing the fat. Any excess fat can be used for lamps and heaters.
Lack of fat makes rabbits a welcome addition to your diet, but don't try to live on

Put y~ur logs on l~ngthwise, building them into a high tower. As you sleep, the
logs will drop, but if they are lengthwise they won't fall apart and scatter, putting
out your fire. them, because a straight rabbit diet will lay you low in a week. Meat of seals,
7. Don't neglect cooking. Take the time to prepare at least two meals a caribou, musk oxen, owls, ravens, ptarmigans, and salmon is the principal food
day-you need them. Boiling is the easiest method of cooking, because you can supply of the Arctic. You can do all right on it, too.
always get fresh water by melting snow or from open streams. Chop meat into Seal meat spoils easily, even at low temperatures, if exposed to the air. Bury
chunks .of 1 or 2 cubic inches in size and drop them into cold water. If frozen, the it in the snow and it lasts almost indefinitely, and so will almost any other fresh
meat will gradually thaw as the water warms. Two minutes after the water boils animal carcass.
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 useful. If the load is too heavy to carry, you can make a sledge from the cowl
structure. Remember that it's easier to drag a sledge than to carry the load.

THIS ISN'T INTENDED AS A GUIDEBOOK

SHOW ME THE WAY TO GO HOME There is no room in this book to give you
Suppose you have to hit the trail, because you're sure detailed information on the Arctic, but here is some general information on the
you can get to a permanent shelter, or because you're sure nobody's coming to get region that may interest you, and perhaps may even help you to win a few bets.
you-here are some rules that will help you:
1. Follow frozen streams. They offer the easiest paths to travel and usually
lead to habitations. But beware of snow-covered ice, which may have treacherous
concealed weak spots. Go downstream, because that will take you to the coast,
where there are posts and towns.
2. Avoid frostbite, which you can detect by a grayish or whitish appearance of
the skin. It usually attacks your hands, feet, nose, cheeks, forehead, and chin.
You can thaw out your face by holding your hand on the frozen area until circula-
tion is restored. Don't rub it and don't put snow on it.
3. Avoid overexertion. Deep breathing can cause frosting of the lungs, and
this will lay you up for several days. Exhaustion is what causes freezing to death,
and this is frequently caused by keeping awake and keeping moving instead of
resting. Don't be afraid to sleep. Unless you're exhausted, you'll wake up before
you'll ever freeze.
4. You must have a reliable compass to travel on the ground. If you haven't There is an ice cap in Greenland that is 8,000 feet thick. Only the coast line
a pocket compass, take the instrument out of the plane. Don't bother with an is suitable to support human life-if you call that life.
electric flashlight, but candles are fine. Take anything else from the plane that is
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 In the swampy parts of Alaska, the mosquitoes are a real menace in the
Alaska consists of mountain ranges and many valleys. The coldest parts of
summer. People have died from their bites, and a head net and other suitable
the country are ~he val:eys between high mountains. Its coast line is rough and
rugged. There 1s no timber on the Alaskan peninsula, Aleutian and Bering Sea protection against them are absolutely necessary. (Imagine going through what
you've been through and getting killed by mosquito bites!)

Across the entire Arctic from Canada to Siberia, there is low quality coal in
Islands, and none on the coast line at Nome. Most of the land is covered with river valleys. In .northern Alaska there is usually driftwood to be found on the
brush which is buried in snow in the winter. There is also much swampy land in western beaches.
Alaska that is difficult to travel in summer. f\ I\
I\ I I
if \
'.,...
I
_,_._
I
I
I
I
I

-..._._,,.....-· . . ......

Arctic Siberia is like Alaska, although the vegetation is quite different .

. Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by drifting ice packs which are in motion Arctic air, at low temperatures, is very dry.
Visibility is much greater in cold weather than in warm, so don't make the
~uri~g all season~ of the year. Planes can land on pack ice if the surface condition
usual tourist mistake of misjudging distances. An object 10 miles away looks only
~.s smtable. Durmg summer, m~ch of the surface is mushy and the pack breaks up
a mile or two away. This makes a difference, if you're on foot. Moonlight is
mto fields or floes. Even a relatively small floe is livable for a man if he has enough
bright enough for landing. It is never pitch dark in the polar circle except over
food, .or can knock over a seal. Polar bears are edible, too, if they are young
(and if they are dead). But the liver of the bear is poisonous. Don't eat it! the open sea.
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 The Aurora Borealis is not dependable as a source of light because of fluctua- deep and make landings hazardous. You can land, however, if you come in
tions in its intensity, but it's a help to traveling, nevertheless. parallel to the drifts.
· Under certain conditions of overcast when the ground is snow covered, light is The so-called sky map is a big help to travelers on foot or in the air. A uni-
so diffused that you can't distinguish between land and sky. There's no answer form overcast of clouds reflects the terrain. Snow-covered surfaces reflect white
to it but to go on instruments. If you are trying to land, it is wise to throw over- against the clouds. Blue or green ice shows as grayish patches on the sky map.
board smoke flares, engine covers, or other objects that will show up against the Open water, timber, and snow-free terrain are black against the sky. This indi-
snow and locate the ground level for you. (We said this before, but it can't be cation may help to get you home.
overstressed.) One last note of general caution: Eskimos kiss by rubbing noses. From
In the interior of Alaska and in northern Canada, it is customary to lay spruce your standpoint, this is strictly a spectator sport. Native girls aren't good for
bows on top of the snow to mark the runways and aid in depth perception. (A aviators. Remember this, because, if you don't, you may learn one of life's little
B-26 pilot crashed his plane at Watson Lake through not knowing this.) lessons.

Sound traveis much farther in extreme cold. Experts on the ,Arctic report
that you can hear a dog bark 10 miles away. They do not state how far away you
can hear a wolf.
Frost forms very quickly; precipitation is light-what looks like a heavy
blizzard is usually loose snow being blown along by a strong wind.
Winds of the Arctic are generally overrated. High winds are usually local
and in regions where high land faces the open sea. Gales seldom extend more than
15 miles inland. Farther inland strong winds are infrequent and never combined
with extreme cold.
Coast lines have heavy fogs in spring and fall and moderate fogs in summer.
Winter fogs are rare.
There is another hazard in the condition called "Sastrugi," a series of small,
tightly packed snowdrifts that look like ocean waves. They are IO to 20 inches 29
U.S . GO VER NMENT P R!NTiNG OFFICE 1 1~4S
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