Biology Notes by Vasumitra Gajbhiye

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Biology notes By Vasumitra

Gajbhiye
CHAPTER 1
Movement is an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of

position or place.
Respiration is the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and
release energy for metabolism.
Sensitivity is the ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external
environment.
Reproduction is the processes that make more of the same kind of organism.
Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism and substances in

excess of requirements.
Nutrition is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development.
Organisms can be classified into groups by the features that they share.
Species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.
Binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in which the

scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and
species.
Classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships.
The sequences of bases in DNA are used as a means of classification.
Groups of organisms which share a more recent ancestor (are more closely related)
have base sequences in DNA that are more similar than those that share only a
distant ancestor.
Biology notes By Vasumitra Gajbhiye 1

There are five kingdoms
Animal kingdom
Their cells have a nucleus, but no cell walls or chloroplasts.
They feed on organic substances made by other living organisms.
Plant kingdom
Their cells have a nucleus and cell walls made of cellulose and often contain
chloroplasts.
They feed by photosynthesis.
They may have roots, stems and leaves (but some plants do not have these
organs).
Fungus
They are usually multicellular (many-celled), but some such as yeast are
unicellular (single-celled).
They have nuclei and cell walls, but the walls are not made of cellulose.
They do not have chlorophyll.
They feed by digesting waste organic material and absorbing it into their
cells.
Protoctista
They are multicellular or unicellular.
Their cells have a nucleus and may or may not have a cell wall and
chloroplasts.
Some feed by photosynthesis and others feed on organic substances made

by other organisms.
Prokaryote
They are usually unicellular (single-celled).
They have no nucleus.
They have cell walls, not made of cellulose.

They have no mitochondria.
They have a circular loop of DNA, which is free in the cytoplasm.
They often have plasmids.
Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone:
Fish
They are vertebrates with scaly skin.
They have gills throughout their life.
They have fins.
Their eggs have no shells and are laid in water.
Amphibians
They are vertebrates with skin with no scales.
Their eggs have no shells and are laid in water.
The tadpoles live in water, but adults often live on land.
The tadpoles have gills for gas exchange, but adults have lungs.
Reptiles
They are vertebrates with scaly skin.
They lay eggs with soft shells on land.
Birds
They have feathers (and also sometimes a few scales).
They have a beak.
Their front two limbs are wings (though not all birds can fly).
They lay eggs with hard shells.
Mammals
They have hair on their skin.
Their young develop in a uterus, attached to the mother by a placenta.
The females have mammary glands, which produce milk to feed their young.

They have different kinds of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars and molars).
They have a pinna (ear flap) on the outside of the body.
They have sweat glands in the skin.
They have a diaphragm.
Arthropods are animals that have joined legs and no backbone.
Insects
They are arthropods with three pairs of jointed legs.
They have two pairs of wings (one or both may be vestigial).
They have one pair of antennae.
Their body is divided into a head, thorax and abdomen.
They breathe through tubes called tracheae.
Crustaceans
They are arthropods with more than four pairs of jointed legs.
They have two pairs of antennae.
Arachnids
They are arthropods with four pairs of jointed legs.
They have no antennae.
Their body is divided into two parts – a cephalothorax and abdomen.
Myriapods
Their body consists of many similar segments.
Each of their body segments has jointed legs.
They have one pair of antennae.
Ferns are plants with leaves called fronds. They do not produce flowers, but instead
reproduce by means of spores produced on the underside of the fronds.
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves (fronds).
They do not produce flowers.

They reproduce by spores produced on the undersides of their fronds.
Flowering plants reproduce by using flowers.
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves.
They reproduce using flowers and seeds.
Their seeds are produced inside an ovary, in the flower
Characteristic features of dicots:
They have seeds with two cotyledons.
They usually have a main root with side roots coming out from it.
Their leaves have a network of veins.
They have flower parts (e.g. petals) in multiples of four or five.
They have vascular bundles in the stem, arranged in a ring
Characteristic features of monocots:
They have seeds with one cotyledon.
Their roots grow out directly from the stem.
Their leaves have parallel veins.
They have flower parts in multiples of three.
They have vascular bundles in the stem, arranged randomly.
Viruses are not living. They have a protein coat and genetic material inside without
nucleus.
CHAPTER 2
Structure of cell:
Cytoplasm is found inside the cell and contains all the other cell structures
The large nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane to separate it from the

cytoplasm
The cell membrane surrounds the cell

The cell wall is made of cellulose and surrounds the cell membrane in plant
cells
Chloroplasts are organelles found in the cytoplasm that are packed with the
pigment chlorophyll and so are green in colour
Vacuoles are large vesicles that take up a large part of the interior of plant cell
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles found throughout the

cytoplasm
Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or attached
to a system of membranes within the cell known as Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks rough under the

microscope; this gives rise to its name of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(R.E.R.)
Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification – these are small
circular structures found moving throughout the cytoplasm
Function of cell organelles:
Nucleus
Contains genetic material in chromosomes which
Control how cells grow and work
Controls cell division
Cytoplasm
supports cell structures
site of many chemical reactions
contains water and many solute
Cell membrane
holds the cell together
controls substances entering and leaving the cell
Cell wall
gives the cell extra support and defines its shape

Chloroplast
site of photosynthesis, providing food for plants
the chlorophyll pigments absorb light energy needed for the reaction to
occur
Vacuoles
contains cell sap
used for storage of certain materials
also helps support the shape of the cell
Mitochondria
site of aerobic respiration, providing energy for the cell
cells with high rates of metabolism (carrying out many different cell
reactions) will have significantly higher numbers of mitochondria than cells
with lower numbers of reactions taking place in them
Ribosomes
site of protein production in protein synthesis
Vesicles
used to safely transport substances from one part of the cell to another
New cells are produced by division of existing cells.
Specialised cells have specific functions
ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
root hair cells – absorption
palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis
neurones – conduction of electrical impulses
red blood cells – transport of oxygen
sperm and egg cells (gametes) – reproduction
Magnification = image size/ actual size

1mm = 1000µm
CHAPTER 3
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration (i.e. down a concentration gradient), as a
result of their random movement.
The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of random movement of
molecules and ions.
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane.
The role of water is as a solvent in organisms during digestion, excretion and

transport.
Water diffuses through partially permeable membranes by osmosis.
Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane.
Plants are supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on
the cell wall.
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution),
through a partially permeable membrane
If a plant cell is placed in a less concentrated solution, water moves into the cell
down the water potential gradient by osmosis. pressure on the cell wall increase.
turgor pressure increase. cell wall prevents the cell from bursting.
If a plant cell is placed in a more concentrated solution, water moves out of the cell
down the water potential gradient by osmosis. Pressure on the cell wall decrease.
turgor pressure decrease. the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall. the cell
becomes flaccid. The cell is said to be plasmolyzed.
Active transport is the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e. against a
concentration gradient), using energy from respiration.
Protein carriers move molecules or ions across a membrane during active transport.
CHAPTER 4

