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INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS
Metallic lead and several inorganic and organic lead compounds have been considered
by previous working groups convened by IARC (IARC, 1972, 1973, 1976, 1980, 1987).
New data have since become available, and these are included in the present monograph
and have been taken into consideration in the evaluation. The agents considered in this
monograph are some inorganic and organic lead compounds.
1. Exposure Data
1.1 Chemical and physical data

1.1.1 Nomenclature, synonyms, trade names, molecular formulae, chemical and
physical properties
Synonyms, trade names and molecular formulae for lead and some inorganic and
organic lead compounds are presented in Table 1. The lead compounds shown are those for
which data on carcinogenicity or mutagenicity are available or which are commercially
most important. The list is not exhaustive.
Selected chemical and physical properties of the lead compounds listed in Table 1 are
presented in Table 2.
Lead (atomic number, 82; relative atomic mass, 207.2) has a valence +2 or +4. The
alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated it with the planet Saturn.
Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright lustre, is very soft, highly malleable, ductile and a
poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia
of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service (Lide, 2003). Natural
lead is a mixture of four stable isotopes: 204Pb (1.4%), 206Pb (25.2%), 207Pb (21.7%) and
208Pb (51.7%) (O’Neil, 2003). Lead isotopes are the end-products of each of the three series
of naturally occurring radioactive elements: 206Pb for the uranium series, 207Pb for the acti-
nium series and 208Pb for the thorium series. Forty-three other isotopes of lead, all of which
are radioactive, are recognized (Lide, 2003).
–39–
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Table 1. Synonyms and trade names, registry numbers, molecular formulae, and molecular weights for lead and lead
compounds
Chemical name Synonyms and trade names (Chemical Abstracts Service name in italics) CAS registry Molecular formula Molecular
09/08/2006
numbera weightb
Calcium plumbate Pigment Brown 10 12013-69-3 Ca2PbO4 [351.4]

c
Lead, lead powder C.I. 77575; C.I. Pigment Metal 4; Lead element; Lead Flake; Lead S 2; 7439-92-1 Pb 207.2c
11:04
Pb-S 100; SSO 1
IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

Lead acetate Acetic acid, lead(2+) salt; acetic acid lead salt (2:1); dibasic lead 301-04-2 Pb(C2H3O2)2 325.3
acetate; lead bis(acetate); lead diacetate; lead dibasic acetate; lead(2+)
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acetate; lead(II) acetate; neutral lead acetate; normal lead acetate;
plumbous acetate; salt of Saturn; sugar of lead
Lead acetate Acetic acid, lead(2+) salt, trihydrate; lead diacetate trihydrate; lead(II) 6080-56-4 Pb(C2H3O2)2·3H2O 379.3
trihydrate acetate trihydrate; plumbous acetate trihydrate; sugar of lead
Lead arsenate Arsenic acid (H3AsO4), lead(2+) salt (2:3); lead(2+) orthoarsenate 3687-31-8 Pb3(AsO4)2 899.4
(Pb3(AsO4)2); Nu Rexform; trilead diarsenate
Lead azide Lead azide (Pb(N3)2); lead azide (PbN6); lead diazide; lead(2+) azide; 13424-46-9 Pb(N3)2 291.2
RD 1333 [85941-57-7]
Lead bromide Lead bromide (PbBr2); lead dibromide 10031-22-8 PbBr2 367.0
Lead carbonate Carbonic acid, lead(2+) salt (1:1); lead carbonate (PbCO3); basic lead 598-63-0 PbCO3 267.2
carbonate; dibasic lead carbonate; lead(2+) carbonate; plumbous
carbonate; cerussite; white lead
Lead chloride Lead chloride (PbCl2); lead dichloride; lead(2+) chloride; lead(II) 7758-95-4 PbCl2 278.1
chloride; plumbous chloride; natural cotunite
Lead chromate Chromic acid (H2CrO4), lead(2+) salt (1:1); lead chromate(VI); lead 7758-97-6 PbCrO4 323.2
chromate (PbCrO4); lead chromium oxide (PbCrO4); plumbous [8049-64-7]
chromate; Royal Yellow 6000; chrome yellow
Lead fluoride Lead fluoride (PbF2); lead difluoride; lead difluoride (PbF2); lead(2+) 7783-46-2 PbF2 245.2
fluoride; plumbous fluoride [106496-44-0]
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Table 1 (contd)
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numbera weightb
Lead fluoroborate Borate(1-), tetrafluoro-, lead(2+) salt (2:1); borate(1-), tetrafluoro-, 13814-96-5 Pb(BF4)2 380.8
lead(2+); lead fluoborate; lead tetrafluoroborate; lead boron fluoride; [35254-34-3]
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lead fluoroborate (Pb(BF4)2); lead(II) tetrafluoroborate
Lead hydrogen Arsenic acid (H3AsO4), lead(2+) salt (1:1); lead arsenate (PbHAsO4); 7784-40-9 PbHAsO4 347.1
arsenate acid lead arsenate; arsenic acid lead salt; lead acid arsenate; lead [14034-76-5;
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arsenate; lead hydrogen arsenate (PbHAsO4); lead(2+) monohydrogen 37196-28-4]
arsenate
Lead iodide Lead iodide (PbI2); C.I. 77613; lead diiodide; lead(II) iodide; plumbous 10101-63-0 PbI2 461.0
iodide [82669-93-0]
Lead naphthenate Naphthenic acids, lead salts; lead naphthenates; naphthenic acid, lead 61790-14-5 Unspecified
salt; Naphthex Pb; Trokyd Lead
Lead nitrate Nitric acid, lead(2+) salt; lead dinitrate; lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2); 10099-74-8 Pb(NO3)2 331.2
lead(2+) bis(nitrate); lead(2+) nitrate; lead(II) nitrate; plumbous nitrate [18256-98-9]
Lead dioxide Lead oxide (PbO2); C.I. 77580; lead brown; lead oxide brown; lead 1309-60-0 PbO2 239.2
peroxide; lead superoxide; lead(IV) oxide; plumbic oxide; Thiolead A [60525-54-4]
Lead monoxide Lead oxide (PbO); C.I. 77577; C.I. Pigment Yellow 46; lead 1317-36-8 PbO 223.2
monooxide; lead oxide yellow; lead protoxide; lead(2+) oxide; lead(II) [1309-59-7;
oxide; litharge; Litharge S; Litharge Yellow L-28; plumbous oxide; 12359-23-8]
yellow lead ochre
Lead trioxide Lead trioxide (Pb2O3); C.I. 77579; lead sesquioxide; lead sesquioxide 1314-27-8 Pb2O3 462.4
(Pb2O3); plumbous plumbate
Lead phosphate Phosphoric acid, lead(2+) salt (2:3); lead phosphate (Pb3P2O8); C.I. 7446-27-7 Pb3(PO4)2 811.5
77622; C.I. Pigment White 30; lead diphosphate; lead orthophosphate;
lead phosphate (3:2); lead(2+) phosphate (Pb3(PO4)2); lead(II) phosphate
(3:2); Perlex Paste 500; Perlex Paste 600A; Trilead phosphate; lead
phosphate dibasic
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Table 1 (contd)
09/08/2006
numbera weightb
Lead phosphite, Dibasic lead phosphite; lead dibasic phosphite; dibasic lead 1344-40-7 2PbO·PbHPO3·1/2H2O [743]
dibasic metaphosphate; C.I. 77620; lead oxide phosphonate, hemihydrate
Lead molybdate Lead molybdate(VI); lead molybdate oxide (PbMoO4) 10190-55-3 PbMoO4 367.1
11:04
Lead stearate Octadecanoic acid, lead(2+) salt; 5002G; lead distearate; lead(2+) 1072-35-1 Pb(C18H35O2)2 774.1

octadecanoate; lead(2+) stearate; lead(II) octadecanoate; lead(II) [11097-78-2;
stearate; Listab 28ND; Pbst; SL 1000 (stabilizer); SLG; Stabinex NC18; 37223-82-8]
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stearic acid, lead(2+) salt
Lead stearate, Dibasic lead stearate; Listab 51; lead, bis(octadecanoato)dioxodi-; 56189-09-4 2PbO·Pb(C17H35COO)2 1220
dibasic stearic acid, lead salt, dibasic
Lead styphnate 1,3-Benzenediol, 2,4,6-trinitro-, lead(2+) salt (1:1); 2,4-dioxa-3- 15245-44-0 Pb(C6H3N3O8) [452.3]
plumbabicyclo[3.3.1]nona-1(9),5,7-triene, 3,3-didehydro-6,8,9-trinitro-; [4219-19-6;
lead, [styphnato(2-)]-; lead tricinate; lead trinitroresorcinate; Tricinat; 6594-85-0;
2,4,6-trinitroresorcinol, lead(2+) salt (1:1) 59286-40-7;
63918-97-8]
Lead subacetate Lead, bis(acetato-êO)tetrahydroxytri-; lead acetate (Pb3(AcO)2(OH)4); 1335-32-6 Pb(CH3COO)2·2Pb(OH)2 807.7
lead, bis(acetato)-tetrahydroxytri-; lead, bis(acetato-O)tetra-hydroxytri-;
bis(acetato)dihydroxytrilead; lead acetate hydroxide (Pb3(OAc)2(OH)4);
lead acetate, basic; monobasic lead acetate
Lead sulfate Sulfuric acid, lead(2+) salt (1:1); Anglislite; C.I. 77630; C.I. Pigment 7446-14-2 PbSO4 303.3
White 3; Fast White; Freemans White Lead; HB 2000; Lead Bottoms; [37251-28-8]
lead monosulfate; lead(II) sulfate (1:1); lead(2+) sulfate; lead(II) sulfate;
Milk White; Mulhouse White; TS 100; TS 100 (sulfate); TS-E;
sublimed white lead
Lead sulfide Lead sulfide (PbS); C.I. 77640; lead monosulfide; lead sulfide (1:1); 1314-87-0 PbS 239.3
lead(2+) sulfide; lead(II) sulfide; natural lead sulfide; P 128; P 37; [51682-73-6]
plumbous sulfide
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Table 1 (contd)
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numbera weightb
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Lead tetraoxide Lead oxide (Pb3O4); Azarcon; C.I. 77578; C.I. Pigment Red 105; Entan; 1314-41-6 Pb3O4 685.6
Gold Satinobre; Heuconin 5; lead orthoplumbate; lead oxide (3:4); lead [12684-34-3]
oxide red; lead tetroxide; Mennige; Mineral Orange; Mineral red;
Minium; Minium Non-Setting RL 95; Minium red; Orange Lead; Paris
Red; red lead; red lead oxide; Sandix; Saturn Red; trilead tetraoxide;
trilead tetroxide; plumboplumbic oxide
Lead thiocyanate Thiocyanic acid, lead(2+) salt; lead bis(thiocyanate); lead dithiocyanate; 592-87-0 Pb(SCN)2 323.4
lead(2+) thiocyanate; lead(II) thiocyanate [10382-36-2]
Tetraethyl lead Plumbane, tetraethyl-; lead, tetraethyl-; TEL; tetraethyllead; 78-00-2 Pb(C2H5)4 323.5
tetraethylplumbane
Tetramethyl lead Plumbane, tetramethyl-; lead, tetramethyl-; tetramethyllead; 75-74-1 Pb(CH3)4 267.3
tetramethylplumbane; TML
From IARC (1980); Lide (2003); National Library of Medicine (2003); O’Neil (2003); STN International (2003)
a
Deleted Chemical Abstracts Service numbers shown in square brackets
b
Values in square brackets were calculated from the molecular formula.
c
Atomic formula; atomic weight
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Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of lead and lead compounds
09/08/2006
Chemical name Physical form Melting-point (°C) Boiling-point Density Solubility (per 100 g H2O)
(°C) (g/cm3)
Lead, lead powder Soft silvery-gray metal; cubic 327.5 1749 11.3 Insol. in water; sol. in conc. acid
Lead acetate White crystal 280 Dec. 3.25 44.3 g at 20 °C; sl. sol. in
ethanol
11:04
Lead acetate trihydrate Colourless crystal 75 (dec) – 2.55 45.6 g at 15 °C; sl. sol. in

ethanol
Lead arsenate White crystal 1042 (dec) – 5.8 Insol. in water; sol. in nitric acid
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Lead azide Colourless orthorhombic needle ~350 (expl) – 4.7 23 mg at 18 °C; v. sol. in acetic
acid
Lead bromide White orthorhombic crystal 371 892 6.69 975 mg at 25 °C; insol. in
ethanol
Lead carbonate Colourless orthorhombic crystal ~315 (dec) – 6.6 Insol. in water; sol. in acid and
alkaline solutions
Lead chloride White orthorhombic needle or 501 951 5.98 1.08 g at 25 °C; sol. in alkaline
powder solutions; insol. in ethanol
Lead chromate Yellow-orange monoclinic 844 – 6.12 17 µg at 20 °C; sol. in dilute
crystals acids
Lead fluoride White orthorhombic crystal 830 1293 8.44 67 mg at 25 °C
Lead fluoroborate Stable only in aqueous solution – – – Sol. in water
Lead hydrogen arsenate White monoclinic crystal 280 (dec) 5.94 Insol. in water; sol. in nitric acid
and alkaline solutions
Lead iodide Yellow hexagonal crystal or 410 872 (dec) 6.16 76 mg at 25 °C; insol. in ethanol
powder
Lead molybdate Yellow tertiary crystal ∼1060 – 6.7 Insol. in water; sol. in nitric acid
and sodium hydroxide
Lead naphthenate No data available
Lead nitrate Colourless cubic crystal 470 – 4.53 59.7 g at 25 °C; sl. sol. in
ethanol
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Table 2 (contd)
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Chemical name Physical form Melting-point (°C) Boiling-point Density Solubility (per 100 g H2O)
(°C) (g/cm3)
Lead monoxide (PbO); Red tetrahedral crystal Transforms to – 9.35 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.

litharge massicot at 489 °C in dilute nitric acid
11:04
Massicot Yellow orthorhombic crystal 897 – 9.64 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.
in dilute nitric acid
Lead trioxide (Pb2O3) Black monoclinic crystal or red 530 (dec) – 10.05 Insol. in water; sol. in alkaline
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amorphous powder solutions
Lead phosphate White hexagonal crystal 1014 – 7.01 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.
in alkali and nitric acid
Lead phosphite, dibasic Pale yellow powder 6.1
Lead stearate White powder ~100 – 1.4 Insol. in water; sol. in hot
ethanol
Lead styphnate No data available
Lead subacetate White powder Dec. – – 6.3 g at 0 °C; 25 g at 100 °C
Lead sulfate Orthorhombic crystal 1087 – 6.29 4.4 mg at 25 °C; sl. sol. in
alkaline solutions; insol. in acids
Lead sulfide Black powder or silvery cubic 1113 – 7.60 Insol. in water; sol. in acids
crystal
Lead tetraoxide Red tetrahedral crystals 830 – 8.92 Insol. in water and ethanol; sol.
in hot hydrochloric acid
Lead thiocyanate White to yellowish powder – – 3.82 50 mg at 20 °C
Tetraethyl lead Liquid –136 200 (dec) 1.653 at Insol. in water; sol. in benzene;
20 °C sl. sol. in ethanol and diethyl
ether
Tetramethyl lead Liquid –30.2 110 1.995 at Insol. in water; sol. in benzene,
20 °C ethanol and diethyl ether
From IARC (1980); Lide (2003); Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory (2004)
Abbreviations: conc., concentrated; insol., insoluble; sl. sol., slightly soluble; sol., soluble; v. sol., very soluble; dec, decomposes; expl., explodes
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46 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87
1.1.2 Technical products and impurities

Lead is produced in purity greater than 99.97% in many countries. Lead oxides and
mixtures of lead and lead oxides are also widely available. Tables 3 and 4 show the
specifications for metallic lead and some lead compounds, respectively, from selected
countries.
Table 3. Specifications for metallic lead from selected countries
Country % Pb (min.) Contaminants with limits (% max.a) Reference
Argentina 99.97 Fe, 0.002; Sb, 0.004; Zn, 0.001; Cu, 0.002; Industrias Deriplom
Ag, 0.0095; Bi, 0.035; Cd, 0.001; Ni, 0.001 SA (2003)
Australia 99.97–99.99 Ag, 0.001; As, 0.001; Bi, 0.005–0.029; Cu, Pasminco Metals
0.001; Sb, 0.001; Zn, 0.001; Cd, 0.001 (1998)
Belgium 99.9–99.95 (ppm) Bi, 90–250; Ag, 10–15; Cu, 5–10; Umicore Precious
As, 5; Sb, 3; Sn, 3; As+Sb+Sn, 8; Zn, 3–5; Metals (2002)
Fe, 3; Cd, 3–10; Ni, 2–3
Bulgaria 99.97–99.99 Ag, 0.001–0.005; Cu, 0.0005–0.003; Zn, KCM SA (2003)
0.0002–0.0015; Fe, 0.001; Cd, 0.0002–
0.001; Ni, 0.0005–0.001; As, 0.0005–0.002;
Sb, 0.0005–0.005; Sn, 0.0005–0.001; Bi,
0.005–0.03
Canada 99.97–99.99 NR Noranda (2003);
Teck Cominco
(2003)
Kazakhstan 99.95–99.9996 NR Southpolymetal
(2003)
Mexico 99.97–99.99 Ag, 0.0015; Cu, 0.0005; Zn, 0.0005; Fe, Penoles (2003)
0.0010; Bi, 0.0250; Sb, 0.0005; As, 0.0005;
Sn, 0.0005; Ni, 0.0002; Te, 0.0001
Republic 99.995 Ag, 0.0003; Cu, 0.0003; As, 0.0003; Sb, Korea Zinc Co.
of Korea 0.0003; Zn, 0.0003; Fe, 0.0003; Bi, 0.0015; (2003)
Sn, 0.0003
USA 99.995– (ppm) Sb, 1; As, 1–5; Bi, 0.2–4; Cu, 1–4; ESPI Corp. (2002)
99.9999 Ag, < 0.1–2; Tl, 1–2; Sn, 0.3–1; Fe, < 0.1–
0.3; Ca, 0.1–0.4; Mg, 0.1–0.3
NR, not reported

a
Unless otherwise specified
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Table 4. Specifications for some lead compounds from selected countries
Country Compound Contaminants with limits (% max.) Gradea Reference

Argentina Lead oxide Fe, 0.003; Sb, 0.001–0.004; Zn, 0.0005– 5 grades of red lead (Pb3O4 + PbO2 + PbO); Industrias
11:04
0.001; Cu, 0.0005–0.002; Ag, 0.001–0.0095; 3 grades of yellow litharge (PbO, 99.65– Deriplom SA
Bi, 0.003–0.035; Cd, 0.0008–0.001; Ni, 99.96%; free Pb, 0.03–0.30%; Pb3O4, (2003)
0.0008–0.001 0.0048–0.05%); 1 grade of green powder
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(PbO + Pb, 80%+20% or 62%+38%)
Australia Lead oxide Bi, 0.05–0.06; Ag, 0.001; Cu, 0.001; Sn, VRLA-refinedTM and MF-refinedTM Pasminco
0.0005–0.001; Sb, 0.0001–0.0002; As, Metals (2000)
0.0001; Se, 0.0001; S, 0.0007; Cd, 0.0005;
Ni, 0.0002–0.0003; Zn, 0.0005; Fe, 0.0002–
0.0005; Mn, 0.0003–0.0005; Te, 0.00003–
0.0001; Co, 0.0001–0.0002; Cr, 0.0002;
Ba, 0.0005; V, 0.0004; Mo, 0.0003–0.0005
USA Lead acetate NR 5N ESPI Corp.
Lead bromide 3N and 5N (2002)
Lead chloride 3N and 5N
Lead fluoride 3N
Lead iodide 3N and 5N
Lead molybdate 3N
Lead monoxide 3N and 5N
Lead tetraoxide 3N
Lead sulfide 3N and 5N
VRLA, valve-regulated lead acid; MF, maintenance-free; NR, not reported

a
3N, 99.9%; 5N, 99.999%
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1.2 Production
Commercial lead metal is described as being either primary or secondary. Primary
lead is produced directly from mined lead ore. Secondary lead is produced from scrap lead
products which have been recycled.
1.2.1 The ores and their preparation

