Acid Base & Salts

HCl → H+ + Cl
Acid Contains Hydrogen ion which cannot exit independently so it combines
with water
H+ + H2O →H3O+
Similarly all acids produces Hydronium ions on Ionisation.
H2SO4 + 2H2O → 2H3O+ + SO42-
Bases produces hydroxyl ions on ionisation
NaOH →Na+ + OH-
(i)Reaction with active metals- form Hydrogen and Metal Salt
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
ii) Reaction with bases – Neutralisation
iii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates (hydrogen
carbonates)- form Salt , water and Carbon di oxide
iv) Reaction with sulphites and bisulphites- Forms salt , water and
Sulphur dioxide.v) Reaction with sulphides- Salt and Hydrogen sulphides
vi) Reaction with chlorides and nitrates- Only few (Ba, Pb) reacts
with dil HCl rest ( Na, K) reacts only with Conc HCl.
ELECTROLYSIS
1. Electrolysis of lead bromide

Dissociation of electrolyte
PbBr2 ↔ Pb2+ + 2Br
At cathode
Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb
At anode
Br- → Br + e-Br + Br → Br2
2. Electrolysis of acidulated
water
Dissociation of electrolyte
H2O ↔ H+ + OH-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
At cathode
H+ + e- → H ] × 4
2H + 2H → 2H2
At anode
OH- → OH + e- ] × 4
4OH → 2H2O + O2
: 3. Electrolysis of aqueous acidulated copper sulphate

solution using COPPER ELECTRODES

Dissociation of electrolyte
H2O- ↔ H+ + OH-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
CuSO4 ↔ Cu2+ + SO42-
At cathode
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
At anode
Cu – 2e- → Cu2+
4. Electrolysis of aqueous acidulated copper sulphate
solution using platinum anode and copper or platinum

cathode
Dissociation of electrolyte
H2O ↔ H+ + OH- H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
CuSO4 ↔ Cu2+ + SO42-
At cathode
Cu 2+ + 2e- → Cu
At anode
4 OH- - 4e- → 4OH
2OH + 2OH → 2H2O + O2
Electroplating - Silver Plating

Electrolyte dissociates as follows:

NaAg(CN)2 ↔ Na+ + Ag+ + 2CN
HCN ↔ H+ + CN-
H2O ↔ H+ + OH
At the cathode
Ag+ + e- → Ag
At the anode
Ag - e- → Ag+
Electro-refining

Electrolyte dissociates as
follows:
CuSO4 ↔ Cu2+ + SO42-
H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO42-
H2O ↔ H+ + OH
At the cathode (Thin Strip of Cu)
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
At the anode (Impure slab of copper)
Cu – e- → Cu2+
METALLURGY
Purification of bauxite ore (conversion of bauxite into
alumina)(Bayer's process)
Step I :- Bauxite is grinded finely and heated to remove
volatile impurities.
Step II :- Heated under pressure with conc. caustic soda
solution. Al₂O3.2H₂O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO₂ + 3H₂O.Bauxite
dissolves and forms sodium meta-aluminate. Red Mud is impurities
formed during the process is removed by
filteration.
Step III :- On adding water at 50C diluting sodium meta
aluminate, it gets hydrolysed to give aluminium hydroxide.
Soluble impurities remain dissolved in Sodium Hydroxide.
NaAlO2 +2H2O → NaOH + Al (OH)3↓
Step IV :- The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and
ignited at 1000°C to get alumina (Al₂O3).
2AI(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O
Aluminium oxide due to its great affinity for oxygen is a very
stable compound. It is not reduce easily by common
reducing agents like carbon, carbon monoxide or hydrogen.
Hence, electrolytic reduction was chosen as the method for
reducing alumina.
Hall discovered that aluminium can be extracted by adding
to Alumina(20%) cryolite-Sodium meta Aluminate(60%) and
Fluorspar-Calcium Floride(20%). This reduced cost of
Aluminium extraction.
Electrolytic reduction of fused alumina (Hall-Héroult's
process)

At the cathode

At the anode

Carbon get oxidized to form carbon di oxide.