Carbohydrates and fats are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Starch, glycogen and cellulose are made from glucose.
Proteins are made from amino acids.
Fats and oils are made from 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol.
Add yellow brown iodine to unknown solution, colour change to blue black if starch is
present.
Add benedict solution to unknown solution, heat is water bath at 85°C, colour
change to yellow, green, orange or red if reducing sugar is present.
Add blue biuret solution to unknown solution, colour change to purple if protein is
present.
Add ethanol to unknown solution, shake well, add this solution to water,
emulsification occurs if fat is present.
Add DCPIP solution to unknown solution, it becomes colourless is vitamin C is

present.
Structure of DNA:
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
Each strand contains chemicals called bases
Bonds between pairs of bases hold the strands together
The bases always pair up in the same way: A with T, and C with G
CHAPTER 5
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not
changed by the reaction.
Enzymes are proteins that are involved in all metabolic reactions, where they
function as biological catalysts.
Enzymes increase the reaction rate to the necessary reaction rate to sustain life.
Enzymes and substrate collide. Enzyme and substrate fit together. Substate binds
with Enzymes active site. Enzyme substrate complex forms. Because enzyme are

complementary to it’s substate. This results in formation of a product.
Enzymes are specific. Substate fits into the active site of an enzyme. Therefore, the
shape of the enzyme and substrate must be complementary.
If the temperature is increased, enzymes gain kinetic energy and enzymes move
faster, frequency of effective collisions increase. If the temperature increases above
the optimum temperature, the enzyme loses its shape and enzyme denatures. The
substrate no longer fits into the enzyme active site. And the enzyme can not catalyse
the reaction anymore.
If the temperature is decreased, enzymes lose kinetic energy and move slower,
frequency of effective collisions decrease. Therefore, the rate of reaction decrease.
Enzymes do not denature in this process.
Extreme pH can also denature the enzyme.
CHAPTER 6
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants synthesise carbohydrates from raw

materials using energy from light.
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and chlorophyl)
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that is found in chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll transfers energy from light into energy in chemicals, for the synthesis of
carbohydrates.
Uses of glucose:
starch as an energy store
cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
sucrose for transport in the phloem
nectar to attract insects for pollination
Protein contains not only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, but also nitrogen. Therefore, in
order to make amino acids plant need a source of nitrogen, and they get this
nitrogen from nitrite ions. They use this nitrate ions to make amino acids and use
this amino acids to make protein which is used for growth. If the plant cannot get

enough nitrate ions, it will not be able to synthesise protein effectively. And so will
not grow quickly or strongly.
Chlorophyll is not a protein, but it contains nitrogen. It also contains magnesium.

Therefore, a plant need magnesium ions as well as nitrite ions to make chlorophyll.
Without these ions, the plant will look yellow and not green, suggesting that there
are not plenty of chlorophylls present. If the plant cannot make lots of chlorophyll, it
will not be able to photosynthesize well, and will therefore not grow well.
Limiting factors for photosynthesis are
Light intensity.
As the light intensity increase, the rate of photosynthesis increase until the
plant is photosynthesizing as fast as it can.
Carbon dioxide concentration.
The more carbon dioxide a plant is given the faster it can photosynthesis.
But once the carbon dioxide concentration reaches a certain level, there is
no further increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Temperature.
As the temperature increase, the rate of photosynthesis is also increased.

But after the optimum temperature, the rate of reaction decreases.
Stomata.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf through the stomata. If the stomata are
closed, photosynthesis cannot take place because the plant lacks one of its
raw materials - carbon dioxide. Stomata are often closed during hot weather
to prevent water loss. This means that on a really hot or bright day,
photosynthesis may slow down.
Leaves have large surface area and are thin.
This large surface area allows large amount of sunlight to fall onto the leaves.
The large surface area also increases the rate at which carbon dioxide can
diffuse into the leaf from the air.
Being thin means that sunlight can pass right through the leaf, allowing many
cells inside it to photosynthesise. The thinness also helps carbon dioxide to
reach all the cells quite quickly by diffusion.

Upper epidermis:
Cells are tightly packed together to reduce water loss.
No chloroplast, so can not photosynthesis.
Secret a waxy substance, which forms a thin, transparent, waterproof covering

called the cuticle.
Transparent to let the light through easily, to reach the palisade mesophyll cells.
Palisade mesophyll:
Tightly packed
Column shape.
Large number of chloroplasts.
Close to the top to get plenty of sunlight.
Spongy mesophyll:
Not many chloroplast.
Loosely packed.
There are air spaces between them.
They allow diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the air and the cells
inside the leaf.
This space also allows water vapour to move out of the leaf.
Lower epidermis:
On some leave this tissue makes cuticle But usually it does not because the
underside of the leaf does not get as hot as the upper side.
Stomata are present. Each stomata is surrounded by a pair of guard cells.
Stomata is a small opening, which allow diffusion of carbon dioxide, oxygen and
water vapour.
Guard cells contain chloroplast.
CHAPTER 7

A balance diet contains correct amount and proportion of carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, minerals, water, fibre (roughage).
Principal and dietary sources are:
carbohydrates
Needed for: energy.
Sources: Potatoes, wheat(often made into bread or pasta), rice and maize.
fats and oils
Needed for: energy, to make cell membrane. Stored under skin in adipose
tissue to reduce heat loss from body to air. Provide mechanical protections
for organs like kidney by forming a layer around them.
Sources: cooking oil, meat, dairy product and oily fish.
proteins
Needed for: to build new cells for growth to, to make haemoglobin, insulin,
antibodies.
Sources: meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, peas, beans, nuts and seeds.
vitamins, C and D
Vitamin C:
Needed for: to make the stretchy protein collagen found in skin and other
tissues. Help tissue in good repair.
Source: citrus fruit, such as oranges, lime and raw vegetables.
Vitamin D:
Needed for: helps calcium to be absorbed for making bones and teeth.
Sources: oily fish, liver, red meat, egg yolk, sun
mineral ions:
Calcium:
Needed for: bones and teeth and blood clotting.
Source: Milk and other daily products, bread.

Iron:
Needed for: making haemoglobin the red pigment in blood, which carries
oxygen.
Source. liver, red meat, egg yolk, dark green vegetables.
fibre (roughage)
Needed for: Absorb and remove, toxins, prevent constipation.
Source: all plant food such as fruits and vegetables.
water
Needed for: An important solvent. Metabolic reaction can only take place in
a solution. Plasma is mostly water. Cytoplasm is mostly water. To dissolve
enzymes and nutrients in alimentary canal.
Source: By drinking fluid and some fruits.
Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy which causes pain in joints and muscles and
bleeding from gums and other places. This used to be a common disease for sailors
who had no fresh vegetables during long voyages.
Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, in which the bones become soft and deformed;
this disease was common in young children in industrial areas, who rarely got out
into the sunshine.
Calcium deficiency results in brittle bones and teeth; poor blood clotting.
Iron efficiency causes anaemia, in which there are not enough red blood cells so the
tissues do not get enough oxygen delivered to them.
Ingestion – the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body. Occurs in
mouth.
digestion – the breakdown of food
absorption – the movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood
assimilation – uptake and use of nutrients by cells
egestion – the removal of undigested food from the body as faeces.
Oesophagus - Food travels down the oesophagus into the stomach.

Stomach:
Contains strong muscular walls. Muscles relax and contract to mix food enzyme
and mucus.
Goblet cells in the walls secret mucus.
Digest protein.
Produce hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid lower the pH to about 2, which is

the optimum pH for protease in stomach. After Stomach, the food moves into
duodenum.
Small intestine:
Duodenum:
Mix food with bile and pancreatic juice.
Absorption of minerals, and other nutrients begins in the duodenum.
Ileum:
Absorb digested nutrients into blood.
Absorb water.
Large intestine:
Colon:
absorb remaining water
Rectum:
Store faeces.
Salivary gland secret saliva in mouth, which contains the enzyme amylase, that
starts the digestion of a starch.
Pancreas secrets digestive juices, which helps in digestion of fat.
Liver produces bile. It is stored in gallbladder. Bile increase the pH of acidic food
from the stomach. And emulsifies fat.
More water is absorbed in small intestine than large intestine.