The most important lead ore is galena (lead sulfide). Other important ores such as
cerussite (lead carbonate) and anglesite (lead sulfate) may be regarded as weathered
products of galena and are usually found nearer to the surface of the earth’s crust. Lead
and zinc ores often occur together and, in most extraction methods, have to be separated.
The most common separation technique is selective froth flotation. The ore is first
processed to a fine suspension in water by grinding in ball or rod mills — preferably to a
particle size of < 0.25 mm. Air is then bubbled through this pulp contained in a cell or tank
and, following the addition of various chemicals and proper agitation, the required
mineral particles become attached to the air bubbles and are carried to the surface to form
a stable mineral-containing froth which is skimmed off. The unwanted or gangue particles
are unaffected and remain in the pulp. For example, with lead–zinc sulfide ores, zinc
sulfate, sodium cyanide or sodium sulfite can be used to depress the zinc sulfide, while
the lead sulfide is floated off to form a concentrate. The zinc sulfide is then activated by
copper sulfate and floated off as a second concentrate (Lead Development Association
International, 2003a).
Around 3 million tonnes of lead are mined in the world each year. Lead is found all
over the world but the countries with the largest mines are Australia, China and the United
States of America, which together account for more than 50% of primary production. The
most common lead ore is galena (lead sulfide). Other elements frequently associated with
lead include zinc and silver. In fact, lead ores constitute the main sources of silver, contri-
buting substantially towards the world’s total silver output (Lead Development
Association International, 2003b). Table 5 shows mine production of lead concentrate by
country in the year 2000. Table 6 shows the trends in lead mine production by geographic
region from 1960 to 2003.
1.2.2 Smelting
(a) Two-stage processes
The first stage in smelting consists of removing most of the sulfur from the lead con-
centrate. This is achieved by a continuous roasting process (sintering) in which the lead
sulfide is largely converted to lead oxide and broken down to a size convenient for use in
a blast furnace — the next stage in the process. The sinter plant gases containing sulfur
are converted to sulfuric acid (Lead Development Association International, 2003a).
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INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 49
Table 5. Mine production of lead concentrate in 2000a
Country Production Country Production

(tonnes) (tonnes)
Algeria 818 Mexico 137 975

Argentina 14 115 Morocco 81 208c
Australia 739 000 Myanmar 1 200b
Bolivia 9 523 Namibia 11 114c
Bosnia and Herzegovina 200b Peru 270 576
Brazil 8 832 Poland 51 200c
Bulgaria 10 500 Republic of Korea 2 724
Canada 152 765 Romania 18 750c
Chile 785c Russian Federation 13 300
China 660 000b Serbia and Montenegro 9 000
Colombia 226 South Africa 75 262
Democratic People’s 60 000b,c Spain 40 300
Republic of Korea Sweden 106 584c
Ecuador 200b Tajikistan 800b
Georgia 200b Thailand 15 600
Greece 18 235b The former Yugoslav 25 000b
Honduras 4 805 Republic of Macedonia
India 28 900 Tunisia 6 602
Iran 15 000b Turkey 17 270
Ireland 57 825 United Kingdom 1 000b
Italy 2 000 USA 465 000
Japan 8 835 Viet Nam 1 000b
Kazakhstan 40 000 World totald 3 180 000c
From Smith (2002)

In addition to the countries listed, lead is also produced in Nigeria, but information is
inadequate to estimate output.
a
Data available at 1 July 2003
b
Estimated
c
Revised
d
Data from the USA and estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant
digits, so that values may not add to total shown.
The graded sinter (lead oxide) is mixed with coke and flux, such as limestone, and fed
into the top of the blast furnace, where it is smelted using an air blast (sometimes pre-
heated) introduced near the bottom. The chemical processes that take place in the furnace
at about 1200 °C result in the production of lead bullion (lead containing only metallic
impurities) which is tapped off from the bottom of the furnace and either cast into ingots
or collected molten in ladles for transfer to the refining process. In the Imperial Smelting
Furnace process, a very similar procedure is used for the simultaneous production of zinc
and lead.
These traditional two-stage processes largely favour the release of hazardous dusts and
fumes. They necessitate the use of extensive exhaust ventilation and result in large volumes
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Table 6. Trends in lead mine production worldwide
Year Production (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona
Ab B C Db E Fb Total
1960 370 207 822 84 306 583 2372

1965 366 250 984 99 361 724 2784
1970 476 210 1341 120 441 855 3443
1975 435 165 1340 140 395 1085 3560
1980 482 278 1298 112 382 1030 3582
1985 412 261 1197 155 474 1076 3575
1990 727 175 1184 545 556 NRS 3187
1995 382 186 1047 715 424 NRS 2753
2000 360 178 1053 805 650 NRS 3046
2003 218 123 1043 770 666 NRS 2821
From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990, 2004)

NRS, not reported separately
a
Data from following countries:
A, Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany before
reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom and
former Yugoslavia
B, Algeria, Congo, Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Tunisia and Zambia
C, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Peru and USA
D, Myanmar, India, Iran, Japan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Thailand and Turkey
E, Australia
F, Bulgaria, China, former Czechoslovakia, Hungary, People’s Democratic Republic of Korea,
Poland, Romania and the former Soviet Union; values for the latter four countries are estimates.
b
From 1990 onwards, data from region F are included in region A (for Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech
Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federation,
Slovakia and Ukraine) or region D (for all former Soviet Republics, China and People’s Demo-
cratic Republic of Korea); lead mine production for 1991 in the former Soviet Union is split as
follows: Europe, 19%; Asia, 81%.
of lead-laden exhaust gases which are usually cleaned before they are discharged into the
atmosphere. The collected dusts are returned to the smelting process (Lead Development
Association International, 2003a).
(b) Direct smelting processes

The environmental problems and inefficient use of energy associated with the sinter/
blast furnace and Imperial Smelting Furnace processes have led to a considerable amount
of research into more economical and less polluting methods for the production of lead.
Most of this research has been aimed at devising processes in which lead is converted
directly from the sulfide to the metal without producing lead oxide. As a result, a number
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of direct smelting processes now exist, although at varying stages of development (Lead
Development Association International, 2003a).
Direct smelting processes offer several significant advantages over conventional
methods. The first and most obvious advantage is that sintering is no longer necessary. As
a result, the creation of dust, a major occupational and environmental problem, is avoided.
Moreover, the heat evolved during sintering (for the oxidation of the ore) is no longer
wasted but is used in the smelting operation, thus providing a considerable saving of fuel.
The volumes of gas that require filtering are largely reduced and, at the same time, the
sulfur dioxide concentration of the off-gases is greater and these are therefore more
suitable for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. The major difficulty in all direct smelting
processes lies in obtaining both a lead bullion with an acceptably low sulfur content and
a slag with a sufficiently low lead content for it to be safely and economically discarded.
In several cases, further treatment of the crude bullion or the slag or both is required in a
separate operation. There are several direct smelting processes which come close to
meeting the desired criteria — the Russian Kivcet, the QSL (Queneau–Schuhmann–
Lurgi), the Isasmelt and the Outokumpu processes are examples. The use of these newer
processes will probably increase.
At present, the relative importance of the different smelting methods in terms of
amounts of metal produced is as follows: conventional blast furnace, 80%; Imperial
Smelting Furnace process, 10%; and direct processes, 10% (Lead Development Asso-
ciation International, 2003a).
1.2.3 Hydrometallurgical processes

With the prospect of even tighter environmental controls, the possibilities of utilizing
hydrometallurgical techniques for the treatment of primary and secondary sources of lead
are being investigated. Several processes have been described in the literature, but most
are still in the developmental stage and probably not yet economically viable in compa-
rison with the pyrometallurgical (smelting) processes. The goal of the hydrometallurgical
processes in most cases is to fix the sulfur as a harmless sulfate and to put the lead into a
solution suitable for electrolytic recovery. Most of these processes recirculate leach
solutions and produce lead of high purity. For example, the Ledchlor process can be used
on primary materials; other methods such as Rameshni SO2 Reduction (RSR) and the
processes developed by Engitec (CX-EW) and Ginatta (Maja et al., 1989) are more
concerned with recovery of lead from secondary sources, in particular from battery scrap
(Lead Development Association International, 2003a).
1.2.4 Primary lead refining

Apart from gold and silver, lead bullion contains many other metallic impurities
including antimony, arsenic, copper, tin and zinc. Copper is the first of the impurities to
be removed. The lead bullion is melted at about 300–600 °C and held just above its
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melting-point when solid copper rises to the surface and is skimmed off. Sulfur is stirred
into the melt to facilitate the operation by producing a dry powdery dross which is more
readily removed. Once copper has been removed, there are a number of processes
available for the extraction of the other impurities from the bullion. These include pyro-
metallurgical techniques, in which elements are removed one or more at a time in several
stages, and electrolytic processes that remove most of the impurities in one operation.
Although electrolytic methods are used in large-scale production, pyrometallurgical
techniques account for the larger portion of the world’s refined lead production (Lead
Development Association International, 2003c). Table 7 shows the trends in production of
refined lead by geographic region from 1960 to 2003.
Table 7. Trends in refined lead production worldwide
Year Production (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona
1960 950 70 1114 164 211 718 3227

1965 1046 124 1296 202 223 823 3714
1970 1412 147 1619 301 217 992 4688
1975 1354 124 1661 296 198 1195 4828
1980 1514 156 1776 397 241 1331 5415
1985 1613 159 1708 539 220 1416 5655
1990 2323 150 1900 924 229 NRS 5525
1995 1796 141 2102 1474 243 NRS 5756
2000 1882 125 2216 2163 263 NRS 6650
2003 1606 144 2043 2499 311 NRS 6603

a
Data from the following countries:
A, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany
before reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom and former Yugoslavia
B, Algeria, Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Tunisia and Zambia
C, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Peru, USA and Venezuela
D, Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, China (Province
of Taiwan), Thailand, and Turkey
E, Australia and New Zealand
F, Bulgaria, China, former Czechoslovakia, Germany (former Democratic Republic of),
Hungary, People’s Democratic Republic of Korea, Poland, Romania and former Soviet Union;
values for Bulgaria, former German Democratic Republic, Romania, former Soviet Union, China
and People’s Democratic Republic of Korea are estimates.
b
From 1990 onwards, data from region F are included in region A (Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech
Republic, Estonia, Germany (former German Democratic Republic), Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Romania, Russian Federation and Ukraine) or in region D (China, all other former Soviet
Republics and People’s Democratic Republic of Korea); refined lead production in the former
Soviet Union for 1991 is split as follows: Europe, 24%; Asia, 76%.
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(a) Pyrometallurgical processes

(i) Removal of antimony, arsenic and tin
After the removal of copper, the next step is to remove antimony, arsenic and tin.
There are two methods available — the softening process (so-called since these elements
are standard hardeners for lead) and the Harris process. In the softening process, the lead
bullion is melted and agitated with an air blast, causing preferential oxidation of the
impurities which are then skimmed off as a molten slag. In the Harris process, the molten
bullion is stirred with a flux of molten sodium hydroxide and sodium nitrate or another
suitable oxidizing agent. The oxidized impurities are suspended in the alkali flux in the
form of sodium antimonate, arsenate and stannate, and any zinc is removed in the form
of zinc oxide (Lead Development Association International, 2003c).
(ii) Removal of silver and gold
After the removal of antimony, arsenic and tin, the softened lead may still contain
silver and gold, and sometimes bismuth. The removal of the precious metals by the Parkes
process is based on the fact that they are more soluble in zinc than in lead. In this process,
the lead is melted and mixed with zinc at 480 °C. The temperature of the melt is gradually
lowered to below 419.5 °C, at which point the zinc (now containing nearly all the silver
and gold) begins to solidify as a crust on the surface of the lead and can be skimmed off.
An alternative procedure, the Port Pirie process, used at the Port Pirie refinery in Australia,
is based on similar metallurgical principles (Lead Development Association International,
2003c).
(iii) Removal of zinc
The removal of the precious metals leaves zinc as the main contaminant of the lead.
It is removed either by oxidation with gaseous chlorine or by vacuum distillation. The
latter process involves melting the lead in a large kettle covered with a water-cooled lid
under vacuum. The zinc distils from the lead under the combined influence of temperature
and reduced pressure and condenses on the underside of the cold lid (Lead Development
Association International, 2003c).
(iv) Removal of bismuth
After removal of zinc, the only remaining impurity is bismuth, although it is not
always present in lead ore. It is easily removed by electrolysis and this accounts for the
favouring of electrolytic methods in Canada (see below), where bismuth is a frequent
impurity. When pyrometallurgical methods of refining are used, bismuth is removed by
adding a calcium–magnesium alloy to the molten lead, causing a quaternary alloy of
lead–calcium–magnesium–bismuth to rise to the top of the melt where it can be skimmed
off (Lead Development Association International, 2003c).
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(b) Electrolytic processes

In the Betts process, massive cast anodes of lead bullion are used in a cell containing
an electrolyte of acid lead fluorosilicate and thin cathode ‘starter sheets’ of high-purity lead.
The lead deposited on the cathodes still contains tin and sometimes a small amount of
antimony, and these impurities must be removed by melting and selective oxidation. For
many years, the Betts process was the only process to remove bismuth efficiently. A more
recent electrolytic process, first used in the 1950s in Italy, employs a sulfamate electrolyte.
It is claimed to be an equally efficient refining method, with the advantage that the
electrolyte is easier to prepare (Lead Development Association International, 2003c).
By combining the processes described above to build up a complete refining scheme,
it is possible to produce lead of very high purity. Most major refiners will supply bulk
quantities of lead of 99.99% purity and, for very specific purposes, it is possible to reach
99.9999% purity by additional processing (Lead Development Association International,
2003c).
1.2.5 Secondary lead production

Much of the secondary lead comes from lead batteries, with the remainder originating
from other sources such as lead pipe and sheet. Lead scrap from pipes and sheet is ‘clean’
and can be melted and refined without the need for a smelting stage. With batteries, the lead
can only be obtained by breaking the case open. This is commonly done using a battery
breaking machine which, in addition to crushing the case, separates out the different com-
ponents of the battery and collects them in hoppers. Thus, the pastes (oxide and sulfate),
grids, separators and fragmented cases are all separated from one another. The battery acid
is drained and neutralized, and the other components are either recycled or discarded (Lead
Development Association International, 2003d).
Table 8 shows trends in recovery of secondary lead by geographic region from 1970
to 1988. Three million tonnes of lead are produced from secondary sources each year, by
recycling scrap lead products. At least three-quarters of all lead is used in products which
are suitable for recycling and hence lead has the highest recycling rate of all the common
non-ferrous metals (Lead Development Association International, 2003a). Almost 50% of
the 1.6 million tonnes of lead produced in Europe each year has been recycled. In the
United Kingdom, the figure is nearer 60% (Lead Development Association International,
2003d).
(a) Secondary lead smelting

The workhorse of the secondary lead production industry used to be the blast furnace.
Conversion from blast to rotary-furnace technology in Europe began in the 1960s and was
largely complete by the 1990s, driven by the high price of metallurgical coke and the
relative difficulty of preventing the escape of dust and fume. The blast furnace was used to
provide a low-grade antimonial lead, which was softened. The high-antimony slags were
accumulated for a subsequent blast furnace campaign to produce a high-antimony bullion
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Table 8. Trends in recovery of secondary lead (refined lead and

lead alloys produced from secondary materials)
Year Recovery (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona
A B C D E Total
1970 619 21 532 78 37 1287

1975 617 29 610 115 39 1410
1980 742 44 798 192 39 1815
1985 766 44 747 258 20 1835
1988 800 48 921 310 23 2102
From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990)

a
A, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of
Germany before reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and former Yugoslavia
B, Algeria, Morocco and South Africa
C, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, USA and Venezuela
D, India, Japan and China (Province of Taiwan)
for blending into lead alloys. Although a few secondary smelters today still use furnaces
based on blast furnace technology, most companies now use rotary furnaces in which the
charge can be tailored to give a lead of approximately the desired composition. Alter-
natively, a two-stage smelting procedure can be employed, which yields crude soft lead and
crude antimonial lead. In the latter process, for example, battery plates are first melted and
crude soft lead is tapped off after a few hours while the antimonial slag and lead oxide and
sulfate are retained in the furnace. Further plates are charged and more soft lead is with-
drawn until sufficient slag has accumulated for the slag reduction stage. Then, coke or
anthracite fines and soda ash are added, lead and antimony oxides and lead sulfate are
reduced and the cycle ends with the furnace being emptied of antimonial lead and of slag
for discarding. As with primary smelting, large volumes of gas are produced, carrying
substantial quantities of dust. On leaving the smelter, the gases are cooled from about
900 °C to about 100 °C using air and/or water cooling, and pass into a baghouse where the
dust is collected and eventually fed back into the smelter. The gases subsequently are
released into the atmosphere. In the course of processing one tonne of lead, as much as 100
tonnes of air have to be cleaned in this way (Lead Development Association International,
2003d).
In the semi-continuous Isasmelt furnace process used for secondary lead production,
the furnace is fed with a lead carbonate paste containing 1% sulfur. This is obtained as a
result of the battery paste having gone through a desulfurizing process after battery
breaking. Over the following 36 h, wet lead carbonate paste and coal as a reductant are
continuously fed into the furnace. The soft lead that is produced is tapped every 3 h and
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contains 99.9% lead. After 36 h, the paste feed is stopped and the slag is reduced to
produce antimonial lead alloy. As with the two-stage process described above, off-gases
from the furnace are first cooled and then passed into a baghouse for fume and dust
control (Lead Development Association International, 2003d).
(b) Secondary lead refining

The principal impurities that are removed in secondary lead refining are copper, tin,
antimony and arsenic. Zinc, iron, nickel, bismuth, silver and other impurities may also be
present. These impurities are generally removed using the same basic techniques as
described above (Lead Development Association International, 2003d).
1.2.6 Lead production by compound and country

