Biology Notes by Vasumitra Gajbhiye
Biology Notes by Vasumitra Gajbhiye
Biology Notes by Vasumitra Gajbhiye
CHAPTER 1
Respiration is the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and
release energy for metabolism.
Sensitivity is the ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external
environment.
Reproduction is the processes that make more of the same kind of organism.
Organisms can be classified into groups by the features that they share.
Groups of organisms which share a more recent ancestor (are more closely related)
have base sequences in DNA that are more similar than those that share only a
distant ancestor.
Animal kingdom
Plant kingdom
Their cells have a nucleus and cell walls made of cellulose and often contain
chloroplasts.
They may have roots, stems and leaves (but some plants do not have these
organs).
Fungus
They are usually multicellular (many-celled), but some such as yeast are
unicellular (single-celled).
They have nuclei and cell walls, but the walls are not made of cellulose.
They feed by digesting waste organic material and absorbing it into their
cells.
Protoctista
Their cells have a nucleus and may or may not have a cell wall and
chloroplasts.
Prokaryote
Fish
Amphibians
The tadpoles have gills for gas exchange, but adults have lungs.
Reptiles
Birds
Their front two limbs are wings (though not all birds can fly).
Mammals
The females have mammary glands, which produce milk to feed their young.
Insects
Crustaceans
They are arthropods with more than four pairs of jointed legs.
Arachnids
Myriapods
Ferns are plants with leaves called fronds. They do not produce flowers, but instead
reproduce by means of spores produced on the underside of the fronds.
They usually have a main root with side roots coming out from it.
Viruses are not living. They have a protein coat and genetic material inside without
nucleus.
CHAPTER 2
Structure of cell:
Cytoplasm is found inside the cell and contains all the other cell structures
Chloroplasts are organelles found in the cytoplasm that are packed with the
pigment chlorophyll and so are green in colour
Vacuoles are large vesicles that take up a large part of the interior of plant cell
Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or attached
to a system of membranes within the cell known as Endoplasmic Reticulum
Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification – these are small
circular structures found moving throughout the cytoplasm
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Cell wall
the chlorophyll pigments absorb light energy needed for the reaction to
occur
Vacuoles
Mitochondria
cells with high rates of metabolism (carrying out many different cell
reactions) will have significantly higher numbers of mitochondria than cells
with lower numbers of reactions taking place in them
Ribosomes
Vesicles
used to safely transport substances from one part of the cell to another
CHAPTER 3
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration (i.e. down a concentration gradient), as a
result of their random movement.
The energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of random movement of
molecules and ions.
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane.
Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane.
Plants are supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on
the cell wall.
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution),
through a partially permeable membrane
If a plant cell is placed in a less concentrated solution, water moves into the cell
down the water potential gradient by osmosis. pressure on the cell wall increase.
turgor pressure increase. cell wall prevents the cell from bursting.
If a plant cell is placed in a more concentrated solution, water moves out of the cell
down the water potential gradient by osmosis. Pressure on the cell wall decrease.
turgor pressure decrease. the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall. the cell
becomes flaccid. The cell is said to be plasmolyzed.
Active transport is the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e. against a
concentration gradient), using energy from respiration.
Protein carriers move molecules or ions across a membrane during active transport.
CHAPTER 4
Fats and oils are made from 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol.
Add yellow brown iodine to unknown solution, colour change to blue black if starch is
present.
Add benedict solution to unknown solution, heat is water bath at 85°C, colour
change to yellow, green, orange or red if reducing sugar is present.
Add blue biuret solution to unknown solution, colour change to purple if protein is
present.
Add ethanol to unknown solution, shake well, add this solution to water,
emulsification occurs if fat is present.
Structure of DNA:
The bases always pair up in the same way: A with T, and C with G
CHAPTER 5
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not
changed by the reaction.
Enzymes are proteins that are involved in all metabolic reactions, where they
function as biological catalysts.
Enzymes increase the reaction rate to the necessary reaction rate to sustain life.
Enzymes and substrate collide. Enzyme and substrate fit together. Substate binds
with Enzymes active site. Enzyme substrate complex forms. Because enzyme are
Enzymes are specific. Substate fits into the active site of an enzyme. Therefore, the
shape of the enzyme and substrate must be complementary.