Physical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical
change to the food molecules.
Physical digestion increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in
chemical digestion.
The tooth is embedded in the gum. It is

covered with a hard substance called
enamel. Underneath enamel there is a
layer of dentine, it is like a hard bone but
not as hard as enamel. It has channels in it
which contain living cytoplasm. In the
middle of the tooth, there are nerves and
blood vessels. The blood vessels supply
the cytoplasm in the dentine with nutrients
and oxygen. The part of the tooth that is
embedded in the gum is covered with
cement. This has fibres growing out of it.
Incisors are chisel shaped for biting off pieces of food.
Canines are very similar to incisors in humans.
Premolars have wide surfaces for grinding food.
Molars, like premolars, are used for grinding.
Muscular walls of the stomach, mix the food, enzyme and mucus together in the
process of churning.
Chemical digestion is the break down of large insoluble molecules into small soluble
molecules.
The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble molecules that can be
absorbed.
Amylase breaks down starch to maltose. It is secreted by salivary glands in mouth

and by pancreas in duodenum
Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. Maltase is secreted by the cells in the
lining of the small intestine on the membranes of the epithelium lining of the small

intestine.
Pepsin breaks down protein in acidic conditions and is secreted by the walls of the
stomach in the stomach.
Trypsin breaks down protein in alkaline conditions and is secreted by the pancreas
in the duodenum.
Lipase breaks down fats and oils to fatty acids and glycerol. It is secreted by the
pancreas in the duodenum.
Function of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice is to kill harmful microorganisms in food

and provide an acidic pH for optimum enzyme activity.
Bile is an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic mixture of food and gastric
juices entering the duodenum from the stomach, to provide a suitable pH for enzyme
action
Small intestine is the region where nutrients are absorbed.
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine but some is also absorbed from the
colon.
Villi and microvilli increase the internal surface area of the small intestine and help in
faster absorption of dissolved nutrients.
Villi are tiny projections on the internal wall of the small intestine. The cell membrane
on the surface of each villus is folded to form many tiny microvilli. Villi contains
lacteal and blood capillaries.
Capillaries in villi absorb glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, mineral
ions and water. These blood capillaries join to form hepatic portal vein, which takes
all of these substances to the liver.
The fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lacteals. The contents of the lacteals are
eventually empties into the blood.
CHAPTER 8
Function of xylem is to transport water and mineral ions and provide support.
Function of phloem is to transport sucrose and amino acid.
Xylem have:

thick walls with lignin
no cell contents
cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a long continuous tube.
The large surface area of root hairs increases the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Pathway of water from soil: root hair cells, root cortex cells, xylem, mesophyll cells.
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from leaves.
Water evaporates from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells into the air spaces and
then diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata as water vapour.
Water vapour evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cell out of the leaf. This
reduces the pressure in the vessels. The pressure of the at the top of the Xylem
Vessel is therefore less than the pressure at the bottom in the roots. Due to this
pressure difference, water flows upwards. It is called transpiration pull. Because it is
caused by loss of water vapour by transpiration.
At higher temperature rate of transpiration increases because at higher temperature,

molecules have greater kinetic energy, which means the rate of evaporation is higher
from the surface of the mass of cells.
On a windy day, the air around the leaf – which contains a lot of water vapour that
has just diffused out of the leaf – is quickly moved away. This means that there is
always a diffusion gradient for the water vapour, because there is less of it outside
the leaf than in the air spaces inside the leaf. So, water vapour diffuses out of the
leaf faster on a windy day than on a day when the air is still.
As humidity increase, rate of transpiration decrease because there is a smaller

diffusion gradient for the water between the air and inside leaf.
Cells loose water by transpiration down the water potential gradient by osmosis. The
pressure of water on the cell wall decreases. The turgor pressure decreases. The
leaf become soft and fluffy. This is called wilting.
Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from sources
to sinks.
Sinks is the parts of plants that use or store sucrose or amino acids.

Sources is the parts of plants that release sucrose or amino acids.
During summers when sunlight is available plant photosynthesis, in this case, the
leaves are the source and the roots are the sink as they are the storage of starch.
During winters, the plant cannot photosynthesize. In this case, the roots are the
source and leaves are the sink because root contains stored starch, which can be
converted to glucose and used by the leaves.
CHAPTER 9
The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to
ensure one-way flow of blood.
In single circulation of fish. The blood passes through the heart once for one
complete circuit. It moves from heart to the gills and then to the rest of the body.
Mammals have double circulatory system. One pulmonary loop and one systematic
loop happens in mammals. Blood passes through the heart twice for one complete
circuit.
Advantage of double circulation
high(er), blood pressure / flow rate (than single circulation) ;
allows different blood pressure in each loop ;
prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood ;
allows animals to have high metabolic rates ;
allows animals to be, large / tall ;
OR
1. oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, are kept separate / do not mix / separated
by septum ;
2. ensures efficient supply of oxygen (to, body / AW) ;
3. ensures efficient supply of (named) nutrients (to, body / AW) ;
4. low(er) pressure in, pulmonary, artery / circuit / AW ;
5. to prevents damage to (capillaries in the) lungs ;
6. allows more time for gas exchange ;

7. allows high(er) pressure (in body) ;
8. to ensure efficient, blood supply to (rest of) body ;
9. to allow filtration in kidneys (for excretion) ;
10. to allow / maintain, a high, metabolic rate / rate of respiration ;
Blood is pumped away from the heart in arteries and returns to the heart in veins.
The activity of the heart may be monitored by: ECG, pulse rate and listening to
sounds of valves closing.
Coronary heart disease is the blockage of coronary arteries. Causes: diet, lack of
exercise, stress, smoking, genetic predisposition, age and sex.
Balanced diet and exercise helps to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. They
reduce stress, lower blood pressure, make heart muscles stronger.
Atria receives blood from either the lungs or the body and supply it to the ventricles.
The ventricles pump blood out of the heart and all around the body. So pressure
applied by the ventricles must be high. To help them do this, the ventricles have
much thicker, more muscular walls than the atria.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which are very close to the heart. The
left ventricle, however, pumps blood to the rest of the body. The left ventricle has an
especially thick wall of muscle to enable it to do this.
Septum separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the heart.

As physical activity increase heart rate increase because muscles contract more.
Muscles require more energy. More aerobic respiration takes place. More oxygen is
required. More blood is required to be transported to muscles for more oxygen.
Heart beats faster to supply more oxygen to the muscles.
Arteries:
Have thick walls
Diameter of lumen is small
No valves are present
Veins:
Have relative thin walls
Diameter of lumen is large
Valves are present to prevent back flow of blood.
Blood pressure in arteries is high because it has just been forced out of the heart by
the contraction of muscles of the ventricles. Arteries need very strong walls to
withstand this high pressure.

Blood in arteries doesn’t flow smoothly, it pulses through. When ventricles contract
pressure in arteries is high and when ventricles relax pressure in arteries is reduced.
Arteries have elastic tissues in their walls which can stretch and recoil with the force
of the blood making the blood flow smoother.
Capillaries are very small and penetrate to every part of the body so that they can
reach every cell.
Function of the capillaries is to take nutrients, oxygen and other materials to all the
cells in the body, and to take away their waste materials. To do this, their walls must
be very thin so that substances can get in and out of the capillaries easily.
Veins function is to return blood to the heart.
Walls of veins (muscle and elastic tissue) is thin because there is no need for
strong walls as most of the blood pressure has been lost.
They have a wide lumen because it offers less resistance to blood flow.
Contain valves, they prevent backflow of blood.
Components of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.

