Course Contents

Unit 1 – The concept of Research - Introduction

Unit 2 – Types of Research

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Civil and Environmental Unit 3 – Process in Research Proposal Development
Engineering
Unit 4 – Process in Conducting Research
Postgraduate Program
Unit 5 – Research Ethics
August 2013 Unit 6 – Reporting Research Findings

About the Course

Evaluation

Generic
Proposal writing 20 – 30 %

Concept of scientific research (what it is, how to plan and
Other Assignments 10 – 20 %
conduct)

Final Exam 40 – 50 %

Self learning

Do the exercises for better understanding

For maximum benefit –

read ahead,
attend all lectures and
actively participate

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 Defining MSc and PhD What is MSc Program?

• MSc, a process of
 Identifying a research area of interest
 Learning to carry out a research project
 Identifying problems
 Analyzing/ dissecting problems
 Designing/developing solutions
 Proving/Substantiating solution
 Reporting

Outcome of MSc program

• Understand the issues of concerns within the area of

specialization
• Know the leading researchers/research groups in the
area of study
• Know the relevant industries/companies
The Concept of Research
• Identify your research strength and weaknesses
(theoretical, experimental; materials, processes,
components/devices, system)
• Conduct research with minimal guidance
 Unit Objectives Sources of Knowledge

• Identify sources of knowledge

• Define the concept of research Two major approaches to acquire knowledge:
• Explain the purpose of research • Unscientific knowledge/common sense
• Differentiate Research Method and methodology • Scientific knowledge/Science
• Understand Philosophy of research

1.1 Types of unscientific Sources of

Cont’d …
knowledge

• The method of tenacity - Automatic acceptance of • The method of Authority - Accepting information
beliefs without exploring them. we have been told by authority figure.
E.g. 1. Black injera has high Fe content.
E.g. 1. smoking affects our health
2. The sun rises in the east.
3. Ethiopians have burned faces.
Problem:
Problems: - It is only useful and beneficial if the authority
- Knowledge by familiarity alone – no proof of its figure is knowledgeable in the area.
truth
- No means for correcting ideas which are proved
to be not true.
 Cont’d … Cont’d …

• The a prior method/deductive reasoning - Reason and

logic are the basic tools for a priori method. • Commonsense - Knowledge acquired from past
experience or from our perceptions of the world.
E.g.1. Ayele’s family are tall.
Alemitu is in Ayele’s family It is good for routines aspects of daily life but hinders
Therefore, Alemitu is tall. _False to widen our knowledge.

E.g. The price of teff increases if the rainy season fails

Conclusion from false premises.

E.g. 2. Human being is mortal

Alemu is a human being.
Therefore, Alemu is mortal. _True

1.2 Scientific method as a Source of knowledge Scientific Vs. Unscientific Research

• Knowledge acquired systematically. i.e. evaluate

observation by our bodily senses or measuring devices. Scientific research:
Focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step
• It is sometimes seen as a controlled extension of logical, organized, and rigorous method. i.e.
commonsense knowledge. identify the problems
collect data
• Therefore, science relies on information that is verifiable analyze and
unlike commonsense. draw valid conclusions

• Science differs from commonsense: Non-scientific research:

 uses conceptual schemes and theoretical structures. Based on experience and intuition
 gives explanations or reasoning for different
observed phenomena.
 Cont’d … Cont’d …

Science: Expectations from scientific research:

• Systematically build theoretical structure
• Test them for internal consistency
• General rules drawn
• test empirically subject aspects of the phenomenon.
• Objective evidences collected
Logical steps in scientific research: • Testable statements made
• Problem statement • A skeptical attitude to all claims
• Tentative explanations • Creative, public and productive
• Information gathering
• Test of hypothesis
• Make conclusions

Cont’d …
Elements of the Scientific Method
Limitations of scientific research:
Empirical Approach
• Cannot have answer for all questions
Observation
• Results may not be applied everywhere

Questions
• Imperfection in the measurement devices

Hypotheses
The scope and limitations of your work has to be clearly defined.
Experiments

Analysis
The work that will not be undertaken is described
Conclusion
as the delimitations of the research.
Replication

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Elements of the Scientific Method Elements of the Scientific Method
(Empirical Approach) (Observation)
Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which
 Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the
behind all research conducted in accordance with the basis for research studies or investigations
scientific method

 Data derived from direct, systematic and careful

Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when
observation and experimentation (as opposed to researchers talk about or are interested in
speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut undertaking or replicating research on the same
feeling) phenomenon. Example: What is “exercise”?

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Elements of the Scientific Method Elements of the Scientific Method

(Questions) (Hypotheses)
 Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The
question must be answered using available and established  Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest.
scientific research techniques and procedures.  Hypothesis is a proposition which is empirically testable.
 It usually seeks to explain relationships between variables,
 Scientific Analysis should not be attempted on questions
and predict, and must be falsifiable
which cannot be answered
 Typical hypotheses structures:
 Example of an answerable question: Can regular exercising  Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will

reduce an individual’s cholesterol level? result

 Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related
with changes in the value of Variable A
 Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time
travel possible?  Causal – The value of Variable ψ determines the value of Variable ξ

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Elements of the Scientific Method Elements of the Scientific Method
(Experiments) (Analysis)
Experiments are:  Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative
 Basically about measuring phenomena and collecting tools and techniques to process data
accurate and reliable data
 Which are used for analysis and evaluation  Quantitative tools and techniques are considered
more desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and
 Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement techniques
 Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement
 Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively
analyze data acquired in research studies

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Elements of the Scientific Method

(Conclusions) Elements of the Scientific Method
Conclusion is (Replication)
 Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and
used to support or refute a hypothesis  The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same
research study is conducted with different
participants (i.e. researchers, research subjects), then
 Should only be based on the available data and not the same results are achieved
broadened to include statements which are not
supported by the data
 Replication establishes the reliability of a research
Example: If the research analysis shows that study’s conclusions
two variables are correlated (related), do not
assert also that a causal relationship exists  Conclusions are often based on the results of one
between them research study which may not be accurate

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 Lesson 2. Definition and purpose of research 2.1 Scientific Research -Definition

What Research Is Not What Research Is

• Research isn’t information gathering: • Research is:
– Gathering information from resources such as books
or magazines isn’t research. • an attempt to achieve systematically and with the
– No contribution to new knowledge. support of data the answer to a question, the
resolution to a problem, or the greater
• Research isn’t the transportation of facts: understanding of a phenomenon
– Merely transporting facts from one resource to
another doesn’t constitute research. • a process of generation of new information and
– No contribution to new knowledge although this testing of ideas.
might make existing knowledge more accessible.

2.1 Scientific Research –Definition… 2.1 Scientific Research -Definition

What Research Is What Research Is

Definition by WHO: • Research is:
Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent
search or investigation or experimentation aimed at “…the systematic process of collecting and
the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge. analyzing information (data) in order to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon about
Definition by Advanced Learner’s Dictionary: which we are concerned or interested.”
A careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps
and a rigid standard protocol.
 2.1 Scientific Research –Definition… 2.1 Scientific Research –Definition…

In general we learn from the definition: Typical features of scientific research:

• Any scientific research is systematic - follows a clear
procedure so that the experiment can be replicated and the • systematic – ordered, planned and disciplined
results verified.
• Controlled – confidence in research outcomes
• All scientific research has a goal, repeated and refined
experimentation gradually reaching an answer.
• Empirical – putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to a
test ; and
• Scientific research is impartial, objective, empirical and
logical
• Critical – many truths are tentative and are subject to
• Scientific research leads to the development of
change as a result of subsequent research.
generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in to some
extent in prediction and control of events.

Introduction-The Research Process

The Dimensions of Research

Theories

Concepts Deductive
Reasoning

RESEARCH
Propositions

Scientific Method Inductive

Reasoning
Hypotheses

Empiricism

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 The Research ‘Onion’ 2.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• The purpose of research is problem solving and acquiring

new knowledge.

• It also reduces the complexity of problems.

• In short, research is used for the purposes of:

 describing phenomena
 explaining phenomena
 predicting phenomena
 controlling phenomena
 comparing phenomena

Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

2.2. Purpose of Scientific Research 2.2. Purpose of Scientific Research

• Description – pictorial account of the phenomenon being • Explanation – exploring the causes of the occurrence of certain
studied. event.
 It is the first step to do in scientific research.  It find answers to the questions “why”.
 It find answers to the questions “what, who and where”. E.g. 1 Why does ice have lower density than water?

E.g. 1. Study on properties of water in solid and liquid state

“the behavior of water in the solid and liquid state” has to be
described first before testing why it is so.
 2.2. Purpose of Scientific Research
What is a Theory? (1)

A theory is defined as “a coherent set of general
• Prediction – generalizing about what will happen in the future.
• Control – intervene and subsequently observe an expected propositions, used as principles of explanation of the
result. amount of the apparent relationships of certain
• Comparison – explore whether two or more groups are similar
or different on a certain behavior or vice versa. observed phenomena”

• E.g. Is there gender difference in terms of level of

participation in politics
Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks
of theory development. A concept (or construct) is a
• E.g Any connection between bio-chemistry and medical generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
science?
occurrences, or processes that have been given a
name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of
the level of abstraction
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What is a Theory? (2) The Abstraction Ladder

 A proposition is a statement concerned with the Theory
Abstract Level
relationship between concepts. It asserts a universal
connection and logical linkage between concepts.
Propositions are at a higher level of abstraction than Propositions
Levels of
concepts Abstraction

Concepts / Constructs
 Example: Smoking is injurious to health

 Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically Observations of Objects,

Events and Occurrences (Reality) Empirical Level
testable. They are usually concerned with the
relationships between variables 43 44
 2.3 Characteristics of scientific research 2.4 Research method and methodology

• Is directed toward the solution of a problem;

• Is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence; • Research Methods –
• Demands accurate observation and description; • the techniques/ procedures used to collect and analyse data.
• Gathers information from primary or secondary sources. E.g. surveys, interviews, observations, etc.
• Follow carefully designed procedures, always applying
rigorous analysis. • Research methodology –
• Requires expertise • A theory and analysis of how research does or should proceed,
• Requires patience and unhurried activity Or
• Carefully recorded and reported • Discussions of how research is done, or should be done, and
• Sometimes requires courage the critical analysis of methods of research
• Emphasizes in the development of generalizations, principles  It involves the researchers assumptions
and theories.
• Strives to be objective and logical. Assumptions are those things that the researcher is taking for granted.

Lesson 3. Philosophy of Research Philosophy – cont’d …

2. Positivism and post positivism

Major philosophical issues about knowledge: • Positivism – believing that the goal of knowledge is simply to
1. Epistemological issues: describe the phenomena that we experience.
 Epistemology – studies the nature of knowledge and the process
by which knowledge is acquired and validated. Three tents of positivism:
 Methodology – concerned with how we come to know.  Scientific attention should be restricted to observable facts.
 The method of the physical sciences should also be applied
to the social sciences.
• The difference of the two is that the former involves the philosophy  Science is objective and value free.
of how we come to know and the later involves the practice of
knowing something.
E.g The area of a circle - Pie x square of the diameter –
Epistemological
To arrive at the area of a circle, the sum of the areas of piece
of rectangles inscribed in a circle.
Auguste Comte, 1798-1857
 Philosophy – cont’d …

Interpretivism and Phenomenology (Post – Positivism)

• Post–positivism – believing that scientific reasoning and common
sense reasoning are essentially the same process.

• Post-positivists believe that everyone of us construct our view of the

world based on our perception of it. It is hard to believe that
scientists in the same field would perfectly see the reality as it is.
• As a human being, scientists are inherently biased by their cultural
experiences, worldviews, etc.

• The difference between positivism and post-positivism is not in kind

but it is in terms of degree.

Edmund Husserl, 1859-1938

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The Positivist (Objectivist) and Phenomenological

(Intrepretivist) Paradigms Philosophy of Research

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 Group Discussion

• Group yourself into two

• Group 1 –
• Group 2 –
1. Raise a point of discussion on sources of knowledge
(unscientific/scientific – Tenacity, Authority, Priori and
Common Sense)
2. Raise a point of discussion on philosophical
perspectives (Positivism and Post Positivism)

• Discuss the two points to your fields of study and/or any

professional experience.

• Present the gist of discussions