If the temperature is increased, enzymes gain kinetic energy and enzymes move
faster, frequency of effective collisions increase. If the temperature increases above
the optimum temperature, the enzyme loses its shape and enzyme denatures. The
substrate no longer fits into the enzyme active site. And the enzyme can not catalyse
the reaction anymore.
If the temperature is decreased, enzymes lose kinetic energy and move slower,
frequency of effective collisions decrease. Therefore, the rate of reaction decrease.
Enzymes do not denature in this process.
CHAPTER 6
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and chlorophyl)
Chlorophyll transfers energy from light into energy in chemicals, for the synthesis of
carbohydrates.
Uses of glucose:
Protein contains not only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, but also nitrogen. Therefore, in
order to make amino acids plant need a source of nitrogen, and they get this
nitrogen from nitrite ions. They use this nitrate ions to make amino acids and use
this amino acids to make protein which is used for growth. If the plant cannot get
Light intensity.
As the light intensity increase, the rate of photosynthesis increase until the
plant is photosynthesizing as fast as it can.
The more carbon dioxide a plant is given the faster it can photosynthesis.
But once the carbon dioxide concentration reaches a certain level, there is
no further increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Temperature.
Stomata.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf through the stomata. If the stomata are
closed, photosynthesis cannot take place because the plant lacks one of its
raw materials - carbon dioxide. Stomata are often closed during hot weather
to prevent water loss. This means that on a really hot or bright day,
photosynthesis may slow down.
This large surface area allows large amount of sunlight to fall onto the leaves.
The large surface area also increases the rate at which carbon dioxide can
diffuse into the leaf from the air.
Being thin means that sunlight can pass right through the leaf, allowing many
cells inside it to photosynthesise. The thinness also helps carbon dioxide to
reach all the cells quite quickly by diffusion.
Transparent to let the light through easily, to reach the palisade mesophyll cells.
Palisade mesophyll:
Tightly packed
Column shape.
Spongy mesophyll:
Loosely packed.
They allow diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the air and the cells
inside the leaf.
This space also allows water vapour to move out of the leaf.
Lower epidermis:
On some leave this tissue makes cuticle But usually it does not because the
underside of the leaf does not get as hot as the upper side.
Stomata is a small opening, which allow diffusion of carbon dioxide, oxygen and
water vapour.
CHAPTER 7
carbohydrates
Sources: Potatoes, wheat(often made into bread or pasta), rice and maize.
Needed for: energy, to make cell membrane. Stored under skin in adipose
tissue to reduce heat loss from body to air. Provide mechanical protections
for organs like kidney by forming a layer around them.
proteins
Needed for: to build new cells for growth to, to make haemoglobin, insulin,
antibodies.
Sources: meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, peas, beans, nuts and seeds.
vitamins, C and D
Vitamin C:
Needed for: to make the stretchy protein collagen found in skin and other
tissues. Help tissue in good repair.
Vitamin D:
Needed for: helps calcium to be absorbed for making bones and teeth.
mineral ions:
Calcium:
Needed for: making haemoglobin the red pigment in blood, which carries
oxygen.
fibre (roughage)
water
Needed for: An important solvent. Metabolic reaction can only take place in
a solution. Plasma is mostly water. Cytoplasm is mostly water. To dissolve
enzymes and nutrients in alimentary canal.
Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy which causes pain in joints and muscles and
bleeding from gums and other places. This used to be a common disease for sailors
who had no fresh vegetables during long voyages.
Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, in which the bones become soft and deformed;
this disease was common in young children in industrial areas, who rarely got out
into the sunshine.
Calcium deficiency results in brittle bones and teeth; poor blood clotting.
Iron efficiency causes anaemia, in which there are not enough red blood cells so the
tissues do not get enough oxygen delivered to them.
Ingestion – the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body. Occurs in
mouth.
absorption – the movement of nutrients from the intestines into the blood
Contains strong muscular walls. Muscles relax and contract to mix food enzyme
and mucus.
Digest protein.
Small intestine:
Duodenum:
Ileum:
Absorb water.
Large intestine:
Colon:
Rectum:
Store faeces.
Salivary gland secret saliva in mouth, which contains the enzyme amylase, that
starts the digestion of a starch.
Liver produces bile. It is stored in gallbladder. Bile increase the pH of acidic food
from the stomach. And emulsifies fat.
Physical digestion increases the surface area of food for the action of enzymes in
chemical digestion.
Muscular walls of the stomach, mix the food, enzyme and mucus together in the
process of churning.
Chemical digestion is the break down of large insoluble molecules into small soluble
molecules.
The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble molecules that can be
absorbed.
Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. Maltase is secreted by the cells in the
lining of the small intestine on the membranes of the epithelium lining of the small
Pepsin breaks down protein in acidic conditions and is secreted by the walls of the
stomach in the stomach.
Trypsin breaks down protein in alkaline conditions and is secreted by the pancreas
in the duodenum.
Lipase breaks down fats and oils to fatty acids and glycerol. It is secreted by the
pancreas in the duodenum.
Bile is an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acidic mixture of food and gastric
juices entering the duodenum from the stomach, to provide a suitable pH for enzyme
action
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine but some is also absorbed from the
colon.
Villi and microvilli increase the internal surface area of the small intestine and help in
faster absorption of dissolved nutrients.
Villi are tiny projections on the internal wall of the small intestine. The cell membrane
on the surface of each villus is folded to form many tiny microvilli. Villi contains
lacteal and blood capillaries.
Capillaries in villi absorb glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, mineral
ions and water. These blood capillaries join to form hepatic portal vein, which takes
all of these substances to the liver.
The fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lacteals. The contents of the lacteals are
eventually empties into the blood.
CHAPTER 8
Function of xylem is to transport water and mineral ions and provide support.
Xylem have:
no cell contents
cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a long continuous tube.
The large surface area of root hairs increases the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Pathway of water from soil: root hair cells, root cortex cells, xylem, mesophyll cells.
Water evaporates from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells into the air spaces and
then diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata as water vapour.
Water vapour evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cell out of the leaf. This
reduces the pressure in the vessels. The pressure of the at the top of the Xylem
Vessel is therefore less than the pressure at the bottom in the roots. Due to this
pressure difference, water flows upwards. It is called transpiration pull. Because it is
caused by loss of water vapour by transpiration.
On a windy day, the air around the leaf – which contains a lot of water vapour that
has just diffused out of the leaf – is quickly moved away. This means that there is
always a diffusion gradient for the water vapour, because there is less of it outside
the leaf than in the air spaces inside the leaf. So, water vapour diffuses out of the
leaf faster on a windy day than on a day when the air is still.
Cells loose water by transpiration down the water potential gradient by osmosis. The
pressure of water on the cell wall decreases. The turgor pressure decreases. The
leaf become soft and fluffy. This is called wilting.
Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from sources
to sinks.
Sinks is the parts of plants that use or store sucrose or amino acids.
During summers when sunlight is available plant photosynthesis, in this case, the
leaves are the source and the roots are the sink as they are the storage of starch.
During winters, the plant cannot photosynthesize. In this case, the roots are the
source and leaves are the sink because root contains stored starch, which can be
converted to glucose and used by the leaves.
CHAPTER 9
The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to
ensure one-way flow of blood.
In single circulation of fish. The blood passes through the heart once for one
complete circuit. It moves from heart to the gills and then to the rest of the body.
Mammals have double circulatory system. One pulmonary loop and one systematic
loop happens in mammals. Blood passes through the heart twice for one complete
circuit.
OR
1. oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, are kept separate / do not mix / separated
by septum ;
Blood is pumped away from the heart in arteries and returns to the heart in veins.
The activity of the heart may be monitored by: ECG, pulse rate and listening to
sounds of valves closing.
Coronary heart disease is the blockage of coronary arteries. Causes: diet, lack of
exercise, stress, smoking, genetic predisposition, age and sex.
Balanced diet and exercise helps to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. They
reduce stress, lower blood pressure, make heart muscles stronger.
Atria receives blood from either the lungs or the body and supply it to the ventricles.
The ventricles pump blood out of the heart and all around the body. So pressure
applied by the ventricles must be high. To help them do this, the ventricles have
much thicker, more muscular walls than the atria.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which are very close to the heart. The
left ventricle, however, pumps blood to the rest of the body. The left ventricle has an
especially thick wall of muscle to enable it to do this.
Arteries:
Veins:
Blood pressure in arteries is high because it has just been forced out of the heart by
the contraction of muscles of the ventricles. Arteries need very strong walls to
withstand this high pressure.
Capillaries are very small and penetrate to every part of the body so that they can
reach every cell.
Function of the capillaries is to take nutrients, oxygen and other materials to all the
cells in the body, and to take away their waste materials. To do this, their walls must
be very thin so that substances can get in and out of the capillaries easily.
Walls of veins (muscle and elastic tissue) is thin because there is no need for
strong walls as most of the blood pressure has been lost.
They have a wide lumen because it offers less resistance to blood flow.
Components of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.
Platelets in clotting
Plasma in the transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea, hormones and
carbon dioxide
The roles of blood clotting are preventing blood loss and prevent entry of pathogens.
Lymphocytes have one big nucleus which covers almost the entire cell. Phagocytes
have nucleus that divides into small connected balls.
Blood clotting:
enzyme thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin. This forms a
fibre mesh like structure.
red blood cells and platelets get trapped in the mesh and stop the blood loss.
CHAPTER 10
Transmissible disease is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one
host to another.
A pathogen is transmitted:
Body’s defence system include: skin, hairs in the nose, mucus, stomach acid and
white blood cells.
hygienic food preparation - bacteria can grow on the food too, houseflies have
harmful bacteria on their feet and they can land on the food to contaminate it.
good personal hygiene - we should clean our body regularly because oil, dirt and
sweat can build up on the skin and this will provide breeding ground for harmful
bacteria.
sewage treatment - treating the water before drinking removes dirt and
microorganisms from it.
Each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes.
Process of vaccination:
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions into
the small intestine, causing osmotic movement of water into the gut, causing
diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of ions from the blood.
CHAPTER 11
thin surface
Function of cartilage is
prevent collapse
During inspiration: rib cage moves upwards and outwards, diaphragm contract,
external intercostal muscles contract, internal intercostal muscles relax, volume of
thorax increase, pressure in thorax decrease, air move into the lungs to equalize the
pressure.
During expiration: rib cage moves downwards and inwards, diaphragm relax,
external intercostal muscles relax, internal intercostal muscles contract, volume of
thorax decrease, pressure in thorax increase, air move out the lungs to equalize the
pressure.
muscle contraction
protein synthesis
cell division
active transport
growth
Aerobic respiration is the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down
nutrient molecules to release energy. glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Anaerobic respiration is the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules to release energy without using oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic
Word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles during vigorous exercise as:
glucose → lactic acid
Lactic acid builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous exercise causing an
oxygen debt.
deeper and faster breathing continues to supply oxygen for the aerobic
respiration of lactic acid.
CHAPTER 12
The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and the spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of the nerves outside of the
brain and spinal cord.
Reflex arc: receptors detect stimulus and generate impulse, it travels to sensory
neurone, then relay neurone, then to motor neutron, then to the effector.
Synaptic gap/cleft
receptor protein
Events at a synapse:
Sense organs are groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light,
sound, touch, temperature and chemicals.
As light intensity increase, diameter of pupil decrease so that less light enters the
eye and prevent damage. The antagonistic muscles, circular muscles contract and
radial muscles relax.
As light intensity decrease, diameter of pupil increase so that more light enters the
eye and prevent damage. The antagonistic muscles, circular muscles relax and
radial muscles contract.
Distant object: Ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligament pulled tight (tension on
suspensory ligament increase). the lens becomes thin/ less convex.
There are three different kinds of cone cells (red, green and blue) and two different
types of rod cells.
Fovea is almost entirely cones, packed tightly together. Rods are found further out
on the retina and are less tightly packed.
Adrenal gland secrete adrenaline. Pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon. Testes
secrete testosterone. Ovaries secrete oestrogen.
Speed of action of nervous system is faster than hormonal control system. Duration
of effect of hormonal control system is longer than the nervous system.
In negative feedback:
There is a set point – a normal level that the system tries to maintain.
There is a ‘measuring device’ that keeps track of whether the level is within the
range of the set point.
If the level goes outside the set point, this triggers events to happen that bring
the level back into line again.
insulin ;
Phototropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the
direction of the light source.
CHAPTER 13
Carbon dioxide is excreted through the lungs. The kidneys excrete urea and excess
water and ions.
The function of glomerulus is ultrafiltration from the blood of water, glucose, urea and
ions.
The function of nephron is the reabsorption of all the glucose, some of the ions and
most of the water back into the blood.
Urea is toxic, it can lower the pH of the body and denature the enzyme. Denaturing
of enzyme might lead to death of the individual therefore excretion of urea is
important.
DRUGS
Drug is any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions
in the body.
If antibiotics are taken in only when essential it can limit the development of resistant
bacteria.
Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to
form a zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each
other.
Stamen: It is male part of flower, consists of long filament and anther at the top
which contain pollen grain, which contain male gametes.
Carpel: It is the female part of flower. It contains ovary, which contains ovules,
which contains female gamete. At top is style with stigma at the top. function of
stigma is to catch pollen grains.
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant.
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species.
Insect pollinated plant have, large, brightly coloured petals, strong scent, nectar to
attract insects towards them. The anther and stigma are inside the flower so that the
insect brush past them and some pollen stick onto them. The insect then goes to
another flower, looking for more nectar. Pollen grains are sticky and spiky so, some
of the pollen it picked up at the first flower sticks onto the stigma of the second
flower when the insect brushes past it. The stigma is sticky, and many pollen grains
get stuck on it.
Wind-pollinated flowers produce much more pollen than insect pollinated flowers.
This is because a lot of the pollen doesn’t land on another flower, so huge amounts
are wasted. Usually no petals because there is no need to attract insects. Their
anthers and stigmas dangle outside the flower, to catch the wind. The filaments of
the anthers are very flexible, so they can swing in the wind and release their pollen.
The feathery stigmas have a large surface area, increasing the chances of catching
pollen.
Ovaries produce eggs or egg cells. Oviducts lead the egg to uterus. Uterus nourish
the developing fetus prior to birth. Cervix allows fluids to pass between uterus and
vagina. Vagina is the site where sperms are placed after ejaculation.
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female
gamete (egg cell).
Adaptation of sperm:
flagellum to swim
enzymes in the acrosome to digest its way through the jelly coat.
energy store to provide energy and nutrients for the growth and development of
zygote after fertilisation.
jelly coat hardens after the entry of one sperm to prevent entry of multiple
sperms.
Sperm cells are lot smaller than egg cells. Sperm cells are streamlined and egg cells
are round. Sperm cells can move by themselves but egg cells cannot. There are
millions of sperms deposited at the vagina but there are maximum of 2 egg cells in
female reproductive system.
In early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that
implants into the lining of the uterus.
gas exchange
by diffusion
prevents dehydration
maintains temperature ;
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the fetus.
Testosterone cause the secondary sexual characters to develop in boys, like growth
of facial hair and pubic hair, broadening shoulders and general muscular
development and a deepening voice.
Oestrogen cause the secondary sexual characters to develop in girls, like increase
in size of breast, growth of pubic hairs, hips become wider.
loss / thinning, of lining (of uterus), at the beginning of the cycle / during first
week / between day 1–7 ;
regrowth / thickening of, lining (of uterus), during second week / after loss (of
lining) / before ovulation ;
thickness of lining remains constant, in the last two weeks / at the end of the
cycle / after ovulation / if no fertilisation ;
FSH stimulates, development / growth / maturation, of, egg (cell) / ova / ovum /
(female) gamete(s) ;
sexual contact
blood transfusion
breast milk
use condoms
CHAPTER 16
Chromosomes are made of DNA, which contains genetic information in the form of
genes.
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids used to
make a specific protein.
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the cytoplasm
Most body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but many genes in a
particular cell are not expressed because the cell only makes the specific proteins it
needs. For instance, the cells in salivary gland don’t need to make protease but they
have the gene for it which is not expressed because the cell doesn’t need it.
In a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a human diploid
cell there are 23 pairs.
Stem cells is unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells that
can become specialised for specific functions.
A recessive allele is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele
of the gene present in the genotype.
CHAPTER 18
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random fertilisation are sources of genetic
variation in populations.
5 (floating leaves so) little xylem/ little 13 lots of air spaces (between cells) ;
lignin ; 14 for flotation/ buoyancy ;
6 water provides support ;
15 floating leaves ;
7 little/ no roots /root hairs ; 16 to allow, diffusion/AW of (named)
8 roots for anchorage only / no need for gas(es) ;
roots to absorb water or mineral ions ;
17 aerial roots ;
18 to allow roots to receive oxygen ;
few stomata / low stomatal density ; to absorb water from the water table /
AW
sunken stomata ;
long and spread out below the
stomata close during the day and
surface ;
open at night ;
to absorb water when it rains ;
rolled leaves ;
root cells have low water potential ;
thick epidermis / thick cuticle ;
to absorb water by osmosis ;
few / no / small, leaves ;
from (very) salty soils / AW ;
hairs on leaves ;
roots branch many times ;
low rates of transpiration ;
have many roots hairs ;
deep roots / AW ;
to give a large surface area (for
absorption of water) ;
Natural selection:
Selective breeding:
random mating
CHAPTER 19
The flow of energy through living organisms, including light energy from the Sun and
chemical energy in organisms, is eventual transfer to the environment.
A producer is an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using
energy from sunlight, through photosynthesis.
A trophic level is the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or ecological
pyramid.
other pyramids are not very informative, because we cannot be sure that one
gram of biomass for one species contains the same quantity of energy as one
gram of biomass of a different species.
Transfer of energy from one trophic level to another is often not efficient because
energy is lost between tropic levels. Energy is lost in respiration, movement,
muscles contraction, heat. Energy is lost in faeces, urine. Not all animal or plant is
digestible. Only 10% of the energy is transferred. As we move up the food chain
lesser and lesser energy is available to support a population. Therefore a food chain
is not longer than 5 tropic levels.
A population is a group of organisms of one species, living in the same area, at the
same time.
food supply
competition
predation
disease
CHPATER 20
deforestation
desertification
increased pollution
flooding
loss of biodiversity ;
use of pesticides ;
idea that livestock production is an inefficient use of, crop plants / energy
more land could be left in its natural state, providing habitats for other species
increased area for housing, crop plant production and livestock production
Through altering food webs and food chains, humans can have a negative impact on
habitats.
Effects of deforestation:
habitat destruction
reducing biodiversity
extinction
loss of soil
flooding
nutrients leached
shell damage
loss of biodiversity
AVP ; e.g. visual pollution /releases hormone-like chemicals / less oxygen from
photosynthesis
ingested ;
e.g. plastic covers the habitats (plastic) blocks (light / water for) photosynthesis
(for land plants) ;
visual pollution ;
Eutrophication of water:
Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably, e.g. forests and fish
stocks.
habitat disease
pollution
habitat destruction
11 lack of education ;
12 poisoning / pollution ;
13 need a large quantity of food / lack of food
sources / starvation ;
14 slow reproduction rate / hard to breed in
captivity ;
education
seed banks
reintroduction programmes ;
education / awareness ;
cost
Pectinase digest the cell wall of the fruits. This release more juice from the fruit. It
also helps to make the cloudy juice clear.
Milk contains a sugar, lactose, which many people are intolerant to. Enzyme lactase
is added to milk to breakdown lactose. This results in formation of lactose-free milk.
Bacteria and fungi can reproduce exponentially inside fermenters, where they are
provided with optimum temperature, pH, nutrients supply, and removal of waste
product.
cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction enzymes, forming
complementary sticky ends
insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using DNA ligase to form a
recombinant plasmid
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests
Only birds lay eggs with hard shells AND have feathers (NOT wings because other
animals also have wings).
Rod cells have greater sensitivity to light and don’t provide coloured vision.
Pollen grains don’t travel down the pollen tube it is the male gamete/ nucleus that
travel down the pollen tube.
When calculating percentage change it is important write the negative sign when the
change is decrease.
Your should brush your teeth after a meal because the pH of mouth decreases and
this acidic condition can dissolve the enamel.
During the mitosis process, the duplication of chromosomes occur before mitosis.
📗 Biology Definitions