Function of components of blood:
Red blood cells in transporting oxygen. Haemoglobin is present in RBC and it

combines with oxygen transports it.
White blood cells in phagocytosis and antibody production
Platelets in clotting
Plasma in the transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea, hormones and
carbon dioxide
The roles of blood clotting are preventing blood loss and prevent entry of pathogens.
Lymphocytes have one big nucleus which covers almost the entire cell. Phagocytes
have nucleus that divides into small connected balls.
Function of lymphocytes is antibody production. Function of phagocytes is engulfing

pathogens by phagocytosis.
Blood clotting:
platelets get attracted towards the damaged blood vessel.
enzyme thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin. This forms a
fibre mesh like structure.
red blood cells and platelets get trapped in the mesh and stop the blood loss.
CHAPTER 10
Pathogen is a disease-causing organism.
Transmissible disease is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one
host to another.
A pathogen is transmitted:
by direct contact, through blood and other body fluids.
by indirectly contact, from contaminated surfaces, food, animals and air.
Body’s defence system include: skin, hairs in the nose, mucus, stomach acid and
white blood cells.
To prevent spreading of diseases use:

a clean water supply - water from dirty rivers or lakes can contain many different
pathogens.
hygienic food preparation - bacteria can grow on the food too, houseflies have
harmful bacteria on their feet and they can land on the food to contaminate it.
good personal hygiene - we should clean our body regularly because oil, dirt and
sweat can build up on the skin and this will provide breeding ground for harmful
bacteria.
waste disposal - harmful bacteria can grow on organic waste so it must be

disposed as soon as possible.
sewage treatment - treating the water before drinking removes dirt and
microorganisms from it.
Active immunity is defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body.
Each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes.
Antibodies are proteins that bind to antigens leading to direct destruction of

pathogens or marking of pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit specific antigens.
Active immunity is gained after an infection by a pathogen or by vaccination.
Process of vaccination:
weakened pathogens or their antigens are injected into the body
the antigens stimulate an immune response by lymphocytes which produce

antibodies
memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity.
Vaccination provide active immunity to individuals and prevents pathogens from

breeding in them. If 90% of the people are vaccinated to a disease, the pathogen will
have very few places to live and grow therefore the spread of disease will decrease.
Non-vaccinated individuals will also get protection as a result of herd immunity.
Passive immunity is a short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired

from another individual, e.g. across the placenta and in breast milk.

A young baby’s immune system is not well developed, and so the mother’s
antibodies can protect it against any diseases to which she is immune, for the first
few months of its life.
Memory cells are not produced in passive immunity.
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium which is transmitted in contaminated

water.
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions into
the small intestine, causing osmotic movement of water into the gut, causing
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of ions from the blood.
CHAPTER 11
Features of gas exchange surface area in humans:
large surface area
thin surface
good blood supply
good ventilation with air

Expired air contains less oxygen because oxygen is used up by the cells in the body. Expired air
contains more carbon dioxide because it is a waste product of respiration. It contains more water vapour
because the water from the lining of the windpipe evaporate and is expired.
Function of cartilage is
keep the airway/ trachea open
prevent collapse
protects (named) airways ;
allows (free flow of) air into (the lungs) ;
allows flexibility / can breathe even when, bent / swallowing / AW ;
reduces resistance to movement of air ;
sound production in larynx ;
forms incomplete rings around, trachea / bronchi ;
During inspiration: rib cage moves upwards and outwards, diaphragm contract,
external intercostal muscles contract, internal intercostal muscles relax, volume of
thorax increase, pressure in thorax decrease, air move into the lungs to equalize the
pressure.
During expiration: rib cage moves downwards and inwards, diaphragm relax,
external intercostal muscles relax, internal intercostal muscles contract, volume of
thorax decrease, pressure in thorax increase, air move out the lungs to equalize the
pressure.
As physical activity increase breathing rate increase because muscles contract

more. Muscles require more energy. More aerobic respiration takes place. More
carbon dioxide is produced, pH of blood decrease because carbon dioxide is acidic.
This is detected by the brain, brain send impulses to breathing muscles like heart
and diaphragm to contract more frequently and more hardly. This leads to an
increased rate and greater depth of breathing.

Goblet cells produce mucus. Mucus is a sticky substance which traps pathogens
and dust particles and prevent them from entering the lungs. Ciliated cells beat and
move the mucus up towards the throat where it can be sneezed out of the body.
Uses of energy in living organism:
muscle contraction
protein synthesis
cell division
active transport
growth
the passage of nerve impulses
the maintenance of a constant body temperature
Aerobic respiration is the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down
nutrient molecules to release energy. glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Anaerobic respiration is the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules to release energy without using oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic
Word equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast: glucose → alcohol(ethanol) +

carbon dioxide
Word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles during vigorous exercise as:
glucose → lactic acid
Lactic acid builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous exercise causing an
oxygen debt.
To remove oxygen debt after exercise:

fast heart rate continues to transport lactic acid in the blood from the muscles to
liver.
deeper and faster breathing continues to supply oxygen for the aerobic
respiration of lactic acid.
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver.
CHAPTER 12
Electrical impulses travel along neurones.
Mammalian nervous system consist of :
The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and the spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of the nerves outside of the
brain and spinal cord.
Role of the nervous system is coordination and regulation of body functions.
Reflex arc: receptors detect stimulus and generate impulse, it travels to sensory
neurone, then relay neurone, then to motor neutron, then to the effector.
A reflex action is a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating

stimuli with the responses of effectors (muscles and glands).
A synapse is a junction between two neurones.
Structure of synapse include:
presence of vesicles containing neurotransmitter molecules
Synaptic gap/cleft
receptor protein
Events at a synapse:
An impulse stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules from vesicles

into the synaptic gap.
The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the gap
Neurotransmitter molecules bind with receptor proteins on the next neurone
An impulse is then stimulated in the next neurone.

Synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction only.
Sense organs are groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light,
sound, touch, temperature and chemicals.
Function of each part of eye:
cornea – refracts light
iris – controls how much light enters the pupil
lens – focuses light on to the retina
retina – contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of different colours
optic nerve – carries impulses to the brain
As light intensity increase, diameter of pupil decrease so that less light enters the
eye and prevent damage. The antagonistic muscles, circular muscles contract and
radial muscles relax.
As light intensity decrease, diameter of pupil increase so that more light enters the
eye and prevent damage. The antagonistic muscles, circular muscles relax and
radial muscles contract.
Distant object: Ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligament pulled tight (tension on
suspensory ligament increase). the lens becomes thin/ less convex.
Near object: Ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligament slackened (tension on

suspensory ligament decrease). the lens becomes thick/ more convex.
There are three different kinds of cone cells (red, green and blue) and two different
types of rod cells.
Fovea is almost entirely cones, packed tightly together. Rods are found further out
on the retina and are less tightly packed.
Rod cells are more sensitive at night.
A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood,

which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs.
Adrenal gland secrete adrenaline. Pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon. Testes
secrete testosterone. Ovaries secrete oestrogen.

Effect of adrenaline:
increased breathing rate
increased heart rate
increased pupil diameter
increase in blood glucose concentration
Speed of action of nervous system is faster than hormonal control system. Duration
of effect of hormonal control system is longer than the nervous system.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.
In negative feedback:
There is a set point – a normal level that the system tries to maintain.
There is a ‘measuring device’ that keeps track of whether the level is within the
range of the set point.
If the level goes outside the set point, this triggers events to happen that bring
the level back into line again.
If blood glucose concentration is too high, it is detected by the pancreas, pancreas

release insulin, insulin stimulate liver cells to absorb glucose from blood across the
partially permeable membrane. Liver cells convert glucose to glycogen and store
glycogen in liver cells, this results in reduction of blood glucose concentration until it
reaches the set, normal point.
If blood glucose concentration is too low, it is detected by the pancreas, pancreas

release glucagon, glucagon stimulate liver cells to convert store glycogen into
glucose, and release this glucose into the blood. This results in increase of blood
glucose concentration until it reaches the set, normal point.
Treatment of type 1 diabetes:
insulin ;
by injection / insulin pump ;
regular blood glucose tests ;

regular meals and controlled diet ;
If the internal temperature is above normal, it is detected by the brain. Vasodilation of

arterioles occur, more blood flows to the skin, so more heat is lost form the blood,
decreasing the internal temperature. Sweating occurs which gives a cooling effect
and decreases the internal body temperature.
If the internal temperature is below normal, it is detected by the brain.