Table 9 summarizes the available information on the number of companies in various
countries producing metallic lead and some lead compounds in 2002.
1.3 Use
Over the centuries the unique properties of lead have resulted in its use in many
different applications. These properties are mainly its high resistance to corrosion, its
softness and low melting-point, its high density and its relatively low conductivity (Lead
Development Association International, 2003b).
Large quantities of lead, both as the metal and as the dioxide, are used in storage
batteries. Lead is also used for cable covering, plumbing and ammunition. The metal is
very effective as a sound absorber and as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment and
nuclear reactors. It is also used to absorb vibration. Lead, alloyed with tin, is used in
making organ pipes. Lead carbonate (PbCO3), lead sulfate (PbSO4), lead chromate
(PbCrO4), lead tetraoxide (Pb3O4) and other lead compounds (see Table 1 for synonyms)
have been applied extensively in paints, although in recent years this use has been curtailed
to reduce health hazards. Lead oxide (usually lead monoxide) is used in the production of
fine ‘crystal glass’ and ‘flint glass’ with a high index of refraction for achromatic lenses.
Lead nitrate and acetate are soluble salts that serve as intermediates and in specialty
applications. Lead salts such as lead arsenate have been used as insecticides, but in recent
years this use has been almost eliminated (Lide, 2003).
In most countries, lead is predominantly used as the metal and it may be alloyed with
other materials depending on the application. Lead alloys are made by the controlled
addition of other elements. The term ‘unalloyed lead’ implies that no alloying elements
have been added intentionally; this may mean that the lead is of high purity, but the term
also covers less pure lead containing incidental impurities (Lead Development Asso-
ciation International, 2003e).
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Table 9. Lead production by compound and country
Compound No. of Countries

companies
Metallic lead 10 Japan

6 USA
5 China, Mexico
4 Belgium, Canada
3 Brazil, Germany, Peru, Russian Federation
2 Kazakhstan
1 Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Bulgaria, China (Province of
Taiwan), Egypt, India, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Republic of
Korea, Spain, Sweden, Turkey
Lead acetate 10 China
8 India
7 Mexico
6 USA
5 Brazil, Japan
3 Spain
2 Germany, Italy
1 Australia, China (Province of Taiwan), France, Romania, Russian
Federation
Lead arsenate 3 Japan
1 Peru
Lead azide 2 Brazil
1 Japan
Lead bromide 1 Germany, India, Japan, United Kingdom, USA
Lead carbonate 6 India
2 China, China (Province of Taiwan), Germany, USA
1 Argentina, Australia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Republic of Korea,
Romania, Ukraine and United Kingdom
Lead chloride 5 India
4 USA
1 Australia, Belgium, China, China (Province of Taiwan),
Germany, Japan, Mexico, Romania, Spain
Lead chromate 22 China
(Pigment 8 India
Yellow 34) 6 USA
5 China (Province of Taiwan), Japan, Spain
3 Germany, Italy
2 Brazil, Republic of Korea, Netherlands, United Kingdom
1 Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, France, Mexico,
Peru, Romania, Russian Federation, Turkey, Venezuela
Lead fluoride 4 China
3 India, Japan, USA
1 Argentina, Canada, France, Germany
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Table 9 (contd)

companies
Lead fluoroborate 7 China, India

5 USA
3 Japan
2 Australia, China (Province of Taiwan), France, Germany
1 Argentina, Brazil, Russian Federation, Spain
Lead iodide 2 Japan, United Kingdom
1 China, India, USA
Lead naphthenate 6 China
5 Japan, Mexico
3 Argentina, USA
2 France, India, Peru, Spain
1 Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China (Province of Taiwan),
Germany, Italy, Romania, Thailand, Turkey
Lead nitrate 12 India
8 China
7 USA
6 Japan
4 Brazil, Mexico
3 Spain
2 Belgium, Germany
1 Australia, Italy, Russian Federation, Tajikistan
Lead monoxide 24 China
7 Japan
6 India
4 China (Province of Taiwan), Germany, Mexico, USA
3 France, Spain
2 Brazil, Italy, Peru, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation
1 Argentina, Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Portugal,
South Africa, Tajikistan, Turkey, United Kingdom
Lead dioxide 6 India
4 Japan
3 USA
2 Germany
1 Australia, Italy, South Africa, Spain, United Kingdom
Lead phosphate 6 China
2 India
1 Japan, Russian Federation
Lead stearate 25 China
17 India
9 China (Province of Taiwan)
4 Japan
3 Germany, Spain, Thailand
2 Mexico, Peru, Philippines, Republic of Korea, USA
1 Albania, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Indonesia, Italy, Portugal,
Romania, South Africa, Turkey
P 039-074 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 59
Table 9 (contd)

companies
Lead stearate, 15 India

dibasic 8 China
2 Japan, Philippines, Spain, Thailand, USA
1 Belgium, Germany, Indonesia, Peru, Republic of Korea, South
Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom
Lead styphnate 2 Brazil
1 Japan
Lead subacetate 4 India
3 Mexico
2 China
1 Australia, Brazil, China (Province of Taiwan), Romania, Spain,
USA
Lead sulfate 6 India
4 Mexico
3 Germany
2 Spain
1 China, Japan, Romania, USA
Lead sulfide 4 India
2 France, Japan
1 Austria, China, Germany, USA
Lead tetraoxide 22 China
5 India, Japan
3 Mexico, Spain
2 Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, Russian Federation, USA
1 Argentina, Kazakhstan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Republic of
Korea, South Africa, Tajikistan, Turkey, United Kingdom
Lead thiocyanate 2 USA
Lead trioxide 1 China
Tetraethyl lead 1 Germany, Italy
Tetramethyl lead 2 Russian Federation
1 Italy
From Chemical Information Services (2003)

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Trends in the reported consumption of lead by geographical region between 1960 and
2003 are shown in Table 10. Tables 11 and 12 show the trends in total lead consumption
by country and by major use category, respectively, in selected countries between 1985
and 2001.
For six of the major lead-consuming countries (France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the
United Kingdom, USA), detailed historical data are available from 1960 to 1990 (Tables
13–19). In this period, total consumption of lead reported by these countries rose from 2.06
to 2.94 million tonnes, an overall increase of 43% and an average annual increase of 1.2%.
During those three decades, however, there were marked changes in the rates of lead
consumption. These included: (1) the rapid expansion of consumption during the 1960s
and early 1970s leading to peak levels in 1973 prior to the onset of the first world energy
crisis; (2) the steep reduction in 1974–75 and the subsequent revival in 1977–79, with lead
consumption recovering to its 1973 level; (3) the decrease in 1980–82 during the second
energy crisis; and (4) the sustained growth from 1983 until 1990 in the industrialized world
as a whole, supported by rapid advances in some of the newly-industrializing countries, but
with much more restricted progress in the fully-industrialized countries where the rates of
economic expansion and industrial activity slowed down compared with those previously
achieved (International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992).
1.3.1 Lead–acid batteries

By far the largest single application of lead worldwide is in lead–acid batteries. The
most common type of lead–acid battery consists of a heavy duty plastic box (normally
polypropylene) containing grids made from a lead–antimony alloy (commonly containing
0.75–5% antimony) with minor additions of elements such as copper, arsenic, tin and
selenium to improve grid properties. For the new generation of sealed, maintenance-free
batteries, a range of lead–calcium–tin alloys is used. These contain up to 0.1% calcium and
0–0.5% tin. The tin-containing alloys are used in the positive grids to protect against
corrosion. Grids are still manufactured in pairs on special casting machines, but production
of grids in strip form by continuous casting or expansion of rolled sheet is becoming
increasingly popular as it facilitates automation and minimizes the handling of plates. The
spaces in the grids are filled with a paste consisting largely of lead dioxide. When
immersed in sulfuric acid, these pasted grids (plates) form an electric cell that generates
electricity from the chemical reactions that take place. The reactions require the presence
of lead dioxide and lead metal and each cell produces a voltage of 2V. These reactions are
reversible and the battery can therefore be recharged. A rechargeable cell is known as a
secondary cell and provides a means of storing electricity. Lead is well suited for this
application because of its specific conductivity and its resistance to corrosion. The addition
of antimony or calcium gives the lead an increased hardness to resist the mechanical
stresses within the battery caused, for example, by the natural vibration of road vehicles
and by the chemical reactions taking place (Lead Development Association International,
2003e).
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Table 10. Trends in total industrial consumption of refined lead
Year Consumption (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona
1960 1152 19 986 204 65 654 3080

1965 1306 33 1229 270 70 762 3670
1970 1517 46 1488 360 72 1019 4502
1975 1403 76 1454 413 86 1310 4742
1980 1652 102 1476 600 85 1446 5361
1985 1614 98 1510 735 69 1470 5496
1990 2439 114 1648 1193 59 NRS 5454
1995 1948 112 2017 1718 84 NRS 5879
2000 2022 130 2332 1989 46 NRS 6519
2003 2030 154 2012 2471 45 NRS 6712

a
A, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany
before reunification), Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom and former Yugoslavia
B, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Tunisia and Zambia
C, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Peru, USA and Venezuela
D, India, Iran, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, China (Province of Taiwan),
Thailand and Turkey
F, Albania, Bulgaria, China, Cuba, former Czechoslovakia, Germany (the former German
Democratic Republic), Hungary, People’s Democratic Republic of Korea; Poland, Romania,
former Soviet Union; values for Albania, Cuba, China, Germany (the former German Democratic
Republic), Peoples’ Democratic Republic of Korea, Romania and former Soviet Union are
estimates.
b
From 1990 onwards, data from countries in region F are included in region A (Albania,
Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, the former German Democratic Republic, Poland,
Romania, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine) or in region D
(all other former Soviet Republics, China, Cuba and People’s Democratic Republic of Korea).
Lead metal consumption for 1991 in the former Soviet Union was split as follows: Europe, 86%,
Asia, 14%.
The most common form of lead–acid battery is the so-called SLI battery (starting,
lighting and ignition) used in road vehicles such as cars and trucks. Another form, the
traction battery, is used to power vehicles such as golf carts and airport support vehicles.
Other uses of lead power include larger stationary batteries for stand-by emergency power
storage in hospitals and other critical facilities, and for some electricity utilities to help
meet peak power demands and to maintain a stable electricity supply (Lead Development
Association International, 2003e).
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Table 11. Total industrial lead consumption
Country or region Consumption (thousand tonnes) in year
1985 1990 1996 2001
Australia 49.5 45.9 67.0 41.0

Austria 58.0 65.5 58.0 59.0
Belgium 66.8 67.7 50.6 40.3
Brazil 79.6 75.0 110.0 112.0
Canada 104.5 71.7 93.4 71.8
China NA NA 470.1 700.0
Czech Republic NA NA 25.0 80.0
Finland 22.0 13.4 3.5 2.0
Francea 234.3 261.6 273.8 282.5
Germanya 348.2 375.3 331.0 392.6
India 51.3 51.8 85.0 127.0
Italya 235.0 259.0 268.0 283.0
Japan 397.4 417.0 329.9 284.7
Mexico 90.6 66.8 141.0 205.0
Netherlands 45.1 65.0 57.0 30.0
New Zealand 8.6 8.0 7.0 5.0
Republic of Korea 81.0 150.0 289.8 314.7
Romania NA NA 22.0 20.0
Scandinaviab 55.6 36.3 49.0 13.0
South Africa 48.2 65.9 63.1 59.1
South-East Asiac 125.2 185.0 413.0 427.0
Spain 125.3 126.7 144.0 246.0
Switzerland 10.5 8.7 10.5 12.6
United Kingdoma 303.2 334.0 309.2 266.5
USAa 1148.3 1288.4 1554.4 1587.3
Total 3688.2 4038.7 5225.3 5662.1

NA, not available
a
Data for these countries include total metal usage in all forms, i.e. refined
lead and alloys (lead content), plus re-melted lead recovered from secondary
materials. Data for other countries include refined lead and alloys only.
b
Denmark, Norway and Sweden
c
China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Province of
Taiwan), Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore
Since 1960 the manufacture of lead–acid batteries has remained the largest single use
of lead in nearly all countries, accounting for an ever-increasing percentage of total lead
consumption (see Tables 12, 14 and 15) (International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992).
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Table 12. Trends in uses of lead in selected countriesa
Use Percentage of total usage in year
1985 1990 1996 2001
Batteries 57.7 63.0 72.5 76.7

Cable sheathing 5.6 4.5 2.1 1.4
Rolled and extruded productsb 7.6 7.7 5.9 6.0
Shot/ammunition 2.8 2.8 2.3 2.1
Alloys 4.2 3.3 3.2 2.5
Pigments and other compounds 14.2 12.8 10.0 8.1
Gasoline additives 3.7 2.1 0.9 0.4
Miscellaneous 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

a
Countries include: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China (Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region), China (Province of Taiwan), Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom and USA.
b
Including lead sheet
Table 13. Trends in total lead consumption in six major

consuming countries
Country Consumption (thousand tonnes) in year
1960 1973 1979 1990
France 196 240 233 262

Germany 281 342 342 375
Italy 108 259 280 259
Japan 162 347 368 417
United Kingdom 385 364 336 334
USA 926 1398 1358 1288
Total 2058 2950 2917 2935

The data include refined metal and direct use of lead in scrap form.
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Table 14. Trends in principal uses of lead in six major

consuming countriesa
Use Percentage of total use in year
1960 1979 1990
Batteries 27.7 50.8 64.4

Cable sheathing 17.9 5.9 3.8
Rolled/extruded products 18.0 7.7 7.8
Shot/ammunition 3.2 3.2 3.8
Alloys 10.5 6.7 3.5
Pigment/compounds 9.9 12.3 10.9
Gasoline additives 9.1 9.8 2.7
Miscellaneous 3.7 3.6 3.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

a
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and USA
Table 15. Trends in consumption of lead for batteries

in six major consuming countries
1960 1973 1979 1990

France 45.0 90.0 110.7 163.5
Germanya 73.2 132.9 158.3 195.2
Italy 25.5 68.0 93.0 113.2
Japan 30.0 163.1 191.8 294.6
United Kingdom 76.2 106.5 113.9 103.7
USA 320.4 698.0 814.4 1019.6
Total 570.3 1258.5 1481.2 1889.8

a
Excludes consumption by some independent producers of lead oxides
for batteries.
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Table 16. Trends in consumption of lead for rolled/

extruded products in six major consuming countries
1960 1973 1979 1990
France 43.7 31.0 27.2 22.4

Germany 44.3 31.1 32.7 39.1
Italy 29.1 50.3 40.8 21.5
Japan 35.9 39.6 26.7 10.9
United Kingdom 88.0 57.7 48.9 98.6
USA 130.1 90.2 47.7 35.8
Total 371.1 299.9 224.0 228.3
Table 17. Trend in consumption of lead for cable

sheathing in six major consuming countries
1960 1973 1979 1990
France 60.8 41.1 21.4 16.3

Germany 83.9 54.6 31.5 12.2
Italy 24.0 44.8 40.0 48.7
Japan 47.0 28.7 36.8 4.9
United Kingdom 97.0 45.8 26.6 10.4
USA 54.7 39.0 16.4 18.3
Total 367.4 254.0 172.7 110.8

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Table 18. Trends in consumption of lead for alloys in

six major consuming countries
1960 1973 1979 1990
France 17.3 14.8 9.3 3.2

Germany 22.7 22.8 16.5 9.0
Italy 6.0 6.0 5.7 3.5
Japan 7.1 24.2 18.3 18.7
United Kingdom 37.0 35.0 24.5 22.0
USA 125.3 128.8 120.0 46.4
Total 215.4 231.6 194.3 102.8
Table 19. Trends in consumption of lead for pigments

and compounds in six major consuming countries
1960 1973 1979 1990
France 11.9 34.5 33.0 29.4

Germany 38.4 69.6 76.8 100.3
Italy 10.1 45.2 60.4 40.0
Japan 17.2 64.2 62.4 64.0
United Kingdom 35.9 38.8 34.1 28.6
USA 89.3 98.7 90.8 56.5
Total 202.8 351.0 357.5 318.8

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1.3.2 Lead sheet

The use of lead sheet has increased dramatically over recent years, particularly for the
building industry. Lead sheet has been produced for decades by traditional wide lead mills
in which lead slabs are fed through large drum-like rollers, sometimes several times, to
produce lead sheets of the desired thickness. The traditional wide lead mill is being
replaced by more sophisticated rolling mills producing coils of lead 1.2–1.5 m wide. Most
lead sheets in building applications are between 1.3 and 2.2 mm thick, but sheets of
2.6–3.6 mm are used for roofing prestige buildings. Thick sheet alloys are rolled for
applications such as anodes for electrowinning and thin foils are used for sound atte-
nuation. A manufacturing technique other than milling is continuous casting in which a
rotating, water-cooled drum is partly immersed in a bath of molten lead. The drum picks
up a solid layer of lead, which is removed over a knife edge adjacent to the drum as it
rotates. The thickness is controlled by varying the speed of rotation and the temperature of
the drum (Lead Development Association International, 2003e).
In the building industry, most of the lead sheet (or strip) is used as flashings or
weatherings to prevent water from penetrating, the remainder being used for roofing and
cladding. By virtue of its resistance to chemical corrosion, lead sheet is also used for the
lining of chemical treatment baths, acid plants and storage vessels. The high density of
lead sheet and its ‘limpness’ make it a very effective material for reducing the trans-
mission of sound through partitions and doors of comparatively lightweight construction.
Often the lead sheet is bonded adhesively to plywood or to other building boards for con-
venience of handling. A particular advantage of the high density of lead is that only rela-
tively thin layers are needed to suppress the transmission of sound (Lead Development
Association International, 2003e).
Lead sheet is the principal element in the product category ‘rolled and extruded
products’. In many countries, the demand for rolled and extruded lead products declined
in the 1960s and 1970s, due in part to a rapid decline in the use of lead pipe (see Tables
14 and 16). Nevertheless, in a number of countries (see Table 12), lead sheet remains the
third largest use of lead at about 6% of the total reported consumption (International Lead
and Zinc Study Group, 1992, 2003).
1.3.3 Lead pipes

Lead piping, once a substantial use in the ‘rolled and extruded products’ category, has
been replaced progressively by copper tubes for the transport of domestic water and the
supply of gas and by plastic tubing for disposal of wastewater. Lead pipes have not been
used in new supplies of domestic water for about 30 years. However, due to their
corrosion-resistant properties, they are still used for transport of corrosive chemicals at
chemical plants. Also, lead pipe of appropriate composition is extruded for cutting into
short-length ‘sleeves’ used in the jointing of lead-sheathed cables (see below) (Inter-
national Lead and Zinc Study, 1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e).
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1.3.4 Cable sheathing

Because of its corrosion resistance when in contact with a wide range of industrial and
marine environments, soils and chemicals, lead was one of the first materials to be used to
provide an impervious sheath on electric cables. Lead can be applied to the cable core in
unlimited lengths by extrusion at temperatures that do not damage the most sensitive
conductors (optical fibres) or insulating materials (paper or plastics). Lead is pliable and
withstands the coiling, uncoiling, handling and bending operations involved in the
manufacturing and installation of the cable. A lead sheath can be readily soldered at low
temperatures when cables need to be jointed or new cables installed. With modern screw-
type continuous extruders, unjointed submarine power cables as long as 100 km have been
produced (Lead Development Association International, 2003e).
Until 1960 sheathing of electrical cables was the largest single use of lead in many
countries including France, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom, representing
25–30% of total lead consumption in these four countries. It was used much less exten-
sively in the USA where, during the late 1950s, lead was replaced by alternative materials,
generally plastics, as the sheathing material for telephone cables. Since the mid-1960s,
however, there has been a gradual decline in the use of lead for cable sheathing in most
countries (Table 17). By 1990, lead consumption for cable sheathing had fallen to 4.5%
of total consumption and, by 2001, to 1.4% (Table 12) (International Lead and Zinc Study
Group, 1992, 2003).
1.3.5 Lead alloys

(a) Lead–antimony alloys
By far the largest use of lead–antimony alloys is in batteries. At one time, antimony
contents of ∼10% were common, but the current generation of lead–acid batteries has a
much lower antimony content. Alloys with 1–12% antimony are used widely in the
chemical industry for pumps and valves, and in radiation shielding both for lining the
walls of X-ray rooms and for bricks to house radioactive sources in the nuclear industry.
The addition of antimony to lead increases the hardness of the lead, and therefore its resis-
tance to physical damage, without greatly reducing its corrosion resistance (Lead Deve-
lopment Association International, 2003e).
(b) Solders
Soldering is a method of joining materials, in which a special metal (solder) is applied
in the molten state to wet two solid surfaces and join them on solidification. Solders are
classified according to their working temperatures. Soft solders, which have the lowest
melting-points, are largely lead–tin alloys with or without antimony, while fusible alloys
contain various combinations of lead, tin, bismuth, cadmium and other low melting-point
metals. Depending on the application, lead–tin solders may contain from a few per cent
to more than 60% tin.
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A substantial proportion of solder is used in electrical or electronic assemblies. The

advances made in the electronics industry have required the development of fast and
highly-automated methods of soldering. Printed circuit assemblies can be soldered by
passing them across a standing wave of continuously-circulating molten solder (Lead
Development Association International, 2003e).
The use of lead solder in plumbing has declined with the replacement of lead piping
by copper tubing and, more recently, as a result of concerns of potential leaching of lead
into water supplies. Similarly, concerns of possible danger to health have restricted the
use of lead solders in the canning industry, formerly an important market.
(c) Lead for radiation shielding

Lead and its alloys in metallic form, and lead compounds, are used in various forms
of radiation shielding. The shielding of containers for radioactive materials is usually
metallic lead (see above). Radioactive materials in laboratories and hospitals are usually
handled by remote control from a position of safety behind a wall of lead bricks. X-ray
machines are normally installed in rooms lined with lead sheet; lead compounds are
constituents of the glass used in shielding partitions to permit safe viewing; and lead
powder is incorporated into plastic and rubber sheeting materials used for protective
clothing (Lead Development Association International, 2003e).
(d) Other uses of lead alloys

A variety of lead alloys are produced for a wide range of applications in various
industries. In the 1990s, these alloys accounted for 130–150 000 tonnes of lead used in
industrialized countries (Table 18). However, the trend in this sector had been one of steady
decline during the previous three decades (Table 14), as some uses have been overtaken by
technological changes or have been restricted by health and environmental regulations.
The use of terne metal (a thin tin–lead alloy coating) for corrosion protection, and the
addition of lead to brass and bronze to assist in free machining, and in bearing metals to
reduce friction and wear in machinery, have declined slowly due to competition from alter-
native materials such as aluminum and plastics. The market for type metal in the printing
industry has largely disappeared as hot metal printing has been replaced by new techno-
logy. In the USA, this use peaked at 30 000 tonnes in 1965 but had fallen to 1–2000 tonnes
by the mid-1980s and is similarly low in other developed countries (International Lead and
Zinc Study Group, 1992).
1.3.6 Lead pigments and compounds