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride GasNaCl + H 2 SO 4

→ NaHSO 4 + HCl↑
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O
AMMONIA
PREPARATION OF AMMONIA GAS

Aqueous Solution of Ammonia

Lab Preparation of Ammonia
1) From Ammonium Chloride

Amm. Salt + Alkali → Salt + H2O + NH3

:2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
2) From Metal Nitrides

Mg3N2 + 6H2O → 3Mg (OH)2 + 2NH3↑

or
AIN + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + NH3↑
Manufacture of Ammonia - Haber's Process
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 + Heat
This reaction is reversible, exothermic and proceeds with a
decrease in volume.
Catalyst Finely Divided Iron and promoter Molybdenum, Temp:
450 – 500 C and Atm Pressure = above 200 am
Chemical Properties of NH3:
1) Thermal Dissociation -
2NH3 ⇌ N2 + 3H2
3) Basic Properties -

NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4OH

3) Burning of ammonia in Oxygen -

4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O

4) Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia:
4NH3 + 5O2 → 6H
2O + 4NO ↑ + Heat
2NO + O2 → 2NO2 (Brown gas)
4) Ammonia as a reducing agent -
i) Reduction of Metallic Oxide by Ammonia
Reaction: 2NH3 + 3CuO (Black solid) → 3Cu (Reddish brown
solid) + 3H2O +N2↑
ii) Reduction of Chlorine to Hydrogen chloride-
(a) When ammonia is in excess8NH3 + 3Cl2 → N2 + 6NH4Cl
(b) When chlorine is in excess
NH3 + 3Cl2 → 3HCl + NCl3
6. Reaction with acids:
NH4Cl ⇌ NH3 + HCl
NH4NO3 ⇌ N2O + 2H2O
AQUEOUS SOLUTION OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is dissolved in water to form its aqueous solution
(ammonium hydroxide).
NH3 + H2O → NH4OH
Ammonium hydroxide reacts with acids to form salt and
water.
Test for Ammonia Gas:
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
NITRIC ACID
FORMATION OF NITRIC ACID IN NATURE
1) Nitrogen combines with O2 in atmosphere during lightning
discharge to form Nitric Oxide. N2 + O2 → 2NO (Nitric Oxide)
2) Nitric Oxide to further oxidised to Nitrogen dioxide.
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
3) Nitrogen dioxide dissolve in rain water with O2 and form
Nitric Acid.
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 4HNO3

LAB PREPF
NITRIC ACID
Reactions:
Nitre/Chile Saltpetre + Conc. H2SO4 → Pot./Sod. bisulphate +
HNO3
KNO3 + H2SO4 → KHSO4 + HNO3
NaNO3 + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HNO3
Chemical Properties:
Action on NON Metal:
C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO2 (Carbon oxidised to CO2)
S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2 (Sulphur oxidised to
H2SO4)
Action on Metals:
a) Cold and Dil Nitric Acid - oxides metals to nitrates and
nitric oxide
3Cu + Dil. 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3 )2+ 4H2O + 2NO.
Hot and Conc Nitric acid – liberates Nitrogen oxideCu + Conc.
4HNO3 → Cu(NO3 )2+ 2H2O + 2NO2
b) Very dilute Nitric Acid reacts with Magnesium and
Mangenese at room temp to give nitrates and Hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3 )2 + H2
Reaction with Aqua Regia : 1:3 Nitric acid and Hydrochloric
acid.
HNO3 + HCl → NOCl +2H2O + 2Cl
Ostwald Process (Only equations )
Step I:- Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia
Air and Ammonia in 10:1 by volume is compressed passed in
Catalytic chamber containing platinum as catalyst at 800 C.
4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O + Heat
Step II:- Oxidation of Nitric Oxide in oxidation of chamber
Nitric oxide combines with O2 at 50 C to form Nitrogen oxide.
2NO(g) + O2(g) →2NO2(g)
Step III:- Absorption of nitrogen dioxide in water- The nitric
acid is collected at the bottom at 50% concentration which is
distilled to form 68% concentration.
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3 (aq.)
SULPHURIC ACID
PREPARATION OF SULPHURIC ACID
(1) By oxidation of an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide
with oxygen, chlorine or bromine.
SO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 2H2SO4
SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2 → H2SO4 +2HCl
SO2 + 2H2O + Br2 → H2SO4 + 2HBr
The colour of Cl2 and Br2 fades.
(2) Sulphur with conc. nitric acid

S + 6HNO3 → H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID (CONTACT

PROCESS)
The various steps in the Contact process are as follows:
Production of sulphur dioxide: Sulphur dioxide is produced
by roasting metallic sulphides in air
4FeS2 (Iron pyrites) + 11 O2→ 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2.OR
by burning Louisiana sulphur (99.5% pure) in purified air.
S+O → SO2
Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide. The clean dried
gaseous mixture of sulphur dioxide and air is passed
through tower loosely packed with vanadium pentoxide or
platinum on perforated shelves. The catalyst is placed in
vertical iron pipes inside a cylindrical iron tower called the
converter. Here, the preheated mixture of sulphur dioxide
and air (oxygen) on passing through catalyst pipes forms
sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 + ∆
Since the reaction is highly exothermic, the catalyst is
heated only in the beginning to about 450°C.This
temperature is maintained by the heat evolved during the
reaction.
Absorption of sulphur trioxide in sulphuric acid. The gas is
cooled in a heat exchanger and is then absorbed in
absorption tower in concentrated sulphuric acid (98%).
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (oleum or pyrosulphuric acid)
Dilution of oleum to obtain sulphuric acid. It is diluted in
dilution tank by adding calculated amount of water to obtain
sulphuric acid of the desired strength.H2S2O7+ H2O → 2H2SO4
Properties of concentrated sulphuric acid
As an oxidising agent
The oxidising property of concentrated sulphuric acid is due
to the fact that on thermal decomposition, it yields nascent
oxygen [O].
H2SO4 → H2O + SO2 + [O]
Nascent oxygen oxidises non-metals, metals and inorganic
compounds.
C + 2H2SO4 → CO2 + 2H2O + 2SO2↑.
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + 2SO2↑
As a dehydrating agent
H2SO4 has a great affinity for water. It readily removes
elements of water from other compounds i.e., it acts as a
dehydrating agent.
(a) Conc. sulphuric acid removes water of crystallisation
from salts.
(b) All carbohydrates such as glucose, sugar, and cellulose
(paper, cotton, wood, etc.) react immediately to give a black
spongy mass of carbon which rises up.
(c) Organic acids and organic compounds are dehydrated by
conc. H2SO4C12H22O11 (Cane Sugar) → 12 C (Sugar Charcoal) + 11H2O
CuSO4 (Blue) .5H2O → CuSO4 (White) + 5H2O
Preparation of insoluble sulphates
Sulphuric acid precipitates the insoluble sulphates of lead,
barium and calcium from the solutions of their salts.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4+ 2HCI
TESTS FOR SULPHURIC ACID AND SULPHATES
(1) When barium chloride solution is added to psulphuric
acid or any soluble metal sulphate, white precipitate of
barium sulphate is formed. BaCl2 + H2SO4 -----BaSO4+ 2HCI
The white precipitate of barium sulphate is insoluble in any
mineral acid like hydrochloric acid or nitric acid.
(2) Conc. sulphuric acid on heating with copper evolves
sulphur dioxide.
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO₂ ↑ (Conc.)
Sulphur dioxide turns acidified potassium dichromate
solution green (Reducing property of SO2).(3) Conc. sulphuric acid on
heating with NaCl evolves
pungent fumes of HCl gas.
NaCl + H2SO4 (Conc.) → NaHSO4 + HCl ↑(White Fumes)
HCI gas gives dense white fumes of ammonium chloride,
with a glass rod dipped in ammonium hydroxide.
HCI + NH4OH ⇌ NH4CI+ H2O (dense white fumes)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ratory preparation ofe:

CH3COONa + NaOH → Na2CO3 + CH4↑

M

ETHODS OF PREPARATION OF ETHANE AND ETHANE

I. Iodomethane (methyl iodide) and bromoethane (ethyl
bromide) are reduced by nascent hydrogen at ordinary room
temperature.
CH3I + 2[H] → CH4 + HI
C2H5Br + 2[H] → C2H6 + HBr
Nascent hydrogen is produced by the action of Zn powder
and dil. HCl.II. When water is added at room temperature to
aluminium carbide, methane is prepared.
Al4C3 + 12H2O → 3CH4 + 4Al(OH)3
III. Ethane from alkyl halides:
When methyl iodide or methyl bromide is warmed with
sodium metal in the presence of dry ether, ethane is
produced.
2CH3I + 2Na → H3C - CH3 + 2NaI
This reaction is referred to as Wurtz reaction.
Chemical Properties:
1. Combustion:
Complete Combustion:
Methane and ethane burn in air with a bluish non sooty
flame to form carbon dioxide and water vapour.

2. Substitution Reaction:
Reaction with Halogens: Alkanes react with chlorine, bromine or
iodine in the
presence of sunlight or ultraviolet light to give halogen
substituted products that are known as alkyl halides.
Methane reacts with chlorine in diffused sunlight, or when
heated to 600 K, to give chloromethane.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
In this reaction, CH3Cl is formed by the substitution of
hydrogen atom of a methane molecule, by a chlorine atom.
CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
3. Catalytic oxidation of alkanes
On controlled oxidation or catalytic oxidation, alkanes give
alcohols or aldehydes or carboxylic acids, depending upon
the reaction conditions.
(i) When a mixture of methane and oxygen in the ratio 9:1 by
volume is compressed to about 120 atm pressure and
passed over copper tubes at 475 K, methyl alcohol is formed.
2CH4 + O2 → 2CH3OH
(ii) When a mixture of methane and oxygen is passed
through heated molybdenum oxide (MoO), the mixture is
oxidised to Methanal (formaldehyde).
CH4 + O2 → HCHO + H2O
(iii) When a manganese-based catalyst is used at 100°C,
methane can be oxidised to methanoic acid (formic acid).
2CH4 + 3O2 → 2HCOOH + 2H2O
Similarly, ethane oxidises to either ethyl alcohol or ethanal
(acetaldehyde) or ethanoic acid (acetic acid).
Pre

paration of ethene (ethylene)

(i) Dehydration of ethyl alcohol
(ii) Dehydro halogenation:
Chemical Properties:
1. Additional Reactions:
(i) Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation): When ethene and
hydrogen are passed over finely divided catalysts such as
platinum or palladium at ordinary temperature or nickel at 200
degrees C, the two atoms of hydrogen molecule are added to the
unsaturated molecule, which thus becomes a saturated
one.
C2H4 + H2 → C2H6

(iit ion of
Reaction with fluorine is explosive, hence the compound formed is
not stable.
 (iii) Addition of W A
water molecule gets added to alkenes in the presence of acids (e.g.,
sulphuric acid) to form alcohols.
C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
Polymerization:
When two or more molecules of the same compound
associate to form a bigger molecule, the reaction is called
polymerisation.
Oxidation:
Ethene is oxidised with alkaline KMnO4 at room temperature.

Laboratory preparation of

CaC2 +
2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 (Acetylene)
Chemical Properties:
Addition Reactions: The breaking up of a triple bond gives a
product that is still unsaturated (double bond). Further
breaking up of the double bond gives a saturated product.
(i) Addition of hydrogen (catalytic hydrogenation):
First stage of reaction: C2 H2 + H2 → C2H4 ( Ethene)
Second stage of reaction: C2H4 + H2 → C2H6 (Ethane)
(ii) Addition of Halogens:
C2H2 + Cl2 → 2C + 2HCl

Chemical Bonding
Redox Reaction:
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
2Na →2Na+ + 2e- (Oxidation)
Cl2 + 2e- →2Cl- (Reduction)