Vasoconstriction of arterioles occur, less blood flows to the skin, so less heat is lost
form the blood, increasing the internal temperature. Adipose tissue in skin act as
insulation and reduce heat loss. Shivering produce heat and help to keep the body
warm.
Gravitropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from

gravity.
Phototropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the
direction of the light source.
Phototropism and gravitropism of a shoot are examples of the chemical control of

plant growth.
How auxin work:
auxin is made in the shoot tip
auxin diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and gravity
auxin stimulates cell elongation
CHAPTER 13
Carbon dioxide is excreted through the lungs. The kidneys excrete urea and excess
water and ions.
The function of glomerulus is ultrafiltration from the blood of water, glucose, urea and
ions.
The function of nephron is the reabsorption of all the glucose, some of the ions and
most of the water back into the blood.
Urine contains urea, excess water and excess ions.

Role of liver is the assimilation of amino acids by converting them to proteins.
Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Deamination is the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form

urea.
Urea is toxic, it can lower the pH of the body and denature the enzyme. Denaturing
of enzyme might lead to death of the individual therefore excretion of urea is
important.
DRUGS
Drug is any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions
in the body.
Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections.
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics which reduces the effectiveness of

antibiotics.
Antibiotics kill bacteria but do not affect viruses.
If antibiotics are taken in only when essential it can limit the development of resistant
bacteria.
CHAPTER 14 & CHAPTER 15
Asexual reproduction is a process resulting in the production of genetically identical

offspring from one parent.
Advantages of asexual reproduction: Disadvantage of asexual

reproduction:
wild species that are adapted to
the environment can survive. less variation
isolated wild species can lack of diversity in wild plants

reproduce because only single
risk of overpopulation in wild
parent is required.
plants
crop plants are genetically
competition for resources as all
identical therefore they have the
individuals are close together in
same yield and characteristics.
wild plants

require less energy. wild plants and crops are less
likely to survive to change
quick
environment
no gametes
no adaptive features in wild
favourable characteristics of plants
parent passed on
all individuals are susceptible to
dense colonies outcompete other the same, diseases / pests in wild
species plants
no pollinators required higher risk of extinction in wild
reliable plants
no harmful variation no evolution in wild plants
genetically identical so higher risk

of inheriting genetic diseases in
both wild and crop plants
Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to
form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each
other.
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei of gametes.
Nuclei of gametes are haploid and the nucleus of a zygote is diploid.
Advantages of sexual reproduction Disadvantages of sexual

reproduction
maintain/ increase, population in wild plants
Slow
allow variation in wild plants
Lots of energy is
allow adaptation to, new/ changed
needed
environment(s) in wild plants
Need 2 parents
allow natural selection/ evolution/ formation
of new species in wild plants
random fusion of gametes in wild plants
ability to express recessive trails in wild

plants

allows to use selective breeding in crop
plants
Function of parts of flower:
Sepals: Protect the flower while it is a bud.
Petals: Brightly coloured and attract insects to flowers.
Stamen: It is male part of flower, consists of long filament and anther at the top
which contain pollen grain, which contain male gametes.
Carpel: It is the female part of flower. It contains ovary, which contains ovules,
which contains female gamete. At top is style with stigma at the top. function of
stigma is to catch pollen grains.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma.
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant.
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species.

Self-pollination doesn’t produce lost of variation. Less capacity to respond to
changes in the environment. They don’t rely on pollinators.
Cross-pollination produce variation. More capacity to respond to changes in the

environment. They rely on pollinators.
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule.
Insect pollinated plant have, large, brightly coloured petals, strong scent, nectar to
attract insects towards them. The anther and stigma are inside the flower so that the
insect brush past them and some pollen stick onto them. The insect then goes to
another flower, looking for more nectar. Pollen grains are sticky and spiky so, some
of the pollen it picked up at the first flower sticks onto the stigma of the second
flower when the insect brushes past it. The stigma is sticky, and many pollen grains
get stuck on it.
Wind-pollinated flowers produce much more pollen than insect pollinated flowers.
This is because a lot of the pollen doesn’t land on another flower, so huge amounts
are wasted. Usually no petals because there is no need to attract insects. Their
anthers and stigmas dangle outside the flower, to catch the wind. The filaments of
the anthers are very flexible, so they can swing in the wind and release their pollen.
The feathery stigmas have a large surface area, increasing the chances of catching
pollen.
Events which occur between pollination Events which occur between

and fertilisation. fertilisation and production of
seed.
pollen lands on stigma
zygote (is formed)
pollen (grain) germinates/ pollen (grain)
grows pollen tube divides by mitosis
pollen tube grows down the style to form embryo
reaches the ovule formation of radicle and

plumule
(tip of) pollen tube breaks open
formation of, cotyledons/
male gamete travels down the pollen
seed leaf/ food reserve
tube
formation of teste/ seed
male gamete enter ovule
coat

(male gamete) fuse with female ref to endosperm
gamete
seed formed form ovule
zygote forms.
Testes produce sperm. Scrotum protects testes, as well as providing a sort of

climate control system. Sperm duct carries sperm away from testis, it then join up
with the urethra just below the bladder. Urethra can carry both urine and sperm at
different time. Prostate gland makes semen, a fluid in which sperm can swim in.
Function of penis is to enter the vagina and release sperm.
Ovaries produce eggs or egg cells. Oviducts lead the egg to uterus. Uterus nourish
the developing fetus prior to birth. Cervix allows fluids to pass between uterus and
vagina. Vagina is the site where sperms are placed after ejaculation.
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female
gamete (egg cell).
Adaptation of sperm:
flagellum to swim
lots of mitochondria to provide energy for swimming by respiration.
enzymes in the acrosome to digest its way through the jelly coat.
Adaptation of egg cell:
energy store to provide energy and nutrients for the growth and development of
zygote after fertilisation.
jelly coat hardens after the entry of one sperm to prevent entry of multiple
sperms.
Sperm cells are lot smaller than egg cells. Sperm cells are streamlined and egg cells
are round. Sperm cells can move by themselves but egg cells cannot. There are
millions of sperms deposited at the vagina but there are maximum of 2 egg cells in
female reproductive system.
In early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that
implants into the lining of the uterus.

Placenta connects the embryo to wall of uterus. Placenta is where substances are
exchanged between the mother’s blood and the embryo’s blood.
Role of placenta in humans:
gas exchange
transfer of dissolved nutrients, from maternal (circulation)/ to fetal.
transfer of excretory products, from fetal/ to maternal;
by diffusion
produces/ secretes, (named) hormones;
passive immunity/ antibodies, from maternal/ to fetal
prevents/ limits, mixing of blood
regulating blood pressure
maternal/ fetal attachment point
red to counter current flow/ maintains concentration gradient
Role of amniotic fluid:
protection from (mechanical) shock (of fetus)
maintains (constant) temperature (of fetus)
allows movement (of fetus)
prevents dehydration
Amniotic fluid and the amniotic sac:
maintains temperature ;
mechanical shock protection ;
allows movement (of the fetus) ;
provides support (of the fetus) ;
provides a sterile environment / prevents infections ;
(movement) allows for development of bones and muscles ;
ref. to swallowing (of fluid) ;

lubrication / AW ;
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the fetus.
Testosterone cause the secondary sexual characters to develop in boys, like growth
of facial hair and pubic hair, broadening shoulders and general muscular
development and a deepening voice.
Oestrogen cause the secondary sexual characters to develop in girls, like increase
in size of breast, growth of pubic hairs, hips become wider.
Site of production of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle is the