The market for lead pigments and compounds constitutes the second largest use of lead
after lead–acid batteries. The market peaked in the mid-1980s, when over 500 000 tonnes
of lead were used in lead pigments and compounds, mainly by the plastics, glass and
ceramics industries, and accounting for 14% of total lead consumption (Table 14). Since
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then these uses have been restricted by health and environmental concerns while still
remaining the second largest use of lead (8% of total lead consumption) (Table 12).
Besides the six major consuming countries (Table 19), pigments and compounds are
also the second most important use of lead in other countries including Brazil, Canada, the
Republic of Korea, South Africa, Spain and countries of South-East Asia (International
Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992, 2003).
(a) Lead pigments

The use of lead in paints for domestic purposes and in some commercial and industrial
applications is now severely restricted or banned in view of the potential health risks
caused by exposure to weathered or flaking paint. However, lead tetraoxide (Pb3O4) still
retains some of its traditional importance for rust-inhibiting priming paints applied directly
to iron and steel in view of its anti-corrosion properties, but faces growing competition
from zinc-rich paints containing zinc dust and zinc chromate. The use of lead carbonate
(white lead) in decorative paints has been phased out. Calcium plumbate-based paints are
effective on galvanized steel. Lead chromate (yellow) and lead molybdate (red orange) are
still used in plastics and to a lesser extent in paints. Lead chromate is used extensively as
the yellow pigment in road markings and signs, which are now commonplace in most
European countries and in North America (Lead Development Association International,
2003e).
(b) Lead stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Lead compounds are used in both rigid and plasticized PVC to extend the temperature
range at which PVC can be processed without degradation. In the building industry, the
widespread adoption of PVC materials for corrosion-resistant piping and guttering in
industrial facilities, for potable water piping (lead content, < 1%), and for windows and
door frames provides a major market for lead sulfate and lead carbonate as stabilizers to
prevent degrading of PVC during processing and when exposed to ultraviolet light.
However, concerns over potential health hazards are limiting the use of lead in PVC water
piping in some countries. Dibasic lead phosphite also has the property of protecting
materials from degradation by ultraviolet light. Normal and dibasic lead stearates are
incorporated as lubricants. All these compounds are white pigments that cannot be used
when clear or translucent articles are required (International Lead and Zinc Study Group,
1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e). The levels of lead in 16
different PVC pipes used for water supplies in Bangladesh were found to be in the range
of 1.1–6.5 mg/g (Hadi et al., 1996).
(c) Lead in glass

Decorative lead crystal glass was developed in England in the seventeenth century.
Normally added in the form of lead monoxide (PbO) at 24–36%, lead adds lustre, density
and brilliance to the glass. Its attractiveness is further enhanced by decorative patterns that
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can be cut on the surface and by the characteristic ring associated with lead crystal. There
is now a substantial market for a cheaper form of ‘semi-crystal’ containing 14–24% lead
oxide, and such glasses are usually moulded with the decorative pattern rather than being
hand-cut later. Lead is also used in optical glass (e.g. telescopes, binoculars), ophthalmic
glass (e.g. spectacles), electrical glass (e.g. lamp tubing, cathode ray tubes) and radiation
protection glass (e.g. for windows in remote-handling boxes, television tubes) (Lead
Development Association International, 2003e).
(d) Lead for ceramics

Lead is used in a wide range of glaze formulations for items such as tableware
(earthenware and china), wall and floor tiles, porcelain and sanitary-ware and electrical
transistors and transducers. The lead compounds used are mainly lead monoxide (litharge,
PbO), lead tetraoxide and lead silicates. The properties offered by lead compounds are
low melting-points and wide softening ranges, low surface tension, good electrical
properties and a hard-wearing and impervious finish. Lead compounds are also used in
the formulation of enamels used on metals and glass.
Another important application for lead compounds is in a range of ceramics (other than
the glazes) used in the electronics industry. Typical of these are piezoelectric materials such
as the lead zirconate/lead titanate range of compositions known generally as PZI. These
materials have a wide range of applications, such as spark generators, sensors, electrical
filters, gramophone pick-ups and sound generators (International Lead and Zinc Study
Group, 1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e).
1.3.7 Gasoline additives

Tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead have been used as anti-knock additives in gasoline, at
concentrations up to 0.84 g/L, as an economic method of raising the ‘octane rating’ to
provide the grade of gasoline needed for the efficient operation of internal combustion
engines of high compression ratio (Thomas et al., 1999). However, increasing recognition
of the potential health effects from exposure to lead has led to the reformulation of gasoline
and the removal of lead additives. In addition, lead in gasoline is incompatible with the
catalytic converters used in modern cars to control nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and other
‘smog’-producing agents. The use of lead in gasoline in the USA has been phased out
gradually since the mid-1970s, and moves to phase it out in the European Community
began in the early 1980s. Since 1977 in the USA and 1991 in Europe, all new cars are
required to run on unleaded gasoline. By the end of 1999, forty countries or regions had
banned the use of lead in gasoline (Table 20), although it is still permitted in some of these
countries for certain off-road and marine vehicles and for general aviation aircraft (Smith,
2002). Numerous other countries are planning the phase-out of lead in gasoline in the near
future. About 79% of all gasoline sold in the world in the late 1990s was unleaded
(International Lead Management Center, 1999). The market for tetraethyl and tetramethyl
lead has declined considerably (Table 21) and will continue to do so (Lead Development
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Table 20. Countries or regions that had phased out the use of
lead in gasolinea by the end of 1999
Argentina Finland Netherlands

Austria Germany New Zealand
Bahamas Guam Nicaragua
Bangladesh Guatemala Norway
Belize Haiti Portugal
Bermuda Honduras Puerto Rico
Bolivia Hong Kong SAR Republic of Korea
Brazil Hungary Singapore
Canada Iceland Slovakia
Colombia Japan Sweden
Costa Rica Luxembourg Thailand
Denmark Malaysia USA
Dominican Republic Mexico US Virgin Islands
El Salvador
From International Lead Management Center (1999)

a
See Section 1.3.7 for permitted uses of leaded gasoline.
Table 21. Trends in consumption of lead for gasoline

additives in five major consuming countries
1960 1973 1979 1990
France 6.1 13.5 15.1 9.8

Germany NA 9.4 10.8 NA
Italy 4.8 11.8 13.0 3.7
United Kingdom 27.1 54.4 58.9 45.1
USA 148.6 248.9 186.9 20.7
Total 186.6 338.0 284.7 79.3

NA, not available
Association International, 2003e). In 2001, less than 0.5% of lead consumption was for
gasoline additives (Table 12) (International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 2003).
1.3.8 Miscellaneous uses

About 150 000 tonnes of lead are employed each year in a variety of other uses, of
which about 100 000 tonnes are consumed in the production of lead shot and ammunition
in the major consuming countries (excluding Japan where this use is not reported
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separately). Globally, this use has remained relatively stable since the 1960s, at around
3–4% of total lead consumption (Tables 12 and 14).
Lead cames have long been a feature of stained-glass windows in churches and
cathedrals. They consist of H-shaped sections of lead which hold together the individual
pieces of glass. They are now being used more widely in modern homes both in the tradi-
tional way and in the form of self-adhesive strips stuck on to a larger piece of glass to
simulate an integral came.
Lead weights for fishing have been largely phased out but lead stampings, pressings
and castings are widely used for many weighting applications, for example curtain
weights, wheel balance weights, weights for analytical instruments and yacht keels.
Lead wool is made by scratching fine strands from the surface of a lead disc. It is used
for the caulking of joints in large pipes like gas mains and in some specialty batteries.
Lead-clad steel is a composite material manufactured by cold rolling lead sheet onto
sheet steel that has been pretreated with a terne plate. A strong metallurgical bond is
formed between the lead and the steel, which provides a material that combines the
physical and chemical properties of lead with the mechanical properties of steel. Although
primarily aimed at the sound-insulation market, lead-clad steel has also found use in
radiation shielding and in the cladding of buildings.
Lead powder is incorporated into a plasticizer to form sheets of lead-loaded plastic.
This material is used to make radiation-protective clothing and aprons for the medical,
scientific and nuclear industries (see Section 1.4.5.c). It also has sound-insulating
properties. Lead powder is also used as the basis for some corrosion-resistant paints (see
Section 1.4.6).
Smaller amounts of lead are used in galvanizing, annealing and plating (International
Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992; Lead Development Association International, 2003e).
1.4 Occurrence
1.4.1 Environmental occurrence
Lead was one of the first metals used by man; there is evidence that it has been used
for approximately 6000 years (Hunter, 1978). As a result, although both natural and anthro-
pogenic processes are responsible for the distribution of lead throughout the environment,
anthropogenic releases of lead are predominant. Industrial releases to soil from nonferrous
smelters, battery plants, chemical plants, and disturbance of older structures containing
lead-based paints are major contributors to total lead releases. Lead is transferred conti-
nuously between air, water, and soil by natural chemical and physical processes such as
weathering, run-off, precipitation, dry deposition of dust, and stream/river flow; however,
soil and sediments appear to be important sinks for lead. Lead is extremely persistent in
both water and soil. Direct application of lead-contaminated sludge as fertilizers, and
residues of lead arsenate used in agriculture, can also lead to the contamination of soil,
sediments, surface water and ground water. In countries where leaded gasoline is still used,
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the major air emission of lead is from mobile and stationary sources of combustion.
Besides environmental exposures, exposure to lead may arise from sources such as foods
or beverages stored, cooked or served in lead-containing containers, food growing on
contaminated soils, and traditional remedies, cosmetics and other lead-containing products.
The ubiquity of lead in the environment has resulted in present-day body burdens that
are estimated to be 1000 times those found in humans uncontaminated by anthropogenic
lead uses (Patterson et al., 1991), but exposures have decreased substantially over the past
10–30 years in countries where control measures have been implemented.
The estimated contributions of the common sources and routes of lead exposure to total
lead intake vary from country to country and over time. In 1990, the estimated daily intake
of lead from consumption of food, water and beverages in the USA ranged from 2 to
9 µg/day for various age groups and was approximately 4 µg/day for children 2 years of
age and younger (ATSDR, 1999). For many young children, the most important source of
lead exposure is through ingestion of paint chips and leaded dusts and soils released from
ageing painted surfaces or during renovation and remodeling (CDC, 1997a; Lanphear
et al., 1998). Compared with nonsmokers, smokers have an additional lead intake of
approximately 6 µg/day, based on an estimated exposure of 14 µg/day and absorption of
30–50% of the inhaled lead into the bloodstream (IARC, 2004a).
Lead is absorbed into the body via inhalation and ingestion and, to a limited extent,
through the skin. The uptake of inhaled or ingested lead is dependent on the type of lead
compound involved, particle size, site of contact within the body, acidity of the body fluid
at that site, and physiological status of the individual (see Section 4.1).
(a) Natural occurrence

Lead occurs naturally in the earth’s crust in trace quantities at a concentration of
approximately 8–20 mg/kg (Rudnick & Fountain, 1995; Taylor & McLennan, 1995).
Metallic lead occurs in nature, but it is rare. The most important lead ore is galena (PbS).
Anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3) and minium (Pb3O4) are other common lead
minerals. Small amounts of lead reach the surface environment through natural weathe-
ring processes and volcanic emissions, thus giving a baseline environmental exposure.
However, the abundant and widespread presence of lead in our current environment is
largely a result of anthropogenic activity.
(b) Air and dust

Lead is released into the air by natural processes such as volcanic activity, forest fires,
weathering of the earth’s crust and radioactive decay from radon (WHO, 1995). However,
these natural contributions are of relatively minor consequence. The vast majority of lead
in the atmosphere results from human activity. Globally, the main source of lead in air has
been exhaust from motor vehicles using leaded gasoline (see also Section 1.4.1( f )).
Release of lead also occurs during lead smelting and refining, the manufacture of goods,
and the incineration of municipal and medical wastes (ATSDR, 1999). Almost all lead in
air is bound to fine particles of less than 1 µm diameter, although some may be solubilized
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in acid aerosol droplets. The size of these particles varies with the source and with the age
of the particle from the time of emission (US EPA, 1986a; WHO, 1995).
Concentrations of lead in ambient air range from 76 × 10–6 µg/m3 in remote areas
such as Antarctica (Maenhaut et al., 1979), to 0.2 µg/m3 in rural areas in Chile (Frenz
et al., 1997) and to > 120 µg/m3 near stationary sources such as smelters (Nambi et al.,
1997). Tables 22–27 show examples of lead concentrations in air and dust worldwide by
geographic region. A few studies are detailed below according to the main source of
airborne lead.
Trends in emissions of lead in air in the USA have continued to fall since the late
1970s from both point sources (from 2.9 µg/m3 in 1979 to 0.4 µg/m3 in 1988) and urban
sites (from 0.8 µg/m3 in 1979 to 0.1 µg/m3 in 1988). The large decrease in emissions from
point sources resulted from the use of emission controls in industrial processes as well as
automotive controls; the decrease in emissions from urban sites was primarily the result
of the decreased use of leaded gasoline (ATSDR, 1999). Between 1976 and 1995, overall
ambient air concentrations of lead in the USA declined by 97% (US EPA, 1996a). Lead
concentrations in urban and suburban air in the USA (maximum quarterly mean concen-
trations) decreased between 1986 and 1995 from 0.18 µg/m3 to 0.04 µg/m3; rural air
concentrations of lead during the same period were typically 3- to 5-fold lower (US EPA,
1996a). In remote sites, air lead concentrations as low as 0.001 µg/m3 have been reported
(Eldred & Cahill, 1994).
Urban air lead concentrations are typically between 0.15 and 0.5 µg/m3 in most Euro-
pean cities (WHO, 2000a). In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania,
Slovakia and Slovenia, exposure to lead is primarily through airborne lead. It is estimated
that in congested urban areas 90% of this is due to leaded gasoline. In 1998, there was a
wide range in use of unleaded gasoline for automobiles, from 100% in Slovakia to 5–7%
in Bulgaria and Romania. Table 22 illustrates improvements in air quality during the 1990s
through a concerted effort by the countries to phase out the use of leaded gasoline
(Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe, 1998).
Lead concentration in the thoracic fraction of atmospheric particulate matter (PM10)
— that part of the inspirable fraction that penetrates into the respiratory tract below the
larynx — in the ambient air of Delhi, India, in 1998, was reported to range from 0.1 to
2 µg/m3 (Table 26). Principal component analysis identified three major sources, namely
vehicle emissions, industrial emissions and soil resuspension (Balachandran et al., 2000).
Samples collected from high-exposure areas of Mumbai, India, had higher lead concen-
trations than those collected in other high-exposure areas of the world including Beijing
(China), Stockholm (Sweden) and Zagreb (Serbia and Montenegro) (Parikh et al., 1999).
A recent report of the Central Pollution Control Board (2001–2002) found concentrations
of lead in air in Mumbai, India, to be on the decline. In fact, the introduction of unleaded
petrol reduced lead concentrations in ambient air by about half in seven sites throughout
India (Central Pollution Control Board, 1998–99).
In Semarang, Indonesia, mean urban airborne lead concentrations were found to be
0.35 µg/m3 in a highway zone, 0.95 µg/m3 in a residential zone (mainly due to solid-waste
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Table 22. Lead concentrations in ambient air in central and eastern Europe
Country Location Mean concentration (µg/m3)a by year
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Bulgaria Sofia 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2

Pernik 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4
Plovdiv 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3
Kardjali 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.7
Czech Prague 0.06 0.04 0.01
Republicb Pribram 0.08 0.06 0.02
Usti n. Labem 0.06 0.04 0.03
Brno 0.07 0.08 0.05
Ostrava 0.05 0.08 0.05
Hungary Budapest 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.19
Pecs 0.42 0.44 0.25 0.21
Miskolc 0.18 0.12
Debrecen 0.56 0.30 0.27 0.28
c
Poland Katowice 0.73 0.90 1.16 0.68 0.68 0.78 0.58
Chorzuw 2.69 0.85 0.76 0.44 0.44 0.81 1.00
Pszczyna 0.64 0.55 0.45 0.49 0.49 0.62 0.16
Lodz 1.16 1.48 0.87 0.87 1.85 0.55
Romania Copsa Mica 30.30 21.30 16.07 42.20 18.91 12.70
Bucuresti 60.58 60.58 70.65 7.63
Bala Mare 5.45 8.20 97.50 15.07 16.12 13.34
Medias 10.15 21.80 7.20 4.18 9.99 14.70
Zlatna 22.72 27.10 10.00 14.00 9.44 11.46
Slovakia Bratislava 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.05 0.06
B. Bystrica 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.03
Ruzomberok 0.14 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.02
Richnava 0.50 0.53 0.46 0.14 0.14 0.21
Slovenia Trbovlje 0.90 0.70 0.30
Zagorje 1.50 0.70 0.30
Hrastnik 0.25 0.45 0.10
From Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (1998)
a
Italicized text denotes short-term maximal concentration.
b
Annual geometric means
c
Maximum average daily concentration
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Table 23. Lead concentration in outdoor air in Latin America and the
Caribbean
Country Location Year of Period covered Concentration Reference

study (µg/m3)
mean or range
of means
Bolivia La Paz NR NR 1.1 Romieu

et al. (1997)
Brazil S. Paulo 1985 Annual average 0.39 Romieu
Osasco 1985 Annual average 0.16 et al. (1997)
S. Caetano do Sul 1985 Annual average 0.31
Santo Amaro, 1989 4-day Tavares
Bahia, near (1990)
smelter
at 526 m 2.8
at 955 m 0.13
S. Francisco July 1994a 5-day 0.029 Tavares
Conde, Bahia Jan. 1995 0.0051 (1996a)
(downwind of oil
refinery)
Lamarao de Passé, July 1994 5-day 0.0162
Bahia (downwind Jan. 1995 0.0054
of petrochemical
complex)
Itacimirim/Praia July 1994 5-day 0.0015
do Forte, Bahia Jan. 1995 0.00025
(Atlantic air
masses)
Chile San Felipe 1996 NR 0.19 Frenz et al.
(1997)
NS 1990 Annual average 1.1 Romieu
et al. (1997)
Colombia Bogota 1990 3-month average 3.0 Romieu
et al. (1997)
Guatemala Tegucigalpa NR NR 0.18 Romieu
NS 1994 Annual average 0.17 et al. (1997)
Honduras NS 1994 Annual average 1.11 Romieu
NS 1994 3-month average 1.83 et al. (1997)
Mexico Mexico City 1988 3-month average 0.34–0.24 Romieu
1990 1.08–1.47 et al. (1997)
1994 0.24–0.37
1988 Annual average 1.95
1990 1.23
1994 0.28
1995 24-h average 0.54
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Table 23 (contd)
Country Location Year of Period covered Concentration Reference

study (µg/m3)
mean or range
of means
Peru NS 1980 3-month average 1.8 Romieu

1985 1.9 et al. (1997)
1990 2.2
1994 2.1
1980 Annual average 1.7
1985 1.5
1990 1.6
1994 1.7
Venezuela Caracas 1982 Annual average 4.5 Romieu
1986 2.6 et al. (1997)
1990 1.9
1994 1.6
NR, not reported; NS, not stated

a
July is in wet season whereas January is during the dry season.
Table 24. Lead concentration in indoor dust in Latin America and the
Caribbean
Country Location Year(s) Source of Concentration Reference

of study contamination (µg/g)
mean ± SD
or range of
means
Mexico Cd. Juarez, 1974 Lead smelter Ordóñez et al.

Chihuahua < 1.6 km 1322 ± 930 (2003)
1.6–4 km 220
Villa de la Paz NR Mining 955 (range, Yáñez et al.
220–5190) (2003)
Mexico City 1983 Multiple urban 587 ± 303 Bruaux &
Svartengren
(1985)
Venezuela Caracas (day- 1997–98 Urban 999–1707 Fernández
care centre) et al. (2003)
NR, not reported; SD, standard deviation

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Table 25. Lead concentrations in outdoor air and dust in Africa

of study contamination (µg/m3)a
mean or range of
means (range)
Egypt Cairo 1983–84 Town centre 3.0 Ali et al. (1986)

Residential/industrial 1.3
Residential district 1.4
Suburban district 0.6
Commercial 2.2
Cairo NR Industrial district 2 Hindy et al.
(1987); Nriagu
(1992)
Nigeria Lagos 1981 Urban setting 770–1820 µg/gb,c Ajayi & Kamson
(1983)
1991 Urban traffic 51–1180 µg/gb Ogunsola et al.
(1994a)
South Cape Town NR High traffic 1.5 (1.3–2.1) von Schirnding
Africa Low traffic 0.8 (0.4–0.9) et al. (1991a)
High traffic 2900–3620b
Low traffic 410–2580b
KwaZulu/ 1995 Industrial/highway 1.84 Nriagu et al.
Natal Commercial 0.86 (1996a)
Park/beach 0.56
Residential 0.44
Rural < 0.03
8 cities 1993–95 Urban setting 0.36–1.1 Nriagu et al.
(1996b)
Zambia Kasanda 1973–74 NR 10 (5–145) Nriagu (1992)
Adapted from Nriagu (1992)

NR, not reported
a
Unless specified otherwise
b
Lead concentrations in dust
c
Median values
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Table 26. Lead concentrations in outdoor air and dust in Asia
Country Location Year(s) Concentration Reference

of study (ng/m3)
mean or range of
means (range)
China Beijing and Shanghai 1984–97 60–980 Zhang, Z.-W. et al.

(1998)b
Provincial capitals 30–13 700
Other regions 8–2800
Beijing 21–318 Parikh et al. (1999)
Taiyuan Yang & Ma (1997)
Winter 490–1125
Summer 115–504
China (Province Tainan 180 [Environment
of Taiwan) Protection
Administration ROC
(1991)]
India Delhi 1998 100–2000 Balachandran et al.
(2000)
Delhi 2000 590 Central Pollution
2001 550 Control Board (2001–
2002)
Kolkata (road dust)c 536 µg/g Chatterjee & Banerjee
(1999)
Mumbai 82–605 (31–1040) Khandekar et al. (1984)
Mumbai 30–440 Raghunath et al. (1997)
Mumbai Nambi et al. (1997)
Industrial 500–120 000
Rural 110
Mumbai Parikh et al. (1999)
High-exposure area 432.4 (131–864)
Low-exposure area 268.2 (147–476)
Mumbai 1984–96 Tripathi et al. (2001)
Urban 100–1120
Industrial 1180–4120
Nagpur 1996 42–65 Patel et al. (2001)
7 cities 1980 60–310 Sadasivan et al. (1987)
Whole country 1994 11 000 Gupta & Dogra (2002)
Indonesia Semarang Browne et al. (1999)
Urban 350–990
Industrial 8410
Japan Tokyo and Kyoto 1996–97 15–81 Environment Agency,
Japan (1997)
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Table 26 (contd)
Country Location Year(s) Concentration Reference

of study (ng/m3)
mean or range of
means (range)
Korea Pusan 902–1596 [Moon & Lee (1992)]

Seoul 1984–93 100–1500d Lee et al. (1994)
Seoul 1986–94 22–1070 Reviewed by Moon &
Ikeda (1996)
Pusan 1990 1310 (210–2870) Cho et al. (1992)
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 30–462 [Hisham & Pertanika
(1995)]
Kuala Lumpur (urban) 95 Hashim et al. (2000)
Kemaman 27
(semiurban) 15
Setiu (rural)
Pakistanc Karachi 7.9–101.8 µg/g Rahbar et al. (2002)
Philippines Whole country 1993 600–1300 Environmental
Management Bureau
(1996)
1994 300–500
Manila 1994 300–1200d
1995 200–800d
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Al-Saleh (1998)
High traffic 3200
Residential 720
Thailand Bangkok 210–390 [Pollution Control
Department (1996)]
Updated from Ikeda et al. (2000a)

a
b
Review of 15 reports published primarily in China between 1984 and 1997
c
Lead concentration in dust
d
Values read from graphs
References in square brackets could not be retrieved as original papers.
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09/08/2006
Table 27. Lead concentrations in outdoor air in Japan, 1996–97, as monitored in 16 monitoring stations
Statistical Monthly average concentration (ng/m3)
11:15
parameter

1996 1997
Page 82
Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March Averageb
AMa 54.9 56.3 51.1 40.3 34.9 44.2 52.4 62.2 73.5 56.5 49.5 55.3 51.3
ASDa 28.0 23.6 24.3 21.1 13.9 24.9 28.0 31.5 34.2 26.6 23.0 21.3 23.1
Min 16 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 11 12 16 20 14 15 19 13
Max 110 100 84 81 59 85 99 120 130 100 77 87 81
GMa 45.0
GSDa 1.78
From Environment Agency, Japan (1997)

AM, arithmetic mean; ASD, arithmetic standard deviation; min, minimum; max, maximum; GM, geometric mean; GSD, geometric standard
deviation
a
Values calculated by the Working Group; values < 10 were not included in the calculations.
b
Mean, standard deviation, min. and max. of local annual arithmetic means among the 16 stations
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 83
burning) and 0.99 µg/m3 in a commercial zone. Airborne lead concentrations of 8.41 µg/m3
were recorded in an industrial area; values of this magnitude had not been reported
previously in Indonesia (Browne et al., 1999).
After leaded gasoline, lead mining and the smelting and refining of both primary and
secondary lead are the next highest sources of lead emissions that can cause contami-
nation of the nearby environment. The nature and extent of contamination depend on
many factors, including the level of production, the effectiveness of emission controls,
climate, topography and other local factors. Concentrations are usually highest within
3 km of the point source (US EPA, 1989, cited by WHO, 1995). For example, near a
smelter in Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil, 4-day average values in 1989 of 2.8 ± 1.0 µg/m3
(range, 1.8–3.9 µg/m3) were reported 526 m from the smelter chimney in one direction
and 0.13 ± 0.06 µg/m3 (range, 0.08–0.22 µg/m3) 955 m in the opposite direction (see
Table 23; Tavares, 1990). A report from China found that lead concentrations in ambient
air, plants and soil increased proportionally with proximity to a large primary smelter; air
lead concentrations were 1.3 µg/m3 at 1000 m from the source and 60 µg/m3 at 50 m from
the source (Wang, 1984). Some earlier studies have shown air pollution and soil contami-
nation as far as 10 km from lead smelters (Djuric et al., 1971; Landrigan et al., 1975a).
A survey conducted in the vicinity of three lead industries in Maharashtra, India,
showed the highest measured concentration of lead in air of 120 µg/m3 in a residential
area 200 m from one of the industries (see Table 26; Nambi et al., 1997).
High concentrations of lead in household dust in the vicinity of lead smelters or mining
activity, or from vehicles using leaded gasoline, have been reported (see Tables 24, 25 and
26). Lead concentrations in dust inside houses located in the vicinity of a lead smelter at
Cd. Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico, increased from 220 µg/g at 4 km to 1322 µg/g at less than
1.6 km from the smelter (Ordóñez et al., 2003). An international study coordinated by
WHO found a mean lead concentration (± standard deviation) in indoor dust in Mexico
City of 587 ± 303 µg/g, compared with 440 ± 263 µg/g and 281 ± 500 µg/g in Sweden and
Belgium, respectively (Bruaux & Svartengren, 1985). In 1997–98 lead concentrations of
floor dust in day-care centres in Caracas, Venezuela, ranged from 999 to 1707 µg/g
(Fernández et al., 2003).
Data on lead in air in South America are scarce, and refer only to total lead in suspen-
ded particles. One study of lead concentrations in incoming Atlantic air masses reaching
the north-eastern Brazilian coast in 1994–95 showed concentrations of 1.5 ng/m3 during
the rainy season (April–August) and of 0.25 ng/m3 during the dry season (September–
March) (see Table 23; Tavares, 1996a).
Biomass burning, which takes place during the dry season both for forest clearance
and for agricultural purposes, can be an important source of lead in rural environments
with otherwise low concentrations. Measurements in the Amazon forest during the wet
season (September–March) showed lead concentrations of 0.33–0.61 ng/m3 in particles
smaller than 2.5 µm and 0.26–0.50 ng/m3 in particles 2.5–10 µm in size; corresponding
values during the dry season (June–September) were 0.73 ng/m3 and 0.46 ng/m3, respec-
tively (Artaxo et al., 1990).
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Coal contains small amounts of lead, and fly ash from coal combustion and refuse
incineration can leach substantial amounts of lead into ambient air (Wadge & Hutton,
1987). In an urban area of Taiwan, China, where the winter is cold, lead concentrations in
air were reported to be about three times higher in winter (0.49–1.13 µg/m3) than in
summer (0.12–0.50 µg/m3), due to use of lead-containing coal for heating (Yang & Ma,
1997). Surveys of lead in air in seven cities in India indicated concentrations ranging from
0.06 ± 0.02 µg/m3 in Coimbatore to 0.31 ± 0.10 µg/m3 in Kanpur (Sadasivan et al., 1987).
In addition to automobile exhaust, increased fuel burning in the winter and open burning
of refuse were identified as sources of lead contamination (Table 26). In contrast, lead air
concentrations in Japan in 1996–97 averaged 50 ng/m3 and little seasonal variation was
observed (Table 27).
Lead concentrations in indoor air are affected by the presence of smokers, air condi-
tioning and lead-painted surfaces. Two studies conducted in the Netherlands and the United
Kingdom showed that air lead concentrations inside dwellings where there is no major
internal lead source were highly correlated with those outside and averaged approximately
60% of those in the external air immediately outside the house (Diemel et al., 1981; Davies
et al., 1987).
(c) Water
Lead enters groundwater from natural weathering of rocks and soil, indirectly from
atmospheric fallout and directly from industrial sources. Lead can enter freshwater bodies
from municipal sewage, from harbour activities and from lead storage sites and production
plants, particularly mining and smelting. In local aquatic environments, pollution can also
result from leaching of lead from lead shot, shotgun cartridges and fishing weights (WHO,
1995). The concentration of lead in surface water is highly variable depending upon the
sources of pollution, the lead content of sediments and the characteristics of the system
(pH, temperature). An additional and distinct hazard to the water supply is the use of lead
piping or lead solder in plumbing systems. Water with low pH and low concentrations of
dissolved salts (referred to as aggressive or corrosive water) can leach substantial quantities
of lead from pipes, solder and fixtures (ASTDR, 1999). Lead-lined reservoirs, cisterns and
water tanks can be a major source of lead contamination of drinking-water.
Lead concentrations in surface water, groundwater and tap-water in different geo-
graphical regions of the world are presented in Tables 28–31. A few examples are detailed
below, according to the type of water analysed.
Seawater generally contains low levels of lead. It was estimated that lead concen-
trations in the ocean were 0.0005 µg/L in the pre-industrial era and around 0.005 µg/L in
the late 1970s (US EPA, 1982).
Concentrations of lead in surface water and groundwater throughout the USA typi-
cally range between 5 and 30 µg/L and between 1 and 100 µg/L, respectively, although
concentrations as high as 890 µg/L have been measured (US EPA, 1986a). The mean
concentration of lead measured at nearly 40 000 surface-water stations throughout the
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11:15
Table 28. Lead concentrations in water in Latin America and the Caribbean
Country Location Year of Source of contamination Concentration (µg/L) Reference
Page 85
study mean (range)
Argentina La Plata river, Buenos Aires Industry, sewage, harbour Verrengia Guerrero & Kesten
Port 1989 activities 28.1 (2.4–58.6) (1994)
Fishing Club 1989 11.3 (9.9–16.4)
Bolivia Pilcomayo river (at Potosi) 1999 Mine tailings 1399 (911–2111) Smolders et al. (2003)
Tarapaya river 1999 Mine tailings 2291 (1101–3980)
Cachi Mayu 1999 No specific source 1.0 ( 0.6–1.7)
Brazil Ribeira do Iguape river 1994 NR < 20–70 Romieu et al. (1997)
Sao Paulo State 1994 NR 2.8
Chile Antofagasta (household) 1998 Lead storage site Max. 170 Sepúlveda et al. (2000)
Mexico Drinking-water 1983 No specific source 2 ± 1 (1–3) Bruaux & Svartengren (1985)
Uruguay Tap-water 1992 Lead pipes 15 (0.2–230) Schütz et al. (1997)
NR, not reported; max., maximum concentration (µg/L)
85
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Table 29. Lead concentrations in fresh water, seawater and sediment

in the Canary Islands, Egypt and Nigeria
Country Location Type of water/ Concentration Reference

sediment mean or range
of means
(range)
Canary Islands Santa Cruz Seawater 1.4–11.3 µg/L Díaz et al. (1990)
(Spain) (0.42–116.9)
Egypt Lake Nubia Sediment 79 µg/g Lasheen (1987)a
Alexandria Seawater 0.05–0.7 µg/L Abdel-Moati &
Sediment 2–49 µg/g Atta (1991)
Nigeria Agunpa river River water 1.3–46 µg/L Mombeshora
Sediment 62–75 µg/g et al. (1983)
Ona river River water 0.2–17 µg/L
Sediment 25–58 µg/g
Adapted from Nriagu (1992)

a
Original paper was not available.
USA was 3.9 µg/L (Eckel & Jacob, 1988). Lead concentrations in surface water are typi-
cally higher in urban areas than in rural areas (US EPA, 1982).
Lead concentrations in the La Plata river at two sites in Buenos Aires, Argentina,
ranged from 2.4 to 58.6 µg/L at the port area and from 9.9 to 16.4 µg/L at the Fishing Club
(Table 28; Verrengia Guerrero & Kesten, 1994). The Ribeira do Iguape river, in South
Brazil, receiving urban and industrial effluents, showed lead concentrations between < 20
and 70 µg/L in 1994 (Romieu et al., 1997). Intensive mining and tailing releases to the
Pilcomayo and Tarapaya rivers resulted in mean lead concentrations in the water of 1399
and 2291 µg/L, respectively, against 1.0 µg/L in Cachi Mayu, which had not been conta-
minated by specific lead sources (Smolders et al., 2003).
Lead contamination of groundwater around the Hussain Sagar lake, Hyderabad, India,
indicated that the source of pollution was the contaminated lake. Lead was detected at
concentrations in the range of 1–28 µg/L in groundwater and 38.4–62.5 µg/L in the lake
(Table 30). The concentrations were appreciably higher than those for uncontaminated
fresh waters which are generally below 1 µg/L (Srikanth et al., 1993). During a 2-year
study of the Nainital lake, India, the average lead contamination levels in water and
sediment were 600 µg/mL and 50.0 µg/g, respectively (Ali et al., 1999). The lead content
in various bodies of water in India ranged from 35 to 70 µg/L in the Eastern Ghats (Rai
et al., 1996), from 350 to 720 µg/L in various lakes in Lucknow, and from 510 to
1510 µg/L in Unnao (Chandra et al., 1993). In the Gomti river, lead concentrations of
13–26 µg/L were reported (Singh, 1996) and in the Ganga river from 0.98 to 6.5 µg/L
(Israili, 1991). The waters of Vasai Creek (Maharashtra, India) had concentrations of
10.5–29.5 µg/L, which was the result of contamination from 18 major industries that
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Table 30. Lead concentrations in water and sediment in Asia
Country Location Type of water/ Concentration Reference Comments
sediment (µg/L)a
mean or range of

means (range)
11:15
India Pilani Tube well 88 (21–354) Kaphalia et al. (1981) pH of water, 7.5–9.1
Lucknow Tap-water 33 (0–67)
Page 87
River 35 (8–58)
Cambay Tank 6 (0–16)
Kanpur villages Tube well 20 (0–40)
Company Tube well 24 (0–80)
Mumbai Drinking-water 12 ± 3 Khandekar et al.
(1984)
Various cities along Ganga River 0.98–6.5 Israili (1991) Highest concentration in
river Sediment 1.2–16.0 µg/g water and sediment at
Garsh Mukteshwara
5 cities along Yamuna river River (10 samples) 0.76–8.51 Israili & Khurshid
(1991)
Koraput (Orissa) Water stations 15 ± 1 Chandra et al. (1993)
Unnao (Uttar Pradesh) 510 ± 50 (summer)
1510 ± 150 (winter)
Various sites along Gomti River Singh (1996) Highest concentrations at
river unfiltered 13–25 Mohan Meakin, Sultampur
filtered 9–21 and Pipraghat
Hussain Sagar lake, Lake 38.4–62.5 Srikanth et al. (1993)
Hyderabad Ground water
200–1000 m 7–28
from lake
1000–2000 m 1–9
from lake
87
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Table 30 (contd)
88
Country Location Type of water/ Concentration Reference Comments
sediment (µg/L)a
mean or range of
09/08/2006
means (range)
India Eastern Ghats (Koraput Drinking-water facilities Rai et al. (1996)

(contd) Orrisa) adequate 54 ± 5
primitive 35 ± 5
absent 70 ± 37
11:15
Nainital Lake water 150–480 Ali et al. (1999)

Sediment 50.0 µg/g
Vasai Creek, Maharashtra River/sea 10.5–29.5 Lokhande & Kelkar
Page 88
(1999)
Mumbai Drinking-water Parikh et al. (1999)
High exposure area 2.8 ± 0.8
Low exposure area 4.5 ± 1.7
Nagpur Tap-water 2.82 Patel et al. (2001)
Well 3.30
Lucknow Lake and ponds 350–720 Rai & Sinha (2001)
Darbhanga District, North- 9 ponds [147–1056] Rai et al. (2002) Data for 1996–97; highest
Bihar Sediment [72.21–240.95 µg/g] values for water and
sediment in same pond
Indonesia Central Kalimantan 6 rivers 0.41–5.23 Kurasaki et al. (2000) Motor boats are an
3 channels 0.1–1.28 important mode of
3 lakes 0.28–11.48 transport.
1 fish pond 0.51
Malaysia Klang river 1992b 28 APEC (1997)
1993 21
1994 18.6
1995 25.9
1996 8
Pakistan Karachi Drinking-water from 3.1–4.3 Rahbar et al. (2002)
household
a
b
Year of sample collection
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Table 31. Lead concentration in drinking-water, Japan, 2001
Number [%] of samples with lead concentration (µg/L)
Total <5 5–< 10 10–< 15 ≥ 15
Source water 5178 5110 53 5 10

[98.69] [1.02] [0.10] [0.19]
Treated watera 5647 5536 84 14 13
[98.03] [1.49] [0.25] [0.23]
From Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan (2001)

a
Concentrations measured at drinking-water treatment plants
Note: A drinking-water standard of < 10 µg/L lead was established in Japan as of
1 April, 2004 (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan, 2003).
collectively released about seven tonnes of lead per year into the creek (Lokhande &
Kelkar, 1999).
Among six locations along four rivers in central Kalimantan, Indonesia, the highest
lead concentrations were found in the Kahayan river (5.23 and 2.09 µg/L at two sampling
sites), followed by Murung river (1.71 µg/L). Of various channel, lake and pond waters
(7 locations), lake Tundai was found to be by far the most contaminated with lead
(11.48 µg/L), followed by channel Dablabup (1.28 µg/L) (Kurasaki et al., 2000).
Surveys in Canada and the USA showed that drinking-water supplies leaving
treatment plants contain 2–8 µg/L lead (US EPA, 1986a; Dabeka et al., 1987). EPA
estimated that less than 1% of the public water systems in the USA have water entering
the distribution system with lead concentrations above 5 µg/L. However, most lead conta-
mination comes from corrosion by-products of lead pipes and lead-soldered joints
(US EPA, 1991). A survey of 1245 drinking-water samples taken from various districts in
the USA showed that average lead concentrations in water in copper, galvanized and
plastic pipes were 9, 4.2 and 4.5 µg/L, respectively. These data show that even plumbing
that did not use lead solder (e.g. plastic pipes) contained significant amounts of lead,
primarily from the brass faucet fixtures which are used in almost all plumbing. The brass
fixtures may account for approximately one-third of the lead in the first-draw water (Lee
et al., 1989).
Following an increased volcanic activity that resulted in the release of acid aerosols,
Wiebe et al. (1991) analysed over 2000 water samples in Hawaii, USA, and found lead
concentrations in drinking-water collected in catchment systems ranging from < 20 to
7000 µg/L.
The use of lead pipes in Uruguay resulted in tap-water concentrations of lead ranging
between 0.2 and 230 µg/L (Schütz et al., 1997). In 1983, lead concentrations in drinking-
water from an underground source in Mexico City, Mexico, ranged between 1 and 3 µg/L,
in spite of the past intensive use of lead in petrol (Bruaux & Svartengren, 1985). Storage
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 90
of minerals near urban areas in Antofagasta, Chile, resulted in concentrations of lead in

household water of up to 170 µg/L in 1998 (Sepúlveda et al., 2000).
Water samples collected from tube wells, tanks and taps in India showed lead concen-
trations that varied between 0 and 354 µg/L (Kaphalia et al., 1981). The lead concentration
in drinking-water in Karachi, Pakistan, was found to be in the range of 3.08–4.32 µg/L as
an arithmetic mean for each of five monitored areas (Rahbar et al., 2002). Throughout
Japan, more than 98% of the drinking-water samples had concentrations below 5 µg/L
(Table 31; Ministry of Health, Labour & Welfare, 2001).
Gulson et al. (1997a) measured lead in household water throughout the day in an
unoccupied test house in Australia. Lead concentrations in water ranged from 119 µg/L for
the initial (first-draw) sample to 35–52 µg/L for hourly samples (125 mL) to 1.7 µg/L for
a fully flushed sample.
(d) Sediments
Lead reaching surface waters is readily bound to suspended solids and sediments, and
sediments from both freshwater and marine environments have been studied for their lead
content. Sediments contain considerably higher concentrations of lead than corresponding
surface waters, and provide a unique record of the history of global lead fluxes (WHO,
1995).
Concentrations of lead in sediments in Africa, Asia and Latin America are
summarized in Tables 29, 30 and 32, respectively.
Average concentrations of lead in river sediments in the USA have been reported to
be about 23 mg/kg (Fitchko & Hutchinson, 1975; US EPA, 1982). In coastal sediments a
mean value of 87 mg/kg was measured (range, 1–912 mg/kg) (Nriagu, 1978; US EPA,
1982). Surface sediment concentrations of lead in Puget Sound, near Seattle, were found
to range from 15 to 53 mg/kg (Bloom & Crecelius, 1987). An analysis of sediments taken
from 10 lakes in Pennsylvania indicated that the lead does not principally originate from
parent materials in the watershed (from the native rocks as a result of acid deposition), but
rather from transport of anthropogenic lead through the atmosphere onto the soil surface
and subsequent run-off of soil particulates into the lake (Case et al., 1989).
The main reported sources of lead entering surface-water bodies in Latin America have
been metallurgy, smelter and mining effluents, oil refineries and port activities. In Brazil,
the All Saints bay showed values of 119 mg/kg in sediments at the river mouth downstream
from a smelter; 176 mg/kg at the river mouth downstream from an oil refinery; and
618 mg/kg in the vicinity of metallurgical industries and an industrial port, compared with
35.7 mg/kg in an area with no specific source of lead, away from industries (Tavares,
1996a,b).
Mine tailings in Bolivia were responsible for an increase in lead concentrations from
7.4 mg/kg in Cachi mayu, where no specific source of lead contamination exists, to
average values of 603 mg/kg (range, 292–991 mg/kg) and 902 mg/kg (range, 761–1236
mg/kg), in sediments from the Pilcomayo river at Potosi and from the Tarapaya river,
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Table 32. Lead in sediments in Latin America and the Caribbean

of study contamination (µg/g)
mean (range)
Brazil All Saints bay, 1994 Downstream from 119 Tavares

São Brás lead smelter (1996b)
All Saints bay, 1994 Oil refinery 176
Mataripe river
mouth
All Saints bay, 1994 Metallurgies, 618
Aratu Port industrial port
All Saints bay, 1994 No specific source 35.7
Cabuçu
Ribeira do Iguape 1994 NR (3–240) Romieu et al.
river (1997)
Jacareí, São Paulo 1994 NR (10–9100)
Bolivia Pilcomayo river, 1997–98 Mine tailings 603 Smolders et al.
Potosi (292–991) (2003)
Tarapaya river 1997–98 Mine tailings 902
(761–1236)
Cachi mayu 1997–98 No specific source 7.4
(3.3–9.9)
Honduras Yojoa lake NR NR 371 Romieu et al.
(1997)
Mexico Gulf of Mexico 1983–87 NR (0.29–90.15) Albert &
coast Badilloa (1991)
Uruguay Montevideo NR NR (20–160) Romieu et al.
(1997)
NR, not reported

a
Review of 7 studies at 8 sites
respectively (Smolders et al., 2003). Mean concentrations of lead in sediments from the
Gulf of Mexico were found to range from 0.29 to 90.15 mg/kg (Albert & Badillo, 1991).
(e) Soil
Most of the lead released into the environment from emissions or as industrial waste
is deposited in soil. Lead-containing wastes result from the processing of ores, the pro-
duction of iron and steel, the various end-products and uses of lead, and the removal and
remediation of lead paint (ATSDR, 1999). Lead in soil may be relatively insoluble (as a
sulfate, carbonate or oxide), soluble, adsorbed onto clays, adsorbed and coprecipitated
with sesquioxides, adsorbed onto colloidal organic matter or complexed with organic
moieties present in soil (WHO, 1995). The soil pH, the content of humic and fulvic acids
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 92
and the amount of organic matter influence the content and mobility of lead in soils. Since
acidic conditions favour the solubilization and leaching of lead from the solid phase,
acidic soils tend to have lower lead concentrations when analysed as dry soil. Acid rain
promotes the release of lead into groundwater. Humic and fulvic acids can also mobilize
lead, and certain complex organic molecules can act as chelators of lead (WHO, 1995).
Table 33 shows some sources and amounts of lead released in soils worldwide.
Tables 34, 35 and 36 summarize data on lead concentration in soils in Latin America,
Africa and Asia, respectively.
Background concentrations of lead in soil measured across the USA in the 1970s were
estimated to be in the range of < 10–70 mg/kg (Boerngen & Shacklette, 1981). Soil
samples taken at distances of 50–100 m from highways, outside the range of immediate
impact from traffic emissions, usually show concentrations of lead below 40 mg/kg (WHO,
1995).
Studies carried out in Maryland and Minnesota indicate that within large light-
industrial urban settings such as Baltimore, soil lead concentrations are generally highest
in inner-city areas, especially where high traffic flows have long prevailed (Mielke et al.,
1983, 1989); the amount of lead in the soil is correlated with the size of the city, which in
turn is related to traffic density (Mielke et al., 1989; Mielke, 1991). It has been suggested
that the higher lead concentrations in soil samples taken around houses in the inner city
are the result of greater atmospheric lead content from the burning of leaded gasoline in
cars and the washdown by rain of building surfaces to which the small lead particles
adhere (Mielke et al., 1989).
Table 33. Discharge of lead in soil worldwide
Source of lead Amount released (tonnes/year)
Agricultural and food wastes 1500–27 000

Animal wastes, manure 3200–20 000
Logging and other wood wastes 6600–8200
Urban refuse 18 000–62 000
Municipal sewage sludge 2800–9700
Miscellaneous organic wastes, including excreta 20–1600
Solid wastes, metal manufacturing 4100–11 000
Coal fly ash, bottom fly ash 45 000–242 000
Fertilizer 420–2300
Peat (agricultural and fuel use) 450–2600
Wastage of commercial products 195 000–390 000
Atmospheric fallout 202 000–263 000
Mine tailings 130 000–390 000
Smelter slags and wastes 195 000–390 000
Total yearly discharge on land 803 090–1 818 800
From Nriagu and Pacyna (1988)

Many of these discharges remain localized due to the nature of the particulate matter.
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09/08/2006
Table 34. Lead concentrations in soils in Latin America and the Caribbean
Country Location Year(s) of Source of contamination Concentration (mg/kg) Reference

study mean ± SD (range)
11:15
Argentina Buenos Aires 1975 NR 6–12 Romieu et al. (1997)
Page 93
Brazil Santo Amaro, Bahia a
1980 900 m from smelter, 12 m 10 601 ± 14 611 Tavares (1990)
high chimney (32–107 268)
4415 ± 4.4b
1985 90 m high chimney 4812 ± 8523
(236–83 532)
2529 ± 2.9b
Jacareí, São Paolo 1994 NR (51–338) Romieu et al. (1997)
Chile Antofagasta 1998 Storage of minerals (81–3159) Sepúlveda et al.
(2000)
1998 Upwind from storage site (51–321)
Ecuador Andean village NR Glazing of ceramics Counter et al. (2000)
La Victoria At 1 m 29 213 ± 9458a
At 5 m 172 ± 26
At 10 m 81 ± 13
At 1 km 55 ± 2
At 2 km 19 ± 1
At 6 km 1.4 ± 0.1
Mambija, San Carlos and Control area (2.3–21)
Esmeraldas
93
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94
09/08/2006
Table 34 (contd)
Country Location Year(s) of Source of contamination Concentration (mg/kg) Reference

study mean ± SD (range)
11:15
Mexico N and NE Mexico city 1980–81 Traffic fallout 5.3 ± 1.5 Albert & Badillo

irrigation districts (1991)
Page 94
Mexico city airport 1979 Traffic fallout (739–890)
Mexico city centre 1979 Traffic fallout (6–107)
Mexico city 1979 Traffic fallout (43–578)
Viaducto Piedad
Mexico city 1979 Traffic fallout (2.1–2.7)
Estadio Azteca
Venezuela Caracas, 1997–98 Traffic (high flow) Particle size, 44–62.5 µm: Fernández et al.
Day-care centres 113–375 (2003)
Particle size, < 44 µm:
190–465
Traffic (low flow) Particle size, 44–62.5 µm:
106 ± 3
Particle size, < 44 µm:
142 ± 3
NR, not reported; SD, standard deviation

a
Leachable lead
b
Geometric mean and standard deviation
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Table 35. Lead concentrations in soil in Saudi Arabia and Africa
Country Location Source of contamination Concentration Reference

(mg/kg)
mean or range
of means (range)
Saudi Arabia NR Heavy traffic 95.3 Al-Saleh

Residential 34.5 (1998)
Kenya Nairobi City traffic 137–2196 Onyari et al.
Industrial area 148–4088 (1991)
Zambia Kasanda 2 km from lead smelter 100–> 2400 Nriagu (1992)
Kabwe 5 km from lead smelter (9862–2580) Nwankwo &
Lusaka No specific 16 (11–40) Elinder (1979)
NR, not reported
Lead-based paint can also be a major source of lead in soil. In the state of Maine, USA,
37% of soil samples taken within 1–2 feet (30–60 cm) of the foundation of a building more
than 30 years of age had lead concentrations > 1000 mg/kg (Krueger & Duguay, 1989).
In a study of the association between the concentrations of lead in soil and in blood
samples taken from children in urban and rural areas in Louisiana, USA, blood lead
concentrations in children appeared to be closely associated with soil lead concentration
(Mielke et al., 1997a).
Three prospective studies were conducted in Boston, Baltimore and Cincinnati, USA,
to determine whether abatement of lead in soil could reduce blood lead concentrations of
children. No significant evidence was found that lead reduction had any direct impact on
children’s blood lead concentrations in either Baltimore or Cincinnati (US EPA, 1996b).
In the Boston study, however, a median soil lead reduction from 2075 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg
resulted in a mean decline of 2.47 µg/dL blood lead concentration 10 months after soil
remediation (Weitzman et al., 1993; Aschengrau et al., 1994). A number of factors appear
to be important in determining the influence of soil abatement on blood lead concen-
trations in children, including the site-specific exposure scenario, the extent of the reme-
diation, and the magnitude of additional sources of lead exposure.
Children with pica — a serious eating disorder characterized by repetitive consump-
tion of nonfood items — may be at increased risk for adverse effects through ingestion of
large amounts of soil contaminated with lead. It has been estimated that an average child
may ingest on average between 20 and 50 mg of soil per day through normal hand-to-
mouth activity, whereas a child with pica may ingest up to 5000 mg of soil per day
(LaGoy, 1987). This source can contribute an additional lead intake of 5 µg/day for a
toddler engaging in normal hand-to-mouth activity, and significantly more for a child
demonstrating pica behaviour (ATSDR, 1999).
Davis et al. (1992, 1994), using electron microprobe analysis of soil and waste rock
from the mining district of Butte, Montana, USA, showed that the lead bioavailability of
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96
Table 36. Lead concentrations in soil and plants in Asia
09/08/2006
Country Location Source of Lead concentration in: Reference Comments
contamination
Soil (mg/kg) Plant (mg/kg)
11:15
China NR Smelter Wang (1984)
50 m 170 29.1

500 m 28 1.7
Page 96
India Mumbai Lead industries 200–3454 145–1048 (grass) Nambi et al.
Control 8.6 1.42 (1997)
Residential area Lead factory 200–46 700 214 ± 17 (leaf) Chatterjee & Soil contaminated at
of greater Kolkata Banerjee (1999) least up to 0.5 km
Coimbatore Sewage Surface: 13.3–22.2 Duraisamy et al. The highest values
Subsurface: 10.26–19.3 (2003) were found in Nov.–
Dec. and the lowest in
March.
Coimbatore Fertilization with 1992: 24–47.2 Kamaraj et al. Fertilizer used during
superphosphate and 2000: 32.4–63.2 (2003) entire period
zinc sulfate
Mongolia Urban 92 Burmaa et al.
Residential 44 (2002)
Philippines Manila Playground Sharma &
contaminated 34.5–281.5 Reutergardh
control 15 (2000)
Thailand Grazing-land site Highway 5.25–14.59 0.76–6.62 (grass) Parkpian et al.
(2003)
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 97
these samples is constrained by alteration and encapsulation of the lead-bearing minerals

(galena, anglesite, cerussite and plumbojarosite), which would limit the available lead-
bearing surface area. The inherent chemical properties of soil-lead adsorption sites may
reduce the bioavailability of soil lead compared with that of soluble lead salts and lead
compounds ingested without soil and may explain the low blood lead concentrations
observed in children in this mining community.
Davies (1983) calculated that uncontaminated soils in the United Kingdom have a
(geometric) mean lead concentration of 42 mg/kg, with a maximum of 106 mg/kg.
A study conducted in Wales, United Kingdom, in an area where lead mining began
2000 years ago and ended in the middle of the 20th century, reported concentrations of
lead in garden soils 14 times higher than in uncontaminated areas (Davies et al., 1985).
In Port Pirie, Australia, a community with one of the world’s largest and oldest
primary lead smelters, lead concentrations in soils were found to be grossly elevated,
ranging up to over 2000 mg/kg (McMichael et al., 1985). The frequency of elevated lead
concentrations in the blood of pregnant women and young children in this community
was also increased above that found in other communities in Australia (Wilson et al.,
1986; McMichael et al., 1988).
The main reported sources of lead in soil in Latin America have been from smelter
activities, storage of minerals, glazing of ceramics, and leaded gasoline (Table 34). In
Santo Amaro, Brazil, in 1980, lead concentrations as high as 107 268 mg/kg in soil have
been found in orchards and homes around a smelter (arithmetic mean value for the area
within 900 m from the smelter, 10 601 mg/kg), as a result of the use of dross as paving
material around houses. At that time, the smelter had a 12-m high chimney. Five years later,
after a 90-m high chimney was built, these values dropped to mean values of 4812 mg/kg
(Tavares, 1990). In Antofagasta, in the north of Chile, storage of minerals resulted in lead
concentrations up to 3159 mg/kg in soil around the site compared with values of 51–321
mg/kg upwind from the site (Sepúlveda et al., 2000). Analysis of soil around ceramic
glazing facilities in an Andean Equadorian village showed a significant fall in lead soil
concentration with distance from the baking kilns; concentrations were 29 213 mg/kg at
1 m, 55 mg/kg at 1 km and 1.4 mg/kg at 6 km from the kilns (Counter et al., 2000). In
1979, when tetraethyl lead was still added to gasoline, soil lead concentrations in Mexico
City, Mexico, were determined near avenues in different parts of the city. Higher
concentrations of lead were found in the north and north-west of the city, with the highest
values found at the airport, ranging from 739 to 890 mg/kg. The centre of the city showed
values between 6 and 107 mg/kg (Albert & Badillo, 1991). In 1980–81, agricultural soils
north and north-east of the city, irrigated either directly from wastewaters or with clean
water, were analysed for lead; there was no influence of irrigation on soil lead
concentrations (Albert & Badillo, 1991). Soil lead concentrations in day-care centres near
areas of high traffic flow in Caracas, Venezuela, ranged between 113 and 465 mg/kg, with
higher values in soil particles < 44 µm (Fernández et al., 2003). In Argentina, a study of
phosphate fertilizers imported from different parts of the world showed lead concentrations
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between 5.1 and 30.7 mg/kg, which could potentially increase lead concentrations in soils
undergoing continuous fertilization (Giuffré de López Camelo et al., 1997).
A number of studies have reported soil lead concentrations in the proximity of
smelters and mining areas. A report from China found that lead concentrations in ambient
air, plants and soil increased proportionally with proximity to a primary smelter: lead con-
centration in soil was 28.0 mg/kg at 500 m and 170 mg/kg at 50 m distance from the
smelter (Wang, 1984).
Concentrations of lead in soil have been found elevated in many locations in Asia
(Table 36), such as in the vicinity of a lead refinery in Kolkata, India (Chatterjee &
Banerjee, 1999), in sewage-affected soils (Duraisamy et al., 2003), or on a playground in
Manila, Philippines (Sharma & Reutergardh, 2000).
(f) Lead in gasoline

Globally, by far the largest source of lead emissions into air has been exhaust from
motor vehicles using organic lead as an anti-knock agent in gasoline (see Section 1.3.7).
In motor-vehicle exhaust from leaded gasoline, > 90% of the lead emission is inorganic
lead (e.g. lead bromochloride) and < 10% is alkyl lead vapour. Furthermore, alkyl lead
compounds decompose in the atmosphere to lead oxides through a combination of photo-
lysis and oxidation reactions, over a period ranging from a few hours to a few days
(ATSDR, 1999). Vehicle emissions increase lead concentrations in the surrounding air,
and lead compounds adhere to dust particles that settle and increase the lead content of
dusts and soils, thus constituting a major source of exposure of the general population. By
comparing ratios of stable lead isotopes in remote areas with those characteristic of lead
from industrial sources in various regions, investigators have shown that the lead found in
pristine areas such as Greenland and Antarctica originated from motor vehicle exhaust
from North America (Rosman et al., 1994a) and South America (Rosman et al., 1994b),
respectively.
Nriagu and Pacyna (1988) estimated that in 1983 mobile sources worldwide contri-
buted 248 000 tonnes of lead to the atmosphere. This compares with total estimated
emissions to the atmosphere from all sources of 288 700–376 000 tonnes. By 1997, global
emissions from leaded gasoline had been reduced to 40 000 tonnes and are still declining,
as permissible lead contents of gasoline have been lowered and unleaded gasoline has
replaced, or is replacing, leaded fuel in many countries (see Table 20). However, in a
number of countries, leaded gasoline is still in use (see Section 1.3.7). Table 37 shows lead
concentrations in gasoline over time in a number of countries worldwide.
In Japan, the use of lead in gasoline had been phased out since 1974 and reached almost
zero in 1983 (Friberg & Vahter, 1983). The Central Pollution Control Board in India
(1998–1999) reported a 50% reduction of lead concentration in air as unleaded gasoline
came into use. Leaded gasoline has been banned in India with effect from February 2000.
In Pakistan, the addition of lead to gasoline was reduced in 1998–99 from 0.42 to 0.34 g/L
in regular gasoline and from 0.84 to 0.42 g/L in high-octane gasoline. In 2001, a directive
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
Table 37. Lead concentrations in gasoline, air and blood in adults and children worldwide
Country Location Population Year(s) Lead concentration in Reference
09/08/2006
of study
Gasoline Aira Blooda
(g/L) (µg/m3) (µg/dL)
Belgium NR ≥ 20 years 1979 0.45 1.05 17.0b Ducoffre et al. (1990)

1983 0.40 0.66 14.7b
11:15
1987 0.15 0.49 9.0b
Canada Ontario 3–6 years 1984 0.30 NR 11.9c (11.3–12.6)d Loranger & Zayed (1994);
1988 0.09 NR 5.1c (4.8–5.4)d Langlois et al. (1996)
Page 99
1990 0.04 NR 3.6c (3.3–3.9)d
1992 0.00 NR 3.5c (3.1–3.8)d
Finland Helsinki Children 1983 0.35 0.33 4.8 (2.1–8.3) Pönkä et al. (1993); Pönkä
1988 0.14 0.095 3.0 (2.1–4.1) (1998)
1996 0.00 0.007 2.6 (1.7–3.7)
Greece Athens Adults 1979 0.80 3.2 NR Chartsias et al. (1986);
1982 0.40 1.76 16.0 Kapaki et al. (1998)
1984 0.22 0.91 11.8
1988 0.15 0.7 8
1993 0.14 0.43 5.5
Italy Turin ≥ 18 years 1974 0.6 4.7 NR Facchetti (1989); Bono et al.
1980 0.6 3.1 21 (1995)
1985 0.4 2.8 15.1 (± 3.9)e
1989 0.3 1.4 NR
1993 0.11 0.53 6.4 (± 1.7)e
Japan Rural ≥ 20 years 1977–80 0.00 NR 4.9c (± 0.15)e (men) Watanabe et al. (1985)
3.2c (± 0.15)e (women)
Mexico Mexico City 0.5–3 years 1988 0.2 NR 12.2 Octel Ltd (1982, 1988,
1989 0.2 NR 14.6 1990); Driscoll et al. (1992);
1990 0.18 NR 9.8 Mexico City Commission for
1991 0.08 NR 8.6 Prevention and Control of
1992 0.07 NR 9 Pollution (1993); Rothenberg
1993 0.06 NR 7 et al. (1998)
99
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100
Table 37 (contd)

of study
09/08/2006
Nepal Himalayas Adults and NR 0.00 < 0.004g 3.4c Piomelli et al. (1980)
children
11:15
New Zealand Christchurch Adults and 1978–81 0.84 NR 15.2 Hinton et al. (1986);
children 1982–83 0.84 NR 11.8 Walmsley et al. (1988, 1995)

1984–85 0.84 NR 8.1
Page 100
1989 0.45 NR 7.3
1994 0.2 NR 4.9
South Africa Cape Town Adults 1984 0.84 NR 9.7 (3.0–16.0) Maresky & Grobler (1993)
1990 0.40 NR 7.2 (0.62–14.1)
Spain Barcelona 20–60 years 1984 0.60 1.03 18.6 (6.8–38.9) Rodamilans et al. (1996)
19–63 years 1994 0.15 0.24 (0.18–0.3) 8.8 (0.9–31.8)
Tarragona 16–65 years 1990 0.40 2.0 (0.97–3.26) 12.0c (± 1.8)e Schuhmacher et al. (1996a)
1995 0.13 0.23 (0.02–0.43) 6.3c (± 1.8)e
Sweden Trelleborg 3–19 years 1979 0.40 NA 5.6c (2.7–10.4) [Stockholm Municipal
1983 0.15 NA 4.2c (1.9–8.1) Environment and Health
1993 0.00 NA 2.3c (1.0–6.7) Administration (1983)];
Strömberg et al. (1995)
Stockholm Adults 1980 0.40 1.20 7.7 (± 3.3)e Elinder et al. (1986)
1983 0.15 0.50 5.4 (± 3.3)e
Landskrona 3–19 years 1978 0.40 0.12–0.42 6.0c (1.8–25.0) Skerfving et al. (1986);
1982 0.15 0.17 4.8c (1.5–10.0) Schütz et al. (1989);
1984 0.15 NA 4.2c (1.4–12.9) Strömberg et al. (1995)
1988 0.00 NA 3.3c (1.5–7.1)
1994 0.00 NA 2.5c (1.2–12.3)
Switzerland Vaud, 25–74 years 1984–85 0.15 NR 10.3c (8.0–17.2)f Wietlisbach et al. (1995)
Fribourg 1988–89 0.10 NR 7.3c (5.6–12.7)f
1992–93 0.05 NR 5.9c (4.4–10.2)f
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
Table 37 (contd)
09/08/2006
of study
11:15
United England ≥ 11 years 1979 0.42 NR 12.9c Quinn (1985); Quinn &
Kingdom 1981 0.38 NR 11.4c Delves, 1987, 1988, 1989;
1984 0.38 NR 8.0–10.9c Delves et al. (1996)
Page 101
1985 0.38 0.48 9.5c
1986 0.14 0.24 8.4c
1995 0.055 NR 3.1c
USA Countrywide 1–74 years 1976 0.465 0.97 15.9 Annest et al. (1983);
1977 0.394 14.0 [US EPA (1985; 1992)];
1978 0.349 14.6 Brody et al. (1994); Pirkle
1979 0.306 0.71 12.1 et al. (1994)
1980 0.30 0.49 9.5
1988–91 0.00 0.07 (0.05–0.12)d 2.8c (2.7–3.0)d
Venezuela Caracas ≥ 15 years 1986 0.62 1.9 17.4 Cedeño et al. (1990);
1989 0.45 1.3 15.2 Romero (1996)
1991 0.39 1.3 15.6
From Thomas et al. (1999) with minor modifications

NR, not reported
a
Arithmetic mean (range), unless stated otherwise
b
Median value
c
Geometric mean
d
95% confidence interval
e
Standard deviation
f
90% confidence interval
g
Detection limit
101
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by the Government of Pakistan established a permissible limit of 0.02 g/L; most of the
petrol produced in Pakistan is now lead-free (Paul et al., 2003).
By 1995, six countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (Antigua and Barbuda,
Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, and Guatemala) had removed all lead from gasoline
(Pan American Health Organization, 1997). Brazil introduced the national alcohol pro-
gramme [hydrated alcohol used as fuel in a mixture with gasoline] in 1975, leading to
100% of cars running on unleaded fuel by the beginning of the 1980s. This resulted in a
decrease of annual atmospheric lead concentrations from an average of 1.11 µg/m3 in 1980
to 0.27 µg/m3 in 1990 in São Paulo. Similarly, by 1994, 80% of the cars in Guatemala and
46% in Mexico ran on unleaded gasoline, reducing the annual average concentration of
lead in air to 0.17 and 0.28 µg/m3, respectively. In Mexico City, the concentration was
1.95 µg/m3 in 1988 and had decreased by 86% in 1994. Between 1982 and 1990, the city
of Caracas, Venezuela, showed a decrease in the annual average atmospheric lead concen-
trations from 4.5 µg/m3 to 1.9 µg/m3 (57.8% decrease). However, this is still higher than
the value of 1.5 µg/m3 recommended by WHO and established as an air quality standard
by US EPA. According to a survey carried out by the Pan American Center for Human Eco-
logy and Health in Mexico in 1994, lead concentrations in gasoline in participating Latin
American and Caribbean countries ranged from 1.32 g/L in Suriname to 0.03 g/L in
Uruguay (Romieu & Lacasana, 1996; Romieu et al., 1997).
Data on lead in gasoline, lead in air and blood lead concentrations of the local popu-
lation in a number of countries worldwide are summarized in Table 37. An analysis of
17 published studies from five continents (Thomas et al., 1999) found a strong linear
correlation between blood lead concentrations in the population and the consumption-
weighted average concentration of lead in gasoline, with a median correlation coefficient
of 0.94. As the use of lead in gasoline was phased out, blood lead concentrations across
study locations converged to a median of 3.1 ± 2.3 µg/dL, and air lead concentrations
were reduced to ≤ 0.2 µg/m3.
(g) Lead in paint

In the past, the use of lead pigments in paints was widespread, but it is now restricted
in many countries. Dusting, flaking or peeling of paint from surfaces are major sources of
lead contamination of surface dust and soil near houses, and contribute to the amount of
lead in household dust. Exposure occurs not only through the direct ingestion of flaking
and chalking paint but also through the inhalation of dust and soil contaminated with
paint. Renovation and remodelling activities that disturb lead-based paints in homes can
produce significant amounts of lead dust which can be inhaled or ingested. Removal of
lead-based paint from surfaces by burning (gas torch or hot air gun), scraping or sanding
can result, at least temporarily, in high levels of exposure for residents in these homes
(ATSDR, 1999). Lead from paint can constitute the major source of lead exposure, in
particular for young children, and can even make a significant contribution to blood lead
concentrations in children living in areas that are highly contaminated with lead, e.g.
around one of the largest lead mines in the world (Gulson et al., 1994). Consumption of
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 103
a single chip of paint with a lead concentration of 1–5 mg/cm2 would provide greater
short-term exposure than any other source of lead (US EPA, 1986a).
An estimated 40–50% of occupied housing in the USA in 1986 was thought to have
lead-based paint on exposed surfaces (Chisolm, 1986). Intervention programmes to
reduce exposures to lead in house dust have been reported (Lanphear et al., 2000a; Galke
et al., 2001; Leighton et al., 2003).
In a study by Schmitt et al. (1988) in the USA, soil samples taken from around the
foundations of homes with wooden exteriors were found to have the highest lead concen-
trations (mean, 522 mg/kg) while concentrations around homes composed of brick were
significantly lower (mean, 158 mg/kg). Lead concentrations up to 20 136 mg/kg were
found in soil samples taken near house foundations adjacent to private dwellings with
exterior lead-based paint. A state-wide study in Minnesota, USA, found that exterior lead-
based paint was the major source of contamination in severely contaminated soils located
near the foundations of private residences, while lead aerosols accounted for virtually all
of the contamination of soils at some distance from the houses. Contamination due to
lead-based paint was found to be highly concentrated over a limited area, while lead
aerosols were less concentrated but more widespread (Minnesota Pollution Control
Agency, 1987). (See also Section 1.4.1(e)).
Many countries have restricted the use of lead in paint. Leroyer et al. (2001) mention
that lead in paint was banned in France in 1948. A lead concentration greater than 0.06%
is not permitted in indoor paints sold in the USA (US DHUD, 1987). However, the lead
content of paint remains unregulated in some countries (Nriagu et al., 1996b). Ten per
cent of lead metal used in India was reported to be used in the manufacture of paint, and
wherever such paint is used there will be the potential for human exposure to lead (van
Alphen, 1999). Results of a study of lead content of paint used in India are shown in
Table 38. Of the 24 samples analysed, 17 had lead concentrations ≥ 0.5%, 13 had concen-
trations ≥ 1% and five had concentrations ≥ 10%. The lead in these paints was predomi-
nantly in the form of lead chromates (van Alphen, 1999).
(h) Food
A major source of lead for non-occupationally exposed adults is food and drink. The
amount of lead intake from food is dependent on the concentration of lead in soil, air,
water and other sources. Lead present in soils is taken up by food crops. Roots usually
contain more lead than stems and leaves, while seeds and fruits have the lowest concen-
trations. In contrast, particulate lead present in air may adhere tenaciously to leafy vege-
tables. Leaves collected in or near urban areas have been shown to contain substantially
elevated concentrations of lead. The use of leaded gasoline or the proximity of industries
producing ambient emissions of lead can greatly influence lead concentrations in food-
stuff. Therefore, caution is required with regard to concentrations of foodborne lead when
extrapolating between regions and countries (WHO, 1995).
Typical lead concentrations in foodstuffs from some 30 countries are given in
Table 39 (Galal-Gorchev, 1991a). Concentrations of lead in a variety of foodstuffs in the
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 104
Table 38. Lead content in some paints used

in India
Paint coloura Lead concentration

(mg/kg)
Ultra white <1

White primer <1
White <1
Brown red 1
White 2
Phiroza 3
Oxford blue 3–6
Phorozi 5
Brown red 5
Brilliant white 6
Signal red 16
Bus green 32
New bus green 40
Deep green 50
Post office red 60–62
Mint green 61
Singal red 78
Tractor orange 114–130
Golden yellow 168–202
Adapted from van Alphen (1999)

a
Paint samples from six companies in Bangalore and
Chennai, India
USA, Canada, Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, South Asia and Japan are shown
in Tables 40–45, respectively. Lead concentrations of specific food items available in
various countries are given in Tables 46–49. Studies from various countries on dietary
lead intake by children and adults are listed in Tables 50–51. The section below presents
a variety of specific sources of lead contamination in food.
(i) Contamination of livestock
Elevated concentrations of lead in the blood of cattle grazing near a lead smelter have
been reported, although no inferences regarding lead in beef were made. Mean lead
concentrations were highest in animals grazing near the smelter and decreased with
increasing distance. Ingestion of soil along with the forage was thought to be the major
source of lead (Neuman & Dollhopf, 1992).
Evidence has been shown for transfer of lead to milk and edible tissue in cattle
poisoned by licking the remains of storage batteries which had been burned and left in a
pasture (Oskarsson et al., 1992). Concentrations of lead in muscle of eight acutely-sick
cows that were slaughtered ranged from 0.14 to 0.50 mg/kg (wet weight basis). Normal
lead concentrations in bovine meat from Sweden are < 0.005 mg/kg. Eight cows showing
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Table 39. Representative concentrations of lead

in foodsa
Food category Typical lead

concentration
(µg/kg)
Cereals 60
Roots and tubers 50
Fruit 50
Vegetables 50
Meat 50
Vegetable oils and fats 20
Fish 100
Pulses 40
Eggs 20
Nuts and oilseeds 40
Shellfish 200
Offal 200
Spices and herbs 300
Drinking-water 20
Canned beverages (lead-soldered cans) 200
Canned food (lead-soldered cans) 200
From Galal-Gorchev (1991a)

a
Data collected from 30 countries in the Global Environ-
mental Monitoring System/Food network
Table 40. Concentrations of lead in various foods

in the USA
Food category Concentration (µg/kg)

range of mean
Dairy products 3–83

Meat, fish and poultry 2–83
Grain and cereal products 2–84
Vegetables 5–74
Fruit and fruit juices 5–53
Oils, fats and shortenings 2–28
Sugar and sweets, desserts 6–73
Canned food 16–649
Beverages 2–41
From US Environmental Protection Agency (1986a) Appendix 7D

P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 106
Table 41. Concentrations of lead in various foods in Canada
Food category Concentration (µg/kg)

median (range)
Cereals, bread and toast (as prepared) 32.4 (11.5–78.3)

Water consumed directly 2.0 (0.25–71.2)
Coffee, tea, beer, liquor, sodas, etc. (as prepared) 8.8 (< 0.05–28.9)
Fruit juices, fruits (canned and fresh) 7.9 (1.5–109)
Dairy products and eggs 3.3 (1.21–81.9)
Starch vegetables, e.g. potatoes, rice 16.9 (5.5–83.7)
Other vegetables, vegetable juices and soups 31.7 (0.62–254)
Meat, fish, poultry, meat-based soups 31.3 (11–121)
Miscellaneous (pies, puddings, nuts, snack foods) 33.1 (13.6–1381)
Cheese (other than cottage cheese) 33.8 (27.7–6775)
From Dabeka et al. (1987)
no acute symptoms of poisoning were followed for 18 weeks. The mean lead concen-
tration in milk 2 weeks after exposure was 0.08 ± 0.04 mg/kg; the highest concentration
was 0.22 mg/kg. There was an initial rapid decrease in lead concentrations in milk during
the first 6 weeks after exposure, after which the concentrations remained constant or
increased slightly. Lead concentration in most milk samples was < 0.03 mg/kg 6 weeks
after exposure. Two cows calved at 35 and 38 weeks post-exposure. The lead concen-
tration in the blood of the cows at the time of delivery was high, which suggests mobi-
lization of lead during the later stages of gestation and delivery. Lead concentrations in
colostrum were increased compared to those in mature milk samples taken 18 weeks after
exposure (i.e. during pregnancy), but decreased rapidly after delivery in mature milk to
near the limit of detection.
Lead poisoning was observed in cattle and buffalo grazing near a primary lead–zinc
smelter in India. Affected animals had a history of clinical signs characterized by head
pressing, violent movement, blindness and salivation, and had high lead concentrations in
blood (143 ± 1 µg/dL) and milk (0.75 ± 0.19 mg/L). Animals from the same pasture but
without any history of clinical signs suggestive of lead poisoning had lower blood lead
concentrations than the affected animals, but nonetheless higher than those reported for
cattle in rural and urban areas of India (Dwivedi et al., 2001).
Analysis of animal feed and meat from cattle, horse (an important food animal) and
sheep in a metal-processing region (Oskemen) of eastern Kazakhstan revealed high lead
concentrations in many feed and meat samples (horse > cattle > sheep). The highest
concentrations of lead were found in the liver and kidney, and lower concentrations in
muscle and lung. A lead concentration of 2.2 mg/kg was found in horse liver (Farmer &
Farmer, 2000).
Recreational and subsistence hunters consume a wide range of species including birds
and mammals, some of which represent significant exposure to toxic agents, including
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
Table 42. Lead concentrations in foods in Latin America and the Caribbean
09/08/2006
Country Location Food item Main source of lead Concentration Year(s) Reference
mean ± SD or range of study
of means (range)
Argentina Buenos Aires Cultivated Traffic 2 mg/kg 1975 Romieu et al. (1997)
11:15
vegetables (leaves)
Mixed White wine NR 55 ± 36 µg/L NR Roses et al. (1997)
Red wine NR 85 ± 55 µg/L
Page 107
Brazil Santo Amaro, Vegetables Smelter (0.01–215 mg/kg)a 1980 Tavares (1991)
Bahia
All Saints Bay Mussels 1994 Tavares (1996b)
Mataripe (N) Oil refinery (12.0–57.9 mg/kg)a
Såo Bras (NW) Downstream smelter (1.36–22.5 mg/kg)a
Baiacu (SW) No specific source 5.30 mg/kga
Paraiba valley, Cow’s milk Smelter 0.05 (0.01–0.20 1994 Okada et al. (1997)
S. Paulo mg/L)
Ribeira do Iguape Fish NR 0.03–12 mg/kg 1994 Romieu et al. (1997)
Chile Antofagasta (pre- Vegetables Rural areas, vulcanos 0.6–39.2 µg/kgb NR Queirolo et al. (2000)
Andean region) Potato skin 94 µg/kgb
Temucho Bay Vegetables NR 20 mg/kg NR Romieu et al. (1997)
Ecuador Andean village: Glazing of ceramic NR Counter et al. (2000)
La Victoria Cherries 6.3 ± 2.0 mg/kg
Tomatoes 119 ± 1.2 mg/kg
Corn 61.7 mg/kg
(9.86–118.68 mg/kg)
Wheat grain 23.9 mg/kg
Kernels of wheat 0.75 mg/kg
Honduras Lago Yojoa Fish NR 0.30 mg/kg NR Romieu et al. (1997)
Mexico Vera Cruz, Campeche 4 crustaceae and Industrial region 0.03–5.62 mg/kg 1972 Albert & Badillo
and Tabasco 7 freshwater fish (1991)c
107
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
108
Table 42 (contd)
Country Location Food item Main source of lead Concentration Year(s) Reference
09/08/2006
mean ± SD or range of study
of means (range)
Gulf of Mexico Oyster NR ND–3.0 mg/kg 1976–87

Coatzacoalcos river Fish NR 0.1–2.84 mg/kg 1983
11:15
Laguna de Terminos Oyster March–May 2.4 (0.7–4.1)a mg/kg 1985–86

June–October 5.5 (5.1–5.9)a mg/kg
Dec–Feb 9.5 (8.5–10.5)a mg/kg
Page 108
N and NE Mexico Alfalfa NR (0.4–2.5 mg/kg) 1980–81
districts Beans NR (0.3–3.5 mg/kg)
Commercially Milk in different NR 5–88 µg/L 1982

available forms
Commercially Canned products NR (ND–2.35 mg/kg) 1988
available (fish, fruits and
vegetables)
Commercially Canned fruits NR 0.6–1.6 mg/kg NR Tamayo et al. (1984)
available
Trinidad and Imported Iodized salt NR 6.4 mg/kg NR Romieu et al. (1997)
Tobago
Uruguay Seashore Bivalve shell fish NR 6–32 mg/kg 1992 Romieu et al. (1997)
Venezuela States of Guarico and Rice (commercially NR 0.024–0.21 mg/kg NR Buscema et al. (1997)
Portuguesa available)
SD, standard deviation; NR, not reported; ND, not detectable

a
Dry weight
b
Fresh weight
c
Review including mainly reports and literature not easily accessible
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 109
Table 43. Lead concentrations in food in Africa (Nigeria)

Food item Lead concentration (mg/kg)
Condensed or powdered milk 0.25–0.83

Beef 1.3
Plantains 0.2
Melon seeds 0.43
Water and bitter leaf 0.25–0.3
Gari flour 0.11
Yam tubers 0.35
From Ukhun et al. (1990)
Table 44. Lead concentrations in foods in some Asian countries

Country Place/location Food item Concentration Reference
(mg/kg)a
mean or range of
means (range)
India Nine localities of Cereals 0.23–0.56 Khandekar et al.

Greater Mumbai Pulses 0.54–0.88 (1984)
(high to negligible Leafy vegetables 0.47–1.12
vehicle traffic) Other vegetables 0.042–0.16
Meat 0.40–0.46
Fruit 0.032–0.044
Milk 0.16
Commercially Five brands of beer 10.4–15.7 µg/L Srikanth et al.
available (8.0–18.0) (1995a)
Commercially Rice and other cereal 0.189–0.332 Srikanth et al.
available products (0.128–0.371) (1995b)
Rajasthan Milk from cattle and 0.21–1.47 µg/L Dwivedi et al.
buffalo (2001)
Nagpur Milk Patel et al. (2001)
Infant formula 4.13 µg/L
Dairy 4.75 µg/L
Human 2.73 µg/L
Kazakhstan 4 districts around a Muscle, liver, kidney, 0.49–1.03 (horse) Farmer & Farmer
metal production lung 0.86–2.22 (cattle) (2000)
center 0.06–1.16 (sheep)
Pakistan Karachi Cooked food 1.25–3.90 Rahbar et al. (2002)
b
South Asia 14 regions of south 181 rice samples 0.0048–0.090 Watanabe et al.
Asia (ND–0.269) (1989)
Thailand Grazing land site Milk 14 µg/L Parkpian et al.
near highway (2003)
ND, not detectable

a
b
Dry weight
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 110
Table 45. Estimated lead concentrations in foods and dietary lead

intake in Japan, 2001
Food category Lead intake Food intakea Estimated lead

(g/day) concentrationb
(µg/day) (%) (µg/kg)
Rice 6.63 [28.4] 356.3 [18.6]

Other cereals and potatoes 3.42 [14.7] 162.6 [21.0]
Sugar and confectionary 0.55 [2.4] 90.7 [6.1]
Fat and oil 0.25 [1.1] 11.3 [22.1]
Pulses and pulse products 1.06 [4.5] 57.2 [18.5]
Fruits 1.64 [7.0] 132 [12.4]
Green yellow vegetables 1.23 [5.3] 93.6 [13.1]
Other vegetables and algae 2.09 [9.0] 175.7 [11.9]
Beverages 2.39 [10.3] 509.3 [4.7]
Fish and shellfish 1.62 [6.9] 94.0 [17.2]
Meats and eggs 1.25 [5.4] 113.1 [11.1]
Milk and dairy products 0.73 [3.1] 170.0 [4.3]
Prepared foods 0.34 [1.5]
Drinking-water 0.11 [0.5]
Total 23.31 [100.0] 2042
From National Institute of Health Sciences, Japan (2000)

a
From Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan (2002)
b
Lead intake divided by food intake
Table 46. Lead concentrations in cow’s milk and infant formula
Product Canadaa Mexicob USAc

1986 1982 late 1980s
median (range) average average
(µg/kg) (µg/kg) (µg/kg)
Fluid milk 1.19 (0.01–2.5) 5

Evaporated milk
Can 71.9 (27–106) 88 10
Cardboard container – 9
Infant formula 13
Ready to use, lead-solder can 30.1 (1.1–122) 10
Ready to use, lead-free can 1.6 (1.5–2) 1
Powder formula 6.6 (3.7–19)
Powdered milkd – 21
Table adapted from WHO (1995)

a
From Dabeka & McKenzie (1987)
b
From Olguín et al. (1982) cited by WHO (1995)
c
From Bolger et al. (1991)
d
The concentration of lead in milk consumed by the infant will be highly depen-
dent on the concentration of lead in water used to dilute the powdered milk.
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 111
Table 47. Distribution of lead concentrations

in table wines produced worldwidea
Range of lead Number of Percentage of

concentrations samples total samples
(µg/L) (n = 432) analysed
0–10 36 8.3
11–25 62 14.4
26–50 105 24.3
51–100 144 33.3
101–250 64 14.8
251–500 12 2.8
501–673 9 2.1
From US Department of the Treasury (1991)

a
Wines produced in 28 different countries and commer-
cially available in the USA
Table 48. Lead concentrations in rice consumed in

various countries
Country/area Lead content (µg/kg fresh weight)
N GM GSD
China 215 22.17 2.31

China (Province of Taiwan) 104 10.84 3.18
Colombia 22 8.09 2.80
Indonesia 24 39.07 2.26
Italy 15 6.97 3.28
Japan 788 5.06 2.64
Malaysia 97 9.31 2.61
Philippines 26 37.60 2.71
Republic of Korea 172 7.95 1.79
Saudi Arabiaa 27 [57.5]b [2.34]b
Thailand 13 8.75 2.28
USA 29 7.42 2.11
From Zhang et al. (1996), Al-Saleh & Shinwari (2001)

GM, geometric mean; GSD, geometric standard deviation; N, no.
of samples
a
Samples of rice imported from Australia (n = 2), Egypt (n = 2),
India (n = 17), Thailand (n = 4) and USA (n = 2)
b
Estimated from arithmetic mean and ± arithmetic SD of 134.8 ±
285.9 mg/kg by the moment method
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 112
Table 49. Lead concentrations in a variety of food items
Location Source Lead concentration Reference
Canada Apple juice stored in 65/117 samples > 7 mg/L Klein et al.
glazed earthenware 19/147 samples 500–1000 mg/L (1970)
Ontario, Water boiled in lead- 0.75–1.2 mg/L Ng & Martin
Canada soldered electric kettle (1977)
New York, Alcoholic beverages 0.01–21.5 mg/L Graziano &
USA stored in crystal containers Blum (1991)
South Carolina, Mourning dove Feathers, 465.7–2011.6 µg/kg Burger et al.
USA dry wt (1997)
Muscle, 81.7–142.9 µg/kg wet wt
Liver, 188.3–806.1 µg/kg wet wt
Kuwait Seafood (fish, shrimp) 0.06–0.16 mg/kg wet wt Bu-Olayan &
Al-Yakoob
(1998)
Iowa, USA Mexican candy wrappers 810–16 000 mg/kg Fuortes &
Bauer (2000)
lead. Wild game may be contaminated through the environment or from lead bullets inges-
ted by or embedded in the animal (Burger et al., 1997, 1998).
(ii) Contamination from food preparation, storage and tableware
Lead present in food storage and serving vessels such as lead-soldered cans, ceramic
dishes, cooking vessels, crystal glassware, and labels on food wrap and/or dishes can
contaminate food. Acidic foods tend to leach more lead, but certain foods such as corn and
beans are associated with greater release of lead than would be predicted from their aci-
dity alone. Also, oxygen appears to accelerate the release of lead from food containers
(WHO, 1995).
If food is stored in ceramic or pottery-ware that is lead-glazed and fired in a low-tem-
perature kiln, lead can migrate from the glaze into the food. The glazing process uses a
flux, a material that, at high temperatures, reacts with and helps dissolve the components
of the glaze. Lead oxide is commonly used as flux. Factors determining whether, and to
what extent, lead will migrate include the temperature and extent of firing of the pottery
during the manufacturing process, the temperature and duration of food storage, the age
of the pottery and the acidity of the food. It is extremely difficult to quantify the extent of
such exposures in view of variations in manufacturing processes and quality control
practised in the country of origin; however, exposure can be quite significant, particularly
to infants (WHO, 1995). Gersberg et al. (1997) estimated that dietary exposure to lead
from beans prepared in Mexican ceramic pottery may account for the major fraction of
the blood lead in children whose families use such ceramic-ware.
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Table 50. Estimated dietary lead intake in adults and children
Country Population studied Daily intake Reference

(µg/day)a
Adults
Belgiumb Men and women 230 M Fouassin & Fondu (1980)
Belgiumb Men and women 96c D Buchet et al. (1983)
Canada Men and women 43c D Dabeka et al. (1987)
China Women 46 D Vahter et al. (1991a)
Women 24.6 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
China (Province of Taiwan) Women 19.5 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
Croatia Women 15 D Vahter et al. (1991a)
Finland Men and women 66 M Varo & Koivistoinen (1983)
Germany Men and women 54–61 Kampe (1983)
India Men and women 6.4–76.9 Parikh et al. (1999)
Italy Men and women 140 [IAEA (1987)]
Japan Women 31 D Vahter et al. (1991a)
Women 9.3 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
Malaysia Women 7.0 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
New Zealand Men and women 213 M Pickston et al. (1985)
Philippines Women 11.3 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
Republic of Korea Women 21.5 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
Sweden Men and women 27 M Slorach et al. (1983)
Women 26 D Vahter et al. (1991a,b)
Thailand Women 15.1 Ikeda et al. (2000a)
Turkey Men and women 70 [IAEA (1987)]
United Kingdom Men and women 110 M Sherlock et al. (1983)
71 D Sherlock et al. (1983)
USA Men and women 83 M Gartrell et al. (1985a)
Children
India 6–10 years 15.2–23.3 Raghunath et al. (1997)
6–10 years 14.4–19.1 Raghunath et al. (1999)
Poland 0–1 year 225 Olejnik et al. (1985)
1–3 years 259
7–18 years 316
UK Infant 1–2 breast milk Kovar et al. (1984)
or formula
USA < 6 months 16–17 infant Ryu et al. (1983)
formula
Infant 34 M Gartrell et al. (1985b)
Toddler 43 M
Adapted from WHO (1995); Ikeda et al. (2000a)

a
M, market basket survey; D, duplicate diet study
b
Populations studied from the same region
c
Median value
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Table 51. Estimated respiratory and dietary intakes of lead in various cities
in Asia
Country, city Route Lead in air Intakea Uptakeb Total Dietary/

(ng/m3) (µg/day) (µg/day) (µg/day) total (%)
China, Respiratory 60–540 2.70 1.35 2.50 46

Beijing + Shanghai Dietary 23.1 1.16
Japan, Respiratory 70–81 1.13 0.57 1.24 54
Tokyo + Kyoto Dietary 9.0 0.68
Malaysia, Kuala Respiratory 30–462 3.69 1.85 2.37 22
Lumpur Dietary 7.0 0.53
Philippines, Respiratory 648 9.72 4.86 5.69 15
Manila Dietary 11.1 0.63
Thailand, Bangkok Respiratory 210–390 4.29 2.15 3.28 34
Dietary 15.1 1.13
From Ikeda et al. (2000a,b); data are on adult women and were based on studies in 1990s.
a
Respiration volume was assumed to be 15 m3/day.
b
Uptake rates are assumed to be 50% in the lungs and 5–10% in the gastrointestinal tract.
Several studies have shown contamination of foods and beverages from lead used in
the manufacture or repair of metal vessels. Coating the inner surface of brass utensils with
a mixture of lead and tin, described as ‘tinning’, is widely practised by artisans in India.
The tin–lead alloy contains 55–70% lead. Water boiled with tamarind in a tinned brass
vessel for 5 min was found to contain 400–500 µg/L lead (Vatsala & Ramakrishna, 1985).
Zhu et al. (1984) described 344 cases of chronic lead poisoning in Jiansu Province, China,
in people who had drunk rainwater boiled in tin kettles. After boiling, the water contained
0.79–5.34 mg/L lead. Lead concentrations have also been shown to increase when water is
boiled in kettles that contain lead in their heating elements. A study in India showed that
although lead leaching from pressure cookers occurs during cooking, especially from the
rubber gasket and safety valve, it is only a minor source of lead in cooked food (Raghunath
& Nambi, 1998).
Lead-contaminated water may also contribute to foodborne lead where large volumes
of water are used in food preparation and cooking, e.g. in foods prepared in boiling water.
Experiments have shown that vegetables and rice cooked in water containing lead may
absorb up to 80% of the lead in the water (Little et al., 1981).
Trace metals, including lead, have been detected in human breast milk, thus breast-
feeding could deliver lead to an infant. The reader is referred to Section 4.1.1(a)(v) for
information on lead mobilisation in bones and transfer to breast milk during pregnancy and
lactation. In a study in Australia, the mean lead concentration (± standard deviation) in
breast milk from 21 lactating mothers was 0.73 ± 0.70 µg/kg (Gulson et al., 1998a). Ana-
lysis of 210 human milk samples taken across Canada showed a mean lead concentration
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 115
of 1.04 µg/kg (range, < 0.05–15.8 µg/kg) (Dabeka et al., 1988). The median lead concen-
tration in breast milk from 41 volunteers in Sweden was 2 µg/kg (range, 0.5–9.0 µg/kg)
(Larsson et al., 1981), whereas the mean value for breast milk 5 days postpartum from
urban residents in Germany in 1983 was 13.3 µg/L (Sternowsky & Wessolowski, 1985).
The concentration in 3-day postpartum milk samples from 114 women in Malaysia ave-
raged 47.8 µg/L (Ong et al., 1985).
Concentrations of lead in human milk vary considerably depending on the mother’s
exposure and occupation. Lead concentrations in the milk of a mother who had worked
in a battery factory until 7 weeks before delivery decreased gradually from 19–63 to
4–14 µg/L in samples taken soon after delivery and those taken up to 32 weeks later,
respectively (Ryu et al., 1978). Lead concentrations in breast milk of 96 mothers in three
districts (urban, mining area and rural) of Hubei, China averaged 76, 101 and 90 µg/L
(geometric mean; n = 21, 11 and 32, respectively). The concentrations were very similar
in colostrum and mature milk, and correlated well with blood lead concentrations (Wang
et al., 2000).
Gulson et al. (1998a) measured lead isotope ratios (207Pb/206Pb and 206Pb/204Pb) in
mothers’ breast milk and in infants’ blood and established that, for the first 60–90 days
postpartum, the contribution from breast milk to blood lead in the infants varied from 36%
to 80%. Maternal bone and diet appeared to be the major sources of lead in breast milk.
Lead has also been reported in home-prepared reconstituted infant formula (breast-
milk substitute). Lead concentrations in cows’ milk and infant formula analysed in
Canada, Mexico and the USA are shown in Table 46. Two of forty samples of infant
formula collected in a study in the Boston area of the USA had lead concentrations
> 15 µg/L. In both cases, the reconstituted formula had been prepared using cold tap-
water run for 5–30 sec, drawn from the plumbing of houses > 20 years old. It was con-
cluded that three preparation practices for infant formula should be avoided: (1) excessive
water boiling, (2) use of lead-containing vessels and (3) use of morning (first-draw) water
(Baum & Shannon, 1997).
Canning foods in lead-soldered cans may increase concentrations of lead in foods
8–10-fold. In 1974, for example, the lead concentration in evaporated milk in lead-
soldered cans was 0.12 µg/g; in 1986, after these cans had been phased out, the concen-
tration dropped to 0.006 µg/g (Capar & Rigsby, 1989). The lead content in canned foods
in the USA dropped from an overall mean of 0.31 µg/g in 1980 to 0.04 µg/g in 1988
(National Food Processors Association, 1992). The production and use of three-piece
lead-soldered cans ceased in 1991 in the USA. However, older lead-soldered cans may
still be present in some households (ATSDR, 1999). Dabeka and McKenzie (1987, 1988)
found that the intake of lead by 0–1 year-old infants fed infant formula, evaporated milk
and concentrated liquid formula stored in lead-soldered cans exceeded the provisional
tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 25 µg/kg body weight (bw) lead set by the Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 1993 (FAO/WHO, 1993).
This value does not include lead in water used to prepare infant formula. Mean intakes far
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 116
in excess of the PTWI were obtained in studies carried out in areas with high lead content
in tap-water (Galal-Gorchev, 1991b).
Lozeena, a bright orange powder from Iraq used to colour rice and meat, can contain
7.8–8.9% lead (CDC, 1998).
Lead may leach from lead crystal decanters into the liquids they contain. Three
samples of port wine with an initial concentration of 89 µg/L lead were found to have lead
concentrations of 5331, 3061 and 2162 µg/L after storage for four months in crystal
decanters containing 32%, 32% and 24% lead monoxide, respectively (Graziano & Blum,
1991). Lead was also found to elute from lead crystal wine glasses within minutes. Mean
lead concentrations in wine contained in 12 glasses increased from 33 µg/L initially to 68,
81, 92 and 99 µg/L after 1, 2, 3 and 4 h, respectively (Graziano & Blum, 1991). [See
comments on this article in de Leacy, 1991; Zuckerman, 1991].
(iii) Alcoholic beverages
In addition to contamination from lead crystal glass, contamination of alcoholic
beverages with lead may occur in several ways. For example, from lead solder used to
repair casks or kegs and tap lines, from lead capsules used as seals on wine bottles, or
from residues of lead arsenate pesticides in soils. Alcoholic beverages tend to be acidic
and there is the possibility for large amounts of lead to dissolve during preparation,
storage or serving (WHO, 1995). Wai et al. (1979) showed that wine can react with the
lead capsule to form lead carbonate, which may dissolve in the wine during storage and
pouring. In one study, lead concentrations in wine on the Swedish market ranged between
16 and 170 µg/L (Jorhem et al., 1988). The analysis of 432 table wines originating from
many countries and sold in the USA is summarized in Table 47. In a study of the lead
content of Argentinian wines, red wine was found to have 50% higher lead concentrations
than white wine, average values being 85 and 55 µg/L, respectively (Roses et al., 1997).
Sherlock et al. (1986) found that in the UK the majority of canned and bottled beer (90
and 86% respectively) contained less than 10 µg/L lead. Draught beers typically contained
higher lead concentrations, with 45% having concentrations > 10 µg/L, 16% having
concentrations > 20 µg/L and 4% having concentrations > 100 µg/L. The higher lead
concentrations in draught beers are thought to be due to the draught-dispensing equipment
which may contain brass or gunmetal, both of which contain low but significant amounts
of lead.
The analysis of lead concentration in five different beer brands in India showed that
all brands had a mean lead concentration > 10 µg/L, with an overall mean of 13.2 µg/L.
Assuming the lead concentration in beer to be 13 µg/L, the uptake of lead from beer to be
20% and consumption by three types of consumer to be 1, 5 or 10 L/week, this would
result in a lead uptake of 2.6, 13 and 25 µg/week, respectively (Srikanth et al., 1995a).
Illicit ‘moonshine’ whiskey made in stills composed of lead-soldered parts (e.g. truck
radiators) may contain high concentrations of lead. Lead was detected in 7/12 samples of
Georgia (USA) moonshine whiskey, with a maximum concentration of 5300 µg/L (Gerhardt
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 117
et al., 1980). In a more recent study, regular consumers of moonshine whiskey (15/49
subjects) had blood lead concentrations > 50 µg/dL (Morgan et al., 2001).
In general, alcoholic beverages do not appear to be a significant source of lead intake
for the average person.
(iv) Fish and seafood
The uptake and accumulation of lead by aquatic organisms from water and sediment
are influenced by various environmental factors such as temperature, salinity and pH, as
well as humic and alginic acid content of the sediment. In contaminated aquatic systems,
only a minor fraction of lead is dissolved in the water. Lead in fish is accumulated mostly
in gill, liver, kidney and bone. In contrast to inorganic lead compounds, tetraalkyllead is
rapidly taken up by fish and rapidly eliminated after the end of exposure (WHO, 1989).
The Fish and Wildlife Service in the USA reported on the concentration of selected
metals in 315 composite samples of whole fish collected at 109 stations nationwide in
1984–85. For lead, the geometric mean was 0.11 mg/kg (wet weight), with a maximum of
4.88 mg/kg. Lead concentrations in fish declined steadily from 1976 to 1984, suggesting
that reduction in use of leaded gasoline and controls on mining and industrial discharges
have reduced lead concentrations in the aquatic environment (Schmitt & Brumbaugh,
1990).
Recreational and subsistence fishers consume larger quantities of fish and shellfish
than the general population and frequently fish the same waterbodies routinely. Thus, these
populations are at greater risk of exposure to lead and other chemical contaminants if the
waters they fish are contaminated. Ingestion of lead is also a matter of concern in regular
consumers of seafood produced near industrial areas such as in All Saints Bay and Ribeira
do Iguape in Brazil (Tavares, 1996a,b), as well as in Uruguay (Romieu et al., 1997).
(v) Rice and cereals
Rice is an important source of lead intake, particularly in east and south-east Asia
where rice is a staple component of the diet. Lead concentrations in rice consumed in some
areas in Asia, Australia, Europe and North America are summarized in Table 48. The data
show a substantial variation from < 10 to about 40 µg/kg fresh weight (Zhang et al., 1996;
Al-Saleh & Shinwari, 2001a). In a study performed by Watanabe et al. (1989), rice samples
were collected in 15 areas of Asia and Australia (192 samples), and in four areas in other
parts of the world (15 samples). Lead concentrations were distributed log-normally, with a
geometric mean ± geometric standard deviation of 15.7 ± 3.5 µg/kg and concentrations
ranging from 5 µg/kg in Japan to 90 µg/kg in India.
Lead in rice has been estimated to represent 28% (National Institute of Health
Sciences, Japan, 2000; see Table 45), 14% (Zhang et al., 2000), 12% (Moon et al., 1995)
and < 5% (Zhang et al., 1997a) of dietary lead intake in a series of studies in China, Japan
and the Republic of Korea. In Japan, dