AISTech 2019 — Proceedings of the Iron & Steel Technology Conference

6–9 May 2019, Pittsburgh, Pa., USA

DOI 10.1000.377.242

Process Optimization and Product Metallurgy in Long Products

Steven G. Jansto Ph.D. MBA1

1
CBMM North America, Inc.

1000 Omega Drive, Suite 1110, Pittsburgh, PA 15205

Phone: 412-759-1057
Email: [email protected]

Keywords: Continuous casting, Niobium, Reheat process, Mechanical metallurgy

INTRODUCTION
The connection of process and physical metallurgy is evolving through the integration of research aimed at improving
product quality. However, often the connection of the process metallurgical parameters is not typically reported, especially
with industrial data. The recent technological integration of both the process and physical metallurgical advancements of
value-added niobium (Nb) microalloyed long products has evolved into the development of low cost high quality low
manganese steels for long product end user requirements. This innovative metallurgical connection is validated by the market
demand for improved quality, improved steel ductility, robustness and toughness in both the automotive special bar quality
and construction steel sectors. The complementary refinement of the microstructural grain size through MicroNiobium
additions and reduced manganese (Mn) levels in long products improve the robustness of the steel to better accommodate
process metallurgy variations. Applications are evolving for both low and high strength structural long products as well as
engineering bar grade long products.

PROCESS AND PRODUCT METALLURGY SYNTHESIS

The process and physical metallurgy in conjunction with the materials science engineering connection is vital in
understanding and properly executing the successful transfer from the laboratory to industrialization. The purpose of this
paper which is rarely presented involves the introduction of the connections between the process metallurgy of production
with the resultant mechanical properties and microstructure of the commercially produced Merchant Quality Bar (MBQ),
Special Bar Quality (SBQ) and sections.
Often natural operational procedural variations occur within the process metallurgical steps of melting, casting, reheating and
rolling. These process metallurgical aberrations and variations affect microstructure and steel quality, thereby creating an
environment at times for unexpected mechanical property results. For example, during the continuous casting operation,
control of superheat, mold level fluctuation and proper primary and secondary cooling are the highest process metallurgy
priorities. These parameters directly affect solidification, proper equiaxed columnar grain transition zone (EACLGZ),
exceptional hot ductility, excellent surface quality and reduced chemical segregation. In the final hot rolled product the
influence reheat temperature, finishing temperature, hot bed cooling and cooling rates directly affect the resultant
microstructure in the hot rolled steel. Practical experience has identified deleterious mixed microstructures across a given
product section associated with improper thermal control [1]. For example, the inhomogeneity of overcooling near the edges
and corners on the rolled steel bar can result in a martensitic microstructure. Conversely, more homogeneous cooling near the
center of the bar width results in a pearlitic/bainitic microstructure. However, when the process metallurgy parameters such
as temperature, mechanical metallurgy reduction schedule, cooling homogeneity, rhomboidity and shape are in the proper
range of the upper and lower temperature control limits, there is a high probability that the mechanical property specifications
are met and/or exceeded for the customer. Therefore, less process control variability will better correlate to the laboratory
steel developmental results. Congruency of the industrial process increases the probability that proper microstructures
support the desired mechanical properties. Within a continuous bar rolling operation, the industrial relevance of proper
roughing mill, finishing mill and hot bed temperature is of paramount importance. Variations in the incoming temperature at

© 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology. 2353

each of these stages can result in missed finishing temperatures and hence, less than desirable properties. The root cause for
temperature variations at these rolling mills is directly related to the reheat furnace operation, efficiency and performance
(Combustion Metallurgy Approach-CMA®).
During the continuous casting of the billets, the minimization of surface and internal defects has a substantial impact on steel
producing operating costs, internal and external cost of quality and delivery performance. A keen and thorough understanding
of the continuous casting process metallurgy parameters for given carbon grades and the hot ductility behavior of these low,
medium and high carbon steel grades are essential to successfully melt and cast high quality long product steels.
The recent metallurgical advancements in both carbon-manganese commodity as well as value added microalloyed steels
positions the metallurgical community to incorporate an increased focus on this process and physical metallurgy synergy.
Few papers are published that discuss this synergy and more research and development in this body of knowledge is required.
One of the most recent major developments is the global shift to lower carbon and leaner alloy compositions to improve steel
product robustness, low temperature toughness, less centerline and quarter-point segregation, improved fatigue and improved
weldability. For example, one recent development involves the application of niobium (MicroNiobium of 0.01-0.02%) even
in lower strength steels for both structural flat and long products allowing for Mn reductions of as high as 40% [2]. Benefits
are both economic and improved quality. Certainly, in conventional higher strength steel special bar quality products, Nb
additions account for the recrystallization and very fine-grained microstructures.