ovaries. After ovulation site of progesterone production is corpus luteum. During
pregnancy site of progesterone production is the placenta.
Changes to the lining of uterus during menstrual cycle:
loss / thinning, of lining (of uterus), at the beginning of the cycle / during first
week / between day 1–7 ;
regrowth / thickening of, lining (of uterus), during second week / after loss (of
lining) / before ovulation ;
thickness of lining remains constant, in the last two weeks / at the end of the
cycle / after ovulation / if no fertilisation ;
The role of FSH.
FSH stimulates, development / growth / maturation, of follicles (in ovary) ;
FSH stimulates, development / growth / maturation, of, egg (cell) / ova / ovum /
(female) gamete(s) ;
FSH stimulates, production / release / secretion, of oestrogen (from ovary) ;
The role of LH.
(FSH and) LH (surge) stimulates, ovulation / release of egg from ovary
LH stimulates (corpus luteum / yellow body / empty follicle), secretion /

production / release, of progesterone
decrease in LH decreases secretion of progesterone (by corpus luteum) ;
The role of oestrogen.

Stimulates the uterus to develop a lining (to replace the lining lost during
menstruation)
Post-ovulation, inhibits FSH and LH production in the pituitary gland.
The role of progestogen.
maintains and thickens lining of the uterus
inhibits FSH and LH production
if fertilisation doesn’t occur, levels drop and menstruation occurs.
Sexually transmitted infection (STI) is an infection that is transmitted through sexual

contact.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a pathogen that causes an STI.
HIV infection may lead to AIDS.
Methods of transmission of HIV:
sexual contact
sharing contaminated needles
sharing contaminated syringes
blood transfusion
breast milk
tissue/ organ transplant
HIV is not spread through saliva
Methods to stop spread of STIs:
never have more than one sexual partner
use condoms
CHAPTER 16
Chromosomes are made of DNA, which contains genetic information in the form of
genes.
A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein.

An allele is an alternative form of a gene.
Females have XX chromosomes and males have XY chromosomes.
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids used to
make a specific protein.
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein molecules.
DNA controls cell function by controlling the production of proteins, including

enzymes, membrane carriers and receptors for neurotransmitters.
How protein is made:
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules
the specific sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in

the mRNA
Most body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but many genes in a
particular cell are not expressed because the cell only makes the specific proteins it
needs. For instance, the cells in salivary gland don’t need to make protease but they
have the gene for it which is not expressed because the cell doesn’t need it.
A haploid nucleus is a nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes.
A diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes.
In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid
cell there are 23 pairs.
Mitosis is nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells.
Role of mitosis is in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of cells and

asexual reproduction.
The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis.

During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, maintaining the chromosome
number in each daughter cell.
Stem cells is unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells that
can become specialised for specific functions.
Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.
Meiosis is a reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from

diploid to haploid resulting in genetically different cells.
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.
Genotype is the genetic make-up of an organism.
Phenotype is the observable features of an organism.
Homozygous is having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding.
Heterozygous is having two different alleles of a particular gene.
Heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding.
A dominant allele is an allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype.
A recessive allele is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele
of the gene present in the genotype.
Codominance is a situation in which both alleles in heterozygous organisms

contribute to the phenotype.
A sex-linked characteristic is a feature in which the gene responsible is located on a

sex chromosome and that this makes the characteristic more common in one
sex(usually male) than in the other.
Red-green colour blindness is an example of sex linkage.
CHAPTER 18
Variation is differences between individuals of the same species.
Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes;

examples include body length and body mass.

Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with no
intermediates; examples include ABO blood groups, seed shape in peas and seed
colour in peas
Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genes only and continuous variation is

caused by both genes and the environment.
Mutation is a genetic change.
Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed.
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate of mutation.
Gene mutation is a random change in the base sequence of DNA.
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random fertilisation are sources of genetic
variation in populations.
An adaptive feature is an inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and

reproduce in its environment, i.e. increase fitness.
Adaptive features of hydrophytes:
1 submerged leaves are divided ; 9 little/ no, cuticle ;

2 providing large area for, photosynthesis 10 no need to conserve water ;
/ absorption ;
11 stomata only on upper surface ;
3 leaves have large surface area ; 12 only upper surface exposed to air/ to
4 to float ; allow diffusion of gases ;
5 (floating leaves so) little xylem/ little 13 lots of air spaces (between cells) ;
lignin ; 14 for flotation/ buoyancy ;
6 water provides support ;
15 floating leaves ;
7 little/ no roots /root hairs ; 16 to allow, diffusion/AW of (named)
8 roots for anchorage only / no need for gas(es) ;
roots to absorb water or mineral ions ;
17 aerial roots ;
18 to allow roots to receive oxygen ;

Adaptive features of xerophytes:
few stomata / low stomatal density ; to absorb water from the water table /
AW
sunken stomata ;
long and spread out below the
stomata close during the day and
surface ;
open at night ;
to absorb water when it rains ;
rolled leaves ;
root cells have low water potential ;
thick epidermis / thick cuticle ;
to absorb water by osmosis ;
few / no / small, leaves ;
from (very) salty soils / AW ;
hairs on leaves ;
roots branch many times ;
low rates of transpiration ;
have many roots hairs ;
deep roots / AW ;
to give a large surface area (for
absorption of water) ;
Natural selection:
genetic variation within populations
production of many offspring
struggle for survival, there is competition for resources
a greater chance of reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the

environment than others
these individuals pass on their alleles to the next generation
Selective breeding:
selection by humans of individuals with desirable features
crossing these individuals to produce the next generation
selection of offspring showing the desirable features.
Selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out over many generations to

improve crop plants and domesticated animals.

Adaptation is the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations
become more suited to their environment over many generations.
The development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria is an example of natural

selection.
Difference between natural and artificial Difference between artificial and

selection: natural selection:
features are adaptive human choice (rather than

environmental pressures) /
caused by environment
AW ;
slower changes
less, diversity / variation ;
increase in fitness
faster change ;
explained: ability to survive AND
AVP ; e.g. mating is not
reproduce (in natural environment)
random
maintain (genetic) variation/ less
(genetic) variation in selective breeding
random mating
CHAPTER 19
The Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.
The flow of energy through living organisms, including light energy from the Sun and
chemical energy in organisms, is eventual transfer to the environment.
A food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
A producer is an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using
energy from sunlight, through photosynthesis.
A consumer is an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms.
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary

according to their position in a food chain.
A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants.
A carnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.

A decomposer is an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic
material.
Advantages of using a pyramid of biomass rather than a pyramid of numbers to

represent a food chain:
in a pyramid of numbers one large individual is shown in the same way as
one very tiny individual ;
biomass indicates how much food there is, available / left ;
biomass is an indicator of the energy available ;
pyramid of biomass is pyramid shaped whereas a pyramid of numbers is not

always
A trophic level is the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or ecological
pyramid.
Advantages of using a pyramid of energy rather than pyramids of numbers or

biomass to represent a food chain:
it shows how much energy is available
it shows how much energy is passed through per meter square
other pyramids are not very informative, because we cannot be sure that one
gram of biomass for one species contains the same quantity of energy as one
gram of biomass of a different species.
Transfer of energy from one trophic level to another is often not efficient because
energy is lost between tropic levels. Energy is lost in respiration, movement,
muscles contraction, heat. Energy is lost in faeces, urine. Not all animal or plant is
digestible. Only 10% of the energy is transferred. As we move up the food chain
lesser and lesser energy is available to support a population. Therefore a food chain
is not longer than 5 tropic levels.

Carbon cycle

Nitrogen cycle:
nitrogen fixation occurs by lightning or by bacteria in root nodules, they convert

nitrogen from air into ammonia.
ammonia is converted to nitrate ions in the process of nitrification, by nitrifying

bacteria.
the plant absorb nitrate ions from the soil.
plant produce amino acids and protein from nitrate ions.
animals feed and digest protein.
deamination of protein occurs in animals and they excrete it as urea.
bacteria decompose plant and animal protein into ammonium ions.

ammonium ions are converted to nitrogen in the process of denitrification, by
denitrifying bacteria.
A population is a group of organisms of one species, living in the same area, at the
same time.
A community is all of the populations of different species in an ecosystem.
An ecosystem as a unit containing the community of organisms and their

environment, interacting together.
Factors affecting the rate of population growth for a population of an organism:
food supply
competition
predation
disease
CHPATER 20
How humans have increased food production:
agricultural machinery to use larger areas of land and improve efficiency
chemical fertilisers to improve yields
insecticides to improve quality and yield
herbicides to reduce competition with weeds
selective breeding to improve production by crop plants and livestock
Disadvantages of monoculture: Advantages of monoculture:
loss of biodiversity higher revenue.
outbreaks/ spreading of diseases/ easier to manage.

pests/ plagues
yields maximization.
endangered/ extinction of species
specialised production.
disruption of food chain
increased productivity and
efficiency.

loss of habitats/ habitat
destruction
deforestation
disrupted soil fertility/ infertility of

soil
desertification
soil erosion (by water/ wind)
increased pollution
competition for resources
flooding
disrupted nutrient cycling ;
Disadvantages of intensive livestock production:
loss of biodiversity ;
deforestation / habitat loss ;
use of pesticides ;
release of, (named) greenhouse gases / carbon emissions ;
named consequence ; e.g. climate change / global warming
effect of waste (faeces and urine) on, waterways / crops ;
disease spreading to, wild populations / humans ;
use of antibiotics and (spread of) antibiotic resistance ;
providing food for livestock requires monocultures ;
idea that livestock production is an inefficient use of, crop plants / energy
Advantages of intensive livestock production:
help to provide more food for people
sometime provide food more cheaply than extensive systems
fewer people go hungry

take up less land
more land could be left in its natural state, providing habitats for other species
Biodiversity is the number of different species that live in an area.
Reasons for habitat destruction:
increased area for housing, crop plant production and livestock production
extraction of natural resources
freshwater and marine pollution
Through altering food webs and food chains, humans can have a negative impact on
habitats.
Effects of deforestation:
habitat destruction
reducing biodiversity
extinction
loss of soil
flooding
increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Effect of pollution and excess fertilisers in aquatic ecosystems:
lake/ river pH decrease
aluminium ions become mobile
nutrients leached
shell damage
fish/ frog fail to reproduce
aquatic plants die
disruption of food chain
loss of biodiversity

low pH toxic to aquatic animals
fish produce mucus which blocks gills.
Effect of plastic on aquatic ecosystem:
plastic remains /persists / lasts a long time/ not decomposed ;
swallowed/ ingested/eaten/ cannot be digested/ blocks gut ;
caught, around/ strangle/trapped/ entangled/ smother/ suffocate / injure/ cut /

trap/ stuck in, organism AW ;
plastic blocks light for, photosynthesis ;
may, contain/release, (oil-soluble) toxins / poisons / harmful chemicals;
blocks the flow of water in streams or rivers ;
so less aeration of water/reduces concentration of (dissolved) oxygen ;
destruction of, habitat/ ecosystem/ food chain ;
idea of bioaccumulation/ biomagnification ;
trapped / stationary water acts as a breeding site for mosquitoes ;
AVP ; e.g. visual pollution /releases hormone-like chemicals / less oxygen from
photosynthesis
Effect of plastic on terrestrial ecosystem:
chokes / strangles / traps / blocks digestive systems / AW (of animals)
ingested ;
reference to, chemical exposure / fumes / toxins ;
(plastic) accumulates in an organism / is passed down a food chain ;
(described) habitat destruction ;
e.g. plastic covers the habitats (plastic) blocks (light / water for) photosynthesis
(for land plants) ;
visual pollution ;
(plastic) block roots / prevents root growth ;
remain in the ecosystem (for a very long time) ;

Methane and carbon dioxide are green house gases. They trap infrared radiation
emitted from the sun towards the earth. This keeps the planet warm enough to
support life. If level of these green house gases rise, more infrared radiation is
trapped, this increase the average temperature of earth. Resulting in enhanced
green house effect, leading to climate change.
Eutrophication of water:
increased availability of nitrate and other ions
increased growth of producers
increased decomposition after death of producers
increased aerobic respiration by decomposers
reduction in dissolved oxygen
death of organisms requiring dissolved oxygen in water
Sustainable resource is one which is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the

environment so that it does not run out.
Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably, e.g. forests and fish
stocks.
Why an organism becomes Reasons why a plant species can

endangered: become endangered species:
climate change plant hunting
habitat disease
destruction lack of pollinators
hunting competition from introduced

species
overharvesting
deforestation
pollution
climate change
introduced species
desertification
pollution

increase in gazing
habitat destruction
removing too many of a plant

species
Reasons why a fish Reasons why a animal species can become

species can become endangered species.
endangered species. 1 habitat loss / deforestation ;
habitat destruction ; 2 large mammals need large amounts of space ;
3 (named example of) climate change ; e.g.
climate change ;
desertification
(described) overfishing
/ hunting ;
Use of land for
food chain disrupted 4 land developed for agriculture ;
(described); 5 land developed for, housing / transport /
overconsumption (by factories

humans) ; 6 land used for extraction of (named) material(s)
7 competing with humans for space ;
(named) pollution ;
introduced diseases / 8 idea that populations are isolated ;

species ; 9 hunt / trophies / high value / poaching ;
10 laws are not enforced to protect from hunting
11 lack of education ;
12 poisoning / pollution ;
13 need a large quantity of food / lack of food
sources / starvation ;
14 slow reproduction rate / hard to breed in
captivity ;
How endangered species can be conserved:
monitoring and protecting species and habitats
education

captive breeding programmes
seed banks
How endangered species can be How can we prevent overfishing:

conserved:
1 education / awareness ; Accept
monitoring / AW, population(s) / commercials / advertising / tax
individual(s) ; consumer
2 reduced demand (to eat from
habitat, protection / restoration ;
unsustainable fish stocks) / public
reducing / prevention, of pollution pressure / campaigning ;
; 3 steps taken by fisherman voluntarily
removal / AW, of alien species ; / AW ;
4 (legal) quotas / treaties / licenses /
preventing colonisation by alien laws / restricted catch weight ;
species ; 5 ensuring sustainable population
hunting ban / prevent poaching ; size / recovery of, endangered /
specific, species
government / legislation, to
protect species ; 6 nursery zones (using this is
much safer)/ no-catch zones / /
create, exclusion zones /
protected areas / MPAs ;
reserves (so not disturbed by
7 overflow of target species / increase
people) ;
in population outside zone / breeding
specific, times when / areas recovery ;
where, hunting / AW, not allowed
8 limited fishing season ;
international agreements to limit 9 stock recovery / optimises breeding
trade ; seasons ;
removal to, zoos / botanical 10 fines;

gardens / wildlife parks ; 11 discourage / punish, poor practice
captive breeding / breeding 12 restocking / captive breeding and

programme (in situ or ex situ) ; release ;
13 increases gene pool / number of
seed banks / frozen zoos /
young / reproductively-viable, fish ;
cryopreservation / AW ;
14 fish farming ;
15 alternative source of fish ;

artificial insemination / IVF / use
of surrogates / AW ;
reintroduction programmes ;
education / awareness ;
Reasons for conserve animals Reasons to maintain ecosystems like

wetlands
maintains natural habitat/
prevent, human 1. to prevent extinction;
interference/ development
2. maintain biodiversity;
prevention of extinction
3. provide feeding grounds for animals /
less, hunting/ poaching/ ref. to disruption of food, chains / web;
killing
4. provide, breeding grounds / places for
tourism/ economic reason breeding;
maintain (bio)diversity/ 5. provide, habitats / shelter;

genetic diversity
6. vulnerable to the effects of,
maintain, gene, development / drainage / AW;
pool/diversity
7. ref to flooding / natural disasters;
maintain, food chain/
8. ref to nitrogen cycle;
balanced ecosystems
9. ref to maintenance of water cycle;
available for scientific study
10. ref to carbon cycle; e.g. greenhouse
retain for future generations
gas / carbon storage / carbon sink
maintain nutrient recycling
11. waste disposal;
maintain, resource
12. provide, resources / food / fuel / drugs /
provision/ food/ drugs
raw materials;
prevent soil erosion/
13. idea of areas for, recreation /
flooding
(eco)tourism / education;
education
14. ethical reasons / aesthetic reasons /
AW;

15. AVP; e.g. soil erosion
Artificial insemination: In vitro fertilisation (IVF):
1. collect semen / sperm (implied by collect / extract, eggs ;

context) ;
collect / extract, sperm ;
2. freeze semen / sperm, / use
use of donor, eggs / sperm ;
sperm bank / use sperm
collected, far away/ long ago ; fertilisation / described / IVF,
outside the body / in a dish / in a
3. selecting / washing / screening, of
laboratory ;
sperm / AW ;
embryo development in dish / AW
4. use fertility drugs containing
hormones for (super)ovulation ; screening of embryos ;
5. determine when female is about inserting embryos into uterus ;

to ovulate ; give mother progesterone after
6. insert, semen / sperm, into inserting embryos (to maintain
female (vagina / uterus) ; lining) ;
The risks to a plant species of The disadvantage of captive

having very small numbers: breeding programme involving
very small number of animals:
high risk of extinction
inbreeding
less reproduction
less genetic variation
high risk of genetic disease
reduced number of alleles
less variation
increased risk of genetic disease
small population so more
vulnerable to diseases. can not reproduce
reduced number of alleles not enough animals to breed
less likely to adapt to change in less likely to adapt to change in

environment environment
cost

CHAPTER 21
Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification due to their
rapid reproduction rate
ability to make complex molecules
few ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth
the presence of plasmids
Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used to make ethanol for biofuel.
Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used in bread making because it produces carbon

dioxide and makes the dough/ bread rise.
Pectinase digest the cell wall of the fruits. This release more juice from the fruit. It
also helps to make the cloudy juice clear.
Milk contains a sugar, lactose, which many people are intolerant to. Enzyme lactase
is added to milk to breakdown lactose. This results in formation of lactose-free milk.
Bacteria and fungi can reproduce exponentially inside fermenters, where they are
provided with optimum temperature, pH, nutrients supply, and removal of waste
product.
Genetic modification is changing the genetic material of an organism by removing,

changing or inserting individual genes.
Process of genetic modification using bacteria:
isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using restriction enzymes,

forming sticky ends
cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction enzymes, forming
complementary sticky ends
insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using DNA ligase to form a
recombinant plasmid
insertion of recombinant plasmids into bacteria
multiplication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids inside a fermenter
expression in bacteria of the human gene to make the human protein

Examples of genetic modification:
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce human proteins
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests
the insertion of genes into crop plants to improve nutritional qualities
Advantages of genetically modifying crops. Disadvantages of

genetically
disease resistance ;
modifying crops.
large(r) / fast(er), yield ;
reduced natural
drought resistance ; biodiversity ;
ref to more desirable, product / increased income / insect-resistant
AW plants negatively
herbicide resistance ; affect pollinators
;
pest / insect, resistance ;
cross-pollinate
salt resistance ;
into wild
frost resistance ; populations ;
(named) nutritional enrichment ; (GM seeds are)

expensive / AW ;
vaccine production ;
seeds need to be
ref to benefits to, environment ;
bought each
ref to a qualified benefit to humans ; e.g. food season
shortage / described
ethical concerns
health benefit of consumers ;
AVP ; growth modification e.g. short stems /
adaptations to extreme
environments / rapid improvement to crop /
improvements using
characteristic that are not present in natural
population

OTHERS
Only birds lay eggs with hard shells AND have feathers (NOT wings because other
animals also have wings).
1cm is 10000 micrometer.
When air enters lungs it first passes through the larynx.
Some hydrophytes have cuticle, but no hydrophytes have stomata on lower

epidermis.
Lightning converts atmospheric nitrogen to nitrate ions. Nitrifying bacteria converts

soil nitrogen to nitrate ions.
Penicillin is produced by fungus not bacteria.
Penicillin is used to treat bacteria disease.
Meiosis produce 4 haploid cells.
Transpiration occurs in leaves and stem.
Mucus in trachea is a chemical barrier.
Rod cells have greater sensitivity to light and don’t provide coloured vision.
Cholera cannot spread by blood transfusion.
Pollen grains don’t travel down the pollen tube it is the male gamete/ nucleus that
travel down the pollen tube.
When calculating percentage change it is important write the negative sign when the
change is decrease.
Starch grains are stored in chloroplast.
Your should brush your teeth after a meal because the pH of mouth decreases and
this acidic condition can dissolve the enamel.
Gravity also affects the growth of a plant.
During the mitosis process, the duplication of chromosomes occur before mitosis.
Xylem is a tissue not organ.
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Biology notes By Vasumitra

Movement is an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of

Excretion is the removal of the waste products of metabolism and substances in

Nutrition is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development.

Species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

Binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in which the

Classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships.

The sequences of bases in DNA are used as a means of classification.

Biology notes By Vasumitra Gajbhiye 1

Their cells have a nucleus, but no cell walls or chloroplasts.

They feed on organic substances made by other living organisms.

They feed by photosynthesis.

They do not have chlorophyll.

They are multicellular or unicellular.

Some feed by photosynthesis and others feed on organic substances made

They are usually unicellular (single-celled).

They have no nucleus.

They have cell walls, not made of cellulose.

Biology notes By Vasumitra Gajbhiye 2

They have a circular loop of DNA, which is free in the cytoplasm.

They often have plasmids.

Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone:

They are vertebrates with scaly skin.

They have gills throughout their life.

They have fins.

Their eggs have no shells and are laid in water.

They are vertebrates with skin with no scales.

Their eggs have no shells and are laid in water.

The tadpoles live in water, but adults often live on land.

They are vertebrates with scaly skin.

They lay eggs with soft shells on land.

They have feathers (and also sometimes a few scales).

They have a beak.

They lay eggs with hard shells.

They have hair on their skin.

Their young develop in a uterus, attached to the mother by a placenta.

Biology notes By Vasumitra Gajbhiye 3

They have a pinna (ear flap) on the outside of the body.

They have sweat glands in the skin.

They have a diaphragm.

Arthropods are animals that have joined legs and no backbone.

They are arthropods with three pairs of jointed legs.

They have two pairs of wings (one or both may be vestigial).

They have one pair of antennae.

Their body is divided into a head, thorax and abdomen.

They breathe through tubes called tracheae.

They have two pairs of antennae.

They are arthropods with four pairs of jointed legs.

They have no antennae.

Their body is divided into two parts – a cephalothorax and abdomen.

Their body consists of many similar segments.

Each of their body segments has jointed legs.

They have one pair of antennae.

They are plants with roots, stems and leaves (fronds).

They do not produce flowers.

Biology notes By Vasumitra Gajbhiye 4

Flowering plants reproduce by using flowers.