FUTURE OPERATIONAL AND METALLURGICAL LONG PRODUCTS MANUFACTURING TRENDS

Steel long products are differentiated into Merchant Bar Quality [MBQ], Special Bar Quality [SBQ] and Sections. MBQ
steels are produced to specific sizes with wide chemical limits to meet a set of properties, where the end use is non-critical.
MBQ bars are typically produced from unconditioned billets. The bars typically have quite liberal tolerances. The surface and
core defects are wide and not very well quantified. The end users of MBQ may perform operations such as mild bending, hot
forming, punching and welding. The steel cleanliness quality standards for internal porosity, segregation, surface seams and
grain size are very liberal. SBQ is a long product of significantly improved properties. The market driver is such that specific
stress levels in the application can be met by the steel [1,2]. These long steel products are manufactured to meet difficult
automotive, truck, forging and heavy equipment applications to name a few. Fatigue fracture and strength of the steel is
enhanced which provides s higher level of consistency and integrity. To achieve the desired level of performance chemical
composition and cleanliness of the steel are critical to achieve the desired mechanical properties. The alloy design and the
clean steel practices are critical to achieve the special bar quality and have a direct impact on the dynamic properties such as
fatigue life of a component. The steel cleanliness required depends upon the low levels of chemical segregation, good
inclusion ratings and minimal internal and surface defects.
A differentiation between the commodity or merchant bar quality (MBQ) and special bar quality (SBQ) operational and
metallurgical developmental trends is presented. The MBQ current and future global trends are focused upon the following
transitions and changes:
1. Reduced carbon levels to improve product fabrication and welding performance
2. Reduce manganese levels to reduce segregation and surface quality problems
3. Focus on reduced residual element levels to improve both internal and external cost of quality with incremental
decrease in sulfur and phosphorous levels
4. Grain refinement induced MicroNiobium addition to offset yield and tensile strength reduction due to carbon and
manganese reduction
5. Increased end user demands for improved fabrication, formability and weldability for structural long products
including rebar, angles, flats and channels (especially in construction sector for buildings, bridges and infrastructure)
6. Energy savings at reheat furnace via Combustion Metallurgy Approach (CMA®)
The SBQ current and future global trends are focused upon the following transitions and changes:
1. Billet casting process operational and metallurgical improvements to improve homogeneity and both surface and
internal quality (minimize cracking)
2. Improved nitrogen control during steelmaking, especially in electric arc furnace operations
3. Scrap preparation and segregation practices to control residuals
4. Increased end user demands for improved fatigue, fracture toughness and reduced variability in yield-to-tensile ratio
5. Energy savings at reheat furnace via Combustion Metallurgy Approach (CMA®)
The drivers for these operational, metallurgical and product development trends are shown in Figure 1.

2354 © 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology.

 Billet Casting Improvements – Superheat, Mold Level Fluctuation and
Hot Ductility + Combustion Metallurgy at Reheat Furnace

Operational
Metallurgical
Product
Development

Steelmaking Chemistry & Process End user customer demands-

Metallurgy Operational Improved ductility, weldability,
Modifications formability, toughness and fatigue

Figure 1. Long product manufacturing drivers.

LONG PRODUCTS STEELMAKING FUTURE TRENDS

The electric arc or basic oxygen furnace long products steelmaking operation play an important role in the production
process. A differentiation is made here between long product commodity bar (MBQ) production compared to special bar
quality (SBQ) steelmaking. Steelmaking practices differ due to product quality specifications. Certainly, in the commodity
grades supporting angles, channels and flats for construction, rebar and other structural products, allowed chemistry ranges
are quite wide with high residual levels. For example, sulfur and phosphorous levels may approach 0.025% and 0.035%
respectively. The future trend in some long product steelmaking shops involve both a reduction in sulfur and phosphorous
levels (nearly a 50% reduction) as well as more restrictions on residuals. These reductions in sulfur and phosphorous result in
reduced diverts and scrap, as well as increased rolling speeds and tons per hour production rates at the rolling mill. Certainly,
these residual reductions enhance the quality and bar performance at the customer. The next step involves a reduction in
carbon content to improve toughness, weldability, and robustness even in low strength grades such as S235, S275 and
S355MPa construction grades. The benefits are not only improved quality at the customers, but a significant reduction in
operational performance with reduced diverts, cobbles and increased production rates.
A second trend involves the grade consolidation to cross apply structural plate and pipeline steel grade chemistries with the
goal of reducing operating costs. Fewer grades lead to significant economies of scale at both the BOF/EAF shop and at the
slab/billet caster. The implementation of clean steel low sulfur-low phosphorous practices is imperative if one intends to meet
the future toughness and weldability demands of the evolving structural market. Through the application of clean steel, low
carbon low alloy (LCLA©), the reduction of finishing temperatures and the incorporation of accelerated and/or controlled
cooling can make significant reductions in operational costs [3]. The cross application of these grade designs with proven
process metallurgy practices is vitally important for the successful manufacture of both MBQ and high-quality high strength
SBQ engineering grades. This cross-application approach derived from other product sectors such as automotive, plate and
section (beam) products into long products can significantly benefit both MBQ and SBQ production rates, internal and
external quality cost.
The beneficial effects of low sulfur and low phosphorous with strict nitrogen control significantly increase the probability of
consistently producing high quality structural steels exhibiting improved ductility, bendability, formability and resistance to
cracking and toughness. This steelmaking operational change even applies to MBQ steel grades. A secondary internal steel
mill benefit is that the lower sulfur and lower phosphorous steels improve both the castability and rollability of the steel,
minimizing billet, beam, and slab cracking. Improvements in the rollability of the steel through a reduction in the thermal
resistance to deformation during rolling can also be achieved. These improvements translate to a minimum 10% reduction in
operational cost per ton. Currently, there are very limited clean steelmaking practices applied to the production of
commodity-type structural long products throughout the world. The process metallurgical cross application approach from
other products such as pipelines, beams and ship plate to name a few, can be applied to long product production. For
example, the toughness of S355 for construction plate applications at decreasing sulfur levels is presented as an example.
Note that for each 50% reduction in sulfur, the Charpy impact strengths are improved at least three to four times. The
paradigm shift here is that this improvement is not only beneficial to the end user, but also to the hot rolling mill. This cross

© 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology. 2355

application is illustrated in Figure 2 in which the toughness of S355 for construction plate applications at decreasing sulfur
levels

Figure 2. Sulfur effect on Charpy V toughness in transverse direction S355 grade. [4]
The strategy to lower the sulfur level is not only to accommodate the customer’s need for improved toughness, but to also
improve the rollability of the billet through the rolling mill. Currently, there are very limited clean steelmaking practices
applied to the production commodity bar throughout the world. The cross application of the process metallurgy practices
applied to other products, such as pipelines, beams and ship plate to name a few, can be applied to value-added structural
long product bar production. Note that for each 50% reduction in sulfur, the Charpy impact values are improved at least three
to four times. Internal operational need to reduce mill loads. The benefits derived from finishing at low temperatures are well
established. Again, some mills are restricted from rolling at these temperatures due to load constraints on the mechanical
drives and motors.

Effect of Lower Carbon

Another cross application of low carbon plate production to long product bar will be considered. In the development of
structural plate steels, a key consideration involves the low carbon versus high carbon approach and the effect of sulfur levels
on the properties of the microalloyed structural product. Often overlooked is the positive financial impact of melting, casting
and rolling a clean, low residual, low carbon steel on the overall cost of the operation [9]. The actual cost of steel production
will be lower for S355 and in some cases lower cost for the S235 and S275 grade, through the development of a carbon
family less than 0.10%C with less than 0.50% residuals, less than 90ppm N and less than .005%S. Coupling this strategy with
a controlled lower finishing bar temperature rolling scheme will result in very fine ferrite grain sizes. Also, the weldability of
these low carbon steel grades is significantly improved by lowering the carbon equivalent by as much as 0.10. Typically, the
influence of the base chemistry on the cold cracking susceptibility is a function of the carbon equivalent (CE) equation shown
below.

CE + C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Cu + Ni)/15

In addition to improved weldability, the plate toughness is improved in a low carbon (<0.08%C) approach versus a high
carbon approach (0.14-0.18%C). Similar benefits are seen in commodity bars as the metallurgical mechanisms are the same.
Figure 3 illustrates the improvement on toughness in the length direction in a low carbon Nb composition versus a high
carbon composition.

2356 © 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology.

 Figure 3. Charpy V toughness transverse direction S355 grade low carbon versus toughness. [5]
In this metallurgical example, the 75 mm plate shows nearly triple the impact strength at -60°C as the carbon content is
reduced from 0.14% to 0.07% with an addition of niobium. Hence, commercialization of the lower carbon structural bar
chemistry is preferred over the high carbon chemistry because of better and more consistent mechanical properties, improved
toughness, improved surface quality by avoiding the peritectic zone at the caster and improved weldability. In addition, the
improved surface quality assists in enhancing the adhesion of the epoxy coating for corrosion applications.
As a result of the grain-refinement mechanism of niobium, higher yield strengths, improved weldability and improved
fracture toughness can be achieved through a lowering of the carbon content. This allows the alloy designer the opportunity
to specify lower carbon-level steels to improve the toughness and weldability of the structure without sacrificing strength. An
opportunity exists to study the niobium metallurgy and some of the grades applied to high strength pipeline and advanced
high strength structural steel grades with lower carbon and microalloy systems for demanding applications such as seismic,
low temperature, fire resistant, fatigue endurance limit and increased formability.
Within the MBQ sector, the judicious adjustment to carbon, sulfur and phosphorous levels should be evaluated. Many of the
MBQ specifications offer a huge opportunity to tighten the internal specification which will translate into significant
operational cost reductions. These cost reductions better position the bar mill to successfully maintain excellent margins in a
very competitive MBQ environment. Figure 4 below illustrates the significant effect of carbon on toughness, which is a
significant benchmark to evaluate steel robustness during the hot roll mechanical metallurgy step of the long product
production process.

25% Deterioration

33% Deterioration

Figure 4. Impact toughness versus carbon content.

© 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology. 2357

 BILLET REHEATING PROCESS AND COMBUSTION METALLURGY
The reheat furnace process step has a profound effect on the rolling performance, final hot rolled steel quality and mechanical
property consistency during the production of both MBQ and SBQ hot rolled steels. The uniformity of heating applied across
the entire width and length of the slab or billet is critical in the achievement of customer properties regardless of the
chemistry. The resultant ferrite grain size in the final hot rolled product is significantly governed by the initial prior austenite
grain size. Numerous reheat furnace process metallurgy and combustion parameters in actual operation affect mill
productivity, microstructure, austenite grain size, scrap rate and diverts. This reheating step in the steelmaking process often
receives low priority in the evaluation of product quality and mechanical property performance, especially the toughness
through the plate thickness. Heat transfer conditions of radiation, convection and conduction affect furnace heating
efficiency. In laboratory studies, the furnace heating step is typically quite uniform resulting in a homogeneous and fine prior
austenite grain size. During production, it is much more difficult to control the uniformity of heating and heat transfer
consistency along the entire length and through the thickness of the work piece. The furnace conditions are correlated to
product quality via furnace process variables such as the air to gas ratio, furnace burner condition, furnace pressure, energy
efficiency, adiabatic flame temperature (AFT) and furnace refractory condition. Operational practice recommendations are
presented to minimize inhomogeneous heating which results in inferior product quality, hot rolling model anomalies and
toughness variations in the through-thickness-direction [6].
Variables such as billet size, push-out or drop-out rate, air-to gas ratios, excess O₂, furnace atmosphere affecting scale
formation, and overall furnace efficiency all affect the heating behavior and ultimate kinetics of solubility of the micro-
carbides. The furnace heat loss profile can also affect the kinetics. Such problems as improper refractory construction, heat
loss through openings, poor fitting inspection doors, inadequately maintained skids, and entry and discharge door problems
all negatively affect the kinetics of the solubility process [6]. The effects of improper heating and billet soaking can lead to
the following variations in final rebar mechanical properties supplied to the end user:
1. Increased variability in yield strength within a given rolling schedule
2. Variable yield-to-tensile ratios in final hot rolled product
3. Hard spots in MBQ and SBQ and rebar due to variation in volume fraction of martensite affecting cored properties
and elongation
4. Overheating of the billets resulting in abnormal austenitic grain growth

Importance of Reduced Soak Zone Temperatures

In the reheat furnace, the slab is heated via radiation off the refractory walls of the roof and sidewalls. The roof and sidewall
refractory absorb heat from the flames emitted from the combustion burners. The adiabatic flame temperature (AFT) is
affected by the fuel type, burner efficiency and air to gas equivalence ratio. The highest AFT translates into higher heat input,
higher production throughput and maximum furnace efficiency. The optimum air-to-gas ratio also develops a furnace
atmosphere that is conducive for good surface quality, high heat penetration into the slab and optimal scale depth and
viscosity. Figure 5 illustrates the effect of different air-to-gas ratios (i.e. equivalence ratios) on the adiabatic flame
temperature for different gases.

Figure 5. Air to gas equivalence ratio versus adiabatic flame temperature. [7]

2358 © 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology.

Since most furnaces consume natural gas, the maximum adiabatic flame temperature of 2250°K occurs at approximately 1.10
equivalence ratio (10% excess air). Under these conditions, approximately one-half of the heat generated from the
combustion of the fuel heats the steel. As the air to gas equivalence ratio increases, combustion efficiency declines and AFT
decreases. There are several operational reasons that adversely increase the equivalence ratio [8]. Several furnace factors can
create higher equivalence ratios resulting in improper heating of the steel and longer heating times:
• Cracked burner orifice plates leading to sub-optimal flame temperature
• Refractory cracks in furnace roof and/or sidewall leading to air infiltration into the furnace
• Low furnace pressure due to inefficient combustion fan mechanical performance (bearings, out-of-balance,
component wear)
• Reduced working volume in the bottom zone of preheat and reheat section due to scale buildup
• Improper dilute oxygen enrichment at combustion burner tip
• Scale formation and viscosity
Most commercial fuels are hydrocarbons. According to the stoichiometric ratio for full oxidation of a fuel, air/fuel mixtures
fed to a combustor are classified as:
• Lean mixtures (little fuel content, excess of air).
• Stoichiometric mixtures (with the precise or theoretical amount of fuel)
• Rich mixtures (more fuel than needed, but excess fuel will pyrolyze to small-molecule fuels, and only small
molecules appear at the exhaust).

Global Billet Reheat Furnace Operations

Numerous furnace operations throughout the world operate at both high reheat zone (>1150°C) and soak zone furnace
temperature (>1225°C), thereby overheating both plain carbon steels and microalloyed steels leading to abnormal grain
growth. Observations made at numerous mills around the world find high temperature furnace operation even more prevalent
on higher carbon steels exceeding 0.20%C. The cause and effect relationship of these poor furnace heating practices have a
detrimental effect on steel quality due to abnormal and variable grain size and inhomogeneous heating through the slab
thickness. Coarser austeinte grains translate into coarser ferrite grains in the final hot rolled product. Also, overheating of
steel, results in thicker scale formation. The metallurgical consequences of thick scale formation goes beyond simple surface
quality issues and translates into mechanical property variability due to improper heating of the billets for both MBQ and
SBQ before hot rolling. Observations made at numerous mills around the world find high temperature furnace operation is
often prevalent at mills producing HSLA microalloyed steels and higher carbon steels exceeding 0.20%C. Niobium is
effective in delaying austenite grain growth when high temperature overheating conditions occur.
From a practical operational perspective, soak zone temperatures exceeding 1250°C is extremely deleterious to steel surface
quality, toughness, yield and mechanical property and cost performance. The decrease in yield is due to formation of a heavy
iron oxide scale. This scale can be several millimeters in thickness and converts to as much as 1 to 1.5% of yield loss. This
loss in product translates into millions of dollars of scrap and reduced yield on an annual basis.
It important to understand that kinetics is what ultimately controls the combustion reaction, effectiveness and efficiency.
Thermodynamics indicates if the reaction is natural (i.e. may proceed in an isolated system) or artificial (i.e. requires some
energy input from outside). Thermodynamics ensures that a fuel and air may naturally react, but if the kinetics are too slow,
the combustion reaction is hindered. Two extreme cases of mixing are considered in combustion: combustion in a premixed
system and combustion in the common-interface layer where non-premixed fuel and air come into contact. Also, the proper
temperature and reheat time is critical to ensure that the various microalloy and/or alloy elements in high strength TMCP
processed long product grades are properly put into solution in actual reheat furnace production conditions before rolling at
the roughing and finishing mill.

Combustion Metallurgy Approach (CMA®)

The definition of CMA® is intergration of the furnace process operational parameters and the combustion conditions and its
effect on the billlet qulityas the billet exits the reheat furnace in terms of austenite grain size, homogoneity of temperature
both through the billet and front to back and optima; scale formation. The reheat furnace process metallurgy directly affects
the prior austenite grain size before the hot rolling deformation step. Although accepted universally as a vital processing step
in the steel community, the influence of slab reheating and combustion metallurgy mechanisms are typically not connected to
poor toughness results (i.e. low DWTT and low Charpy values) or poor ductility and bendability. The random overheating of
steel slabs, billets or blooms during the industrial reheat furnace operation causes abnormal grain growth. This randomness is
sometimes predictable, but since proper dynamic reheat furnace control and practice adjustments are required in the moment
to minimize these aberrations, no changes are made. Many mills often ignore the reheat furnace aberations and no
adjustments are made. In some cases, these aberations are caused by burner, refractory and other combustion process control

© 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology. 2359

problems already presented. Consequently, mechanical properties through the thickness and across the width will vary
considerably and deteriorate, especially toughness, bendability, ductility yield-to-tensile ratios and fatigue properties.

STRUCTURAL ASTM STEEL SPECIFICATION ALLOWABLE MAXIMUM CARBON CONTENT

Numerous steel specifications applied to structural applications allow C maximum levels as high as 0.26%. Peritectic grades
in the range of 0.11-0.16%C are quite often applied globally for structural long and plate products. There have been cases of
some structural mill producers shifting back from low C to peritectic, However, this peritectic choice result in increased Total
Activity Based Cost (TABC) for steelmaking, casting and hot rolling operations. A lack of measuring and understanding the
actual cost makes it difficult to calculate the benefits of this change to less than 0.10%C. Table 1 illustrates some ASTM
specifications allowing for grades produced within this peritectic region.

Table 1. Selected ASTM specification carbon maximum levels [9]

ASTM Spec A242 A514¹ A529 A572² A588 A913³ A992
%C maximum 0.15 0.10-0.21 0.27 0.21-0.26 0.15-0.20 0.12-0.16 0.23
1
Eight different grades with different maximum %carbon depending on grade
2
Carbon maximum varies with cross sectional area
3
Carbon maximum increases with high yield strength grade

The definition of lower carbon steels in this paper is a carbon content less than 0.10%. For example, the current problem is
that when customers place a steel order to a specification such as ASTM A529 or A572, unless a 0.10% maximum is
specified by the customer, the mill can produce up to the maximum carbon level in lieu of the better material property
performance achieved from lower carbon steels. For even higher yield strength grades, ASTM A913 allows up to maximum
0.16%C for Grade 65 and 70. This change has also created some import situations and conflicts with poor end user
performance [9]. If a producer opts that the peritectic approach is more cost effective, that mill is not properly analyzing or
understanding their total cost of production for these carbon- microalloyed steel grades. Since many end users rely on a given
specification to meet their order requirements, although the specified chemical elements meet the composition range, the
shipment is deemed acceptable. Herein, two potential problems might be experienced by the end user, specifically, material
performance variability and major carbon level differences between heats and/or multiple suppliers and service centers.
Recent communications with end users reveal that they do not realize the negative implications to their business when the
peritectic grade is processed in their operation. Concurrently, the end users of these ASTM grades are demanding structural
components with less mechanical property variability and consistence. For example, properties such as low temperature
toughness, formability, bendability, weldability, fracture toughness and fatigue performance are impaired when these higher
C grades are applied and applied from different steel mills and service centers, instead of the less than 0.10%C lower carbon
steels which would alleviate many of the quality problems at the job site.

LOW MANGANESE MICRONIOBIUM LONG PRODUCTS APPROACH

Recent steelmaking developments have recently successfully melted steel grades with as much as a 25% reduction in
Manganese content and a MicroNiobium replacement addition of .010 to .020%Nb for several structural and infrastructure
plate, sections and long products. The result involves a steelmaking alloy raw material cost reduction, improved castability,
reduced internal Manganese Sulfide centerline segregation and less microstructural banding in the hot rolled slabs yielding a
more homogeneous pearlitic microstructure. The applications within the infrastructure segment are growing due to the
competitive nature of this product segment and especially attractive to the MBQ sector. Much has been published regarding
the effect of Mn on centerline segregation. Delamination and cracking related to segregations are mostly observed at the
centerline of hot-rolled products. The delamination is related to a heavy concentration of manganese sulfide inclusions
originating from centerline segregation in slabs resulting in numerous customer complaints. Similar delamination or cracking
is also observed at locations away from the mid-thickness plane of hot-rolled products during forming operations at
customers. Even in relatively homogeneous microstructures, segregation may often lead to the rejection of materials and
increased External Cost of Quality for the steel operation. Metallographic investigation reveals a segregation line with an
abundance of manganese sulfide stringers at the off-center location like observations in cases of centerline defects. Centerline
segregation is a well-understood phenomenon, but the presence of off-center segregation line in hot-rolled products has not
been systematically studied before [10]. Intercolumnar cracks in slabs can be filled with segregated elements in addition to
Mn. Through the course of this MicroNiobium-Low Manganese Approach development, the market experienced increasing
FeMn prices creating the global supply-demand imbalance. However, as this paper reports, a further analysis of the benefits

2360 © 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology.

is well beyond just a simple alloy cost reduction at the Melt Shop via a FeNb reduction and MicroNiobium addition. During
the hot rolling of these low carbon-manganese-MicroNb steels, delay of the pearlite transformation leads to a finer
interlammelar spacing and finer grain size due to a shorter transformation time and thereby contributing to a strength increase
even at lower Mn and C concentrations. Some of the other beneficial effects besides reducing alloy cost from the lowering of
the Mn content by as much as 0.40%Mn are:
• Lower amount of cold additions to liquid steel (possible saving of energy)
• Lower P contamination from FeMn alloy
• Lower Mn centerline segregation in the slab/plate
• Reduced banding in hot roll microstructure
• Lower carbon equivalent (better weldability).
• Improved robustness and less YS and TS scatter
• Finer and more homogeneous grain size through thickness and across width
• Improved toughness and lower DBTT (ductile to brittle transition temperature)
The low Mn-low Nb construction steels research and development has recently been commercialized [11]. The approach
involves the application of quite simple conventional rolling schedules and reheat and hot rolling practices. Implementation is
quite seamless and feasible in industrial operations. In the past, there was limited research into such products for two primary
reasons. First, when secondary and tertiary processes such as hot forging, drawing and cold forging were applied to medium
and high carbon steels, some think that the effects of controlled rolling may be lost through the process. Secondly, Nb has a
lower solubility in austenite in comparison with low carbon steels at the same temperature. However, these trials have
exhibited excellent toughness results even in medium carbon peritectic S355 structural steels for construction applications at
very economical cost as shown below in Table 2.

Table 2. Medium C-Low Mn MicroNiobium mechanical properties* [11]

Sample Yield Strength Tensile Elongation (%) Impact Impact Impact Strength
(MPa) Strength (MPa) Strength @ - Strength @ 0ºC @ +20ºC
20ºC
Aim 345 470 21.0 - ≥34 -
II- 405 525 28.5 150 170 160
16mm
III- 410 535 33.0 150 170 160
16mm
IV- 455 615 22.0 160 155 180
40mm
* Mn level reduced from Standard 1.45 to 1.15%Mn and 0.010%Nb at 0.16%C (peritectic and Mn/S is reduced from 181 to
144.
The intent of this work is to study existing carbon (peritectic) compositions and replace the vanadium with niobium and make
a significant reduction in the manganese level for these 345MPa grades. The next step is to consider a similar reduction in
Mn strategy even for lower strength steels such as 235MPa and 275MPa as a cost reduction opportunity. The knowledge
gained from this work is illustrating the possibility of making Mn reductions and significant cost savings. There have been
situations where the aim is to produce S275 and the mill actually produced S420MPa structural grades with improved
toughness and less microstructural banding. The solid solution strengthening equation is shown below in equation 1 and 2 per
Gladman and Pickering: [12]

Yield Strength (MPa) = 53.9 + 32.3%Mn + 83.2%Si + 354%Nf + 17.4d-1/2 (1)

Tensile Strength (MPa) = 294 + 27.7%Mn + 83.2%Si + 3.85%Pearlite + 7.7d-1/2 (2)

Table 3 illustrates the solid solution strengthening effect at various Mn concentrations.

© 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology. 2361

 Table 3. Manganese solid solution strengthening
%Mn Contribution to Yield Contribution to Tensile
Strength (Mpa) Strength (Mpa)
0.30 10 8
0.60 16 14
1.00 32 28

SPECIAL BAR QUALITY DEVELOPMENTS

The technological development of value-added applications for niobium (Nb) microalloyed long products and forgings steels
continue to increase globally meeting more demanding end user requirements. The global end user community is specifically
seeking improved energy absorption behavior, improved fatigue life, better crack arrest capability, reduced component mass,
and more efficient production with reduced emissions throughout the product life cycle. Within the forging sector, additions
of microalloying elements affect the rate of grain growth during the heating of blanks, recrystallization parameters of
deformed austenite, temperature of gamma-alpha transformation at cooling as well as the contribution to precipitation
hardening of the ferrite constituent. Development of a seismic resistance resistant rebar, fine grain forgings and construction
sections and plates exhibiting better yield-to-tensile ratio consistency, improved energy absorption at low temperature and
better weldability are described. Another rapidly expanding global niobium metallurgical sector involves both medium and
high carbon long products. Micro additions of 0.005 to 0.020%Nb exhibit improved formability during manufacturing,
uniform grain size as well as enhanced mechanical property performance compared with traditional non-Nb bearing treated
medium and high carbon steels.
Mechanical properties improvements with the addition of Nb in rebar and structural shapes has been cross applied to
automotive structural components, such as coil springs. For example, a North American vehicle front suspension coil spring
composed of 0.51%C with Mo-V-Nb was developed and commercialized with improved mechanical properties compared to
conventional springs. A similar effect was observed as in rebar and other long product applications when adopting 0.035%Nb
in a 9259-engineering alloy spring steel grade. The improved properties are attributed to the grain refinement, more
homogeneous microstructure, microalloy carbonitride precipitate morphology and precipitate strengthening provided by Nb.
The chemistry of the Nb-modified spring steel is shown below in Table 4 [13].

Table 4. Coil spring chemistries

C Mn P S Si Cu Ni Cr Mo V Nb N(ppm)
SAE9259 .61 .86 .014 .021 .78 .008 .008 .51 .008 .005 .002 55
V-SAE9259 .60 .81 .020 .017 .85 .007 .009 .51 .003 .100 .002 110
Nb-V- .51 .69 .016 .020 1.31 .007 .012 .45 .040 .100 .035 130
MoSAE9259

The improvement in hardness at temper temperature has translated into increased strength, better fatigue endurance limits and
good fracture toughness, thereby allowing for a lighter weight design coil spring. The fatigue and fracture toughness
comparison of standard SAE9259 is compared to the Nb-modified SAE9259 in Figure 6 and 7 respectively [13].

Figure 6. Dynamic sag loss comparison. Figure 7. Fracture toughness comparison.

2362 © 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology.

This Nb-V-Mo modified coil spring steel has resulted in the reduction in weight of a coil spring by approximately 15%,
improved fatigue resistance by 12% and improved fracture toughness by 27% compared to the conventional 5160 or 9259
and/or the V-modified 9259. The resultant Nb-V modified grade exhibits improved yield and tensile strength which translates
into better cyclic fatigue life and improved fracture toughness. The adjusted steel chemistry, grain refinement, Nb-V(CN)
precipitation strengthening and overall lower volume fraction of hard oxide inclusions results in the improved properties.
This application illustrates the complimentary synergy between Nb and V in these higher carbon engineering tools steels. The
grain refinement effect leads to the improved dynamic load loss performance and the improved fracture toughness and ductile
fracture. In actual operation, the Nb to V stoichiometric ratio has been reduced thereby lowering the cost of the V and
MicroNiobium additions at 0.020% Nb.
Another SBQ application involve Nb in high carbon eutectoid steels. The growth in this market continues. An advance in
improving a 1080 grade steel by the addition of a micro-alloy was not warmly welcomed because of an incomplete
understanding of its effectiveness. Tests at two plants later showed this method to be beneficial for products such as pre-
stressed concrete wire rod, tire cord and medium-carbon spring steels. The MicroNiobium® Alloy Approach is applied in
higher carbon steels and medium-carbon bar products exceeding 0.20% carbon to improve the mechanical property
robustness of the steel via grain refinement. This mechanism allows grain refinement from billet to bar to wire rod to be more
homogeneous, resulting in improved surface quality, increased productivity and reduced scrap rates throughout the process
supply chain, thereby reducing the overall operational cost per ton. A study was made to optimize the Nb composition in a
1080 steel to determine the best drawing ratio, reduction ratio, best ductility and surface quality and best final mechanical
property performance at the end user wire processor. The results indicate that the MicroNiobium addition of only 0.02% Nb
provides an improved product robustness, reducing the cost of quality and improving productivity by as much as 10%. The
results from this 1080 eutectoid wire rod study provides the fundamental metallurgical understanding that explains the
improved properties. Based on these results, the same MicroNiobium methodology is applied for other carbon steels. Such a
comprehensive study is not necessary as it is possible to cross apply the optimized low MicroNiobium composition (0.005-
0.020% Nb) for 1080 to the lower carbon steels (i.e. the 0.70%, 0.50% C and 0.35% C.) Thus, in these steels the two-fold
benefit of MicroNiobium is: 1) prevention of abnormal austenite grain growth during reheat furnace aberrations (CMA®) and
2) minimization of the interlamellar pearlite spacing improving mechanical properties [14].
The application of niobium (Nb) in high-carbon steels enhances both the metallurgical properties and processability of long
products. Such process and product metallurgical improvements relate to the Nb-pinning effect of the austenite grain
boundaries in microalloyed 0.25 to 0.95%C steels minimizing abnormal grain growth during the reheat furnace process prior
to rolling. Consequently, Nb microalloyed medium- and high-carbon, long-product steel applications have been developed.
The MicroNiobium Alloy Approach is described and correlated to a variety of medium- and high-carbon steel grades and
applications. Development opportunities and applications span automotive coil springs, eutectoid rail steels, alloy tool and
die steels, automotive fasteners, reinforcing bars, wire and tyre rod. The detailed analysis of the optimization at .018% Nb in
1080 eutectoid pre-stressed concrete wire rod provided the basis for this metallurgical strategy. This approach contributes to
the achievement of desired ultrafine grain, homogeneous high carbon steel microstructures that exhibit superior toughness,
strength, fatigue performance, less mechanical property variation in the final hot rolled product, reduced cost of quality and
improved weldability. Cross application of 0.005 to 0.020% Nb provides for more robust long products via austenite grain
boundary pinning during reheating and very fine interlammelar pearlite spacing during hot rolling. The improvement in the
cost of quality far exceeded the additional alloy cost for the MicroNb addition [15].

CONCLUSIONS
The process and physical metallurgy synergy are vital in conjunction with the materials science engineering connection in
understanding and properly executing the successful transfer of new and advanced long products from the laboratory to
industrialization. The integration of steelmaking, continuous casting, and hot and cold rolling is critical to properly
understand the root cause process metallurgical parameters affecting the physical metallurgy of the desired products.
Opportunities exist to incorporate some SBQ-type metallurgical practices to MBQ production practices in the interest of
reducing operational cost, improving productivity and quality in commodity MBQ production. The future trend in some long
product steelmaking shops involve both a reduction in sulfur and phosphorous levels (nearly a 50% reduction) as well as
more restrictions on residuals. These reductions in sulfur and phosphorous result in reduced diverts and scrap, as well as
increased rolling speeds and tons per hour production rates at the rolling mill. Certainly, these residual reductions enhance the
quality and bar performance at the customer. The reduction of carbon to less than 0.10% with MicroNiobium improves
castability, steel robustness and weldability. The complementary development of new generation value-added low carbon-
low manganese MicroNiobium structural steels for both low and high yield strength offer improved toughness, bendability
and ductility at reduced operational cost. Another major development trend involves the effects of the reheating process
operational variability (CMA®) which significantly affect austenite grain size, recrystallization behavior, and final
microstructure and ductility in both MBQ and SBQ products.

© 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology. 2363

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2364 © 2019 by the Association for Iron & Steel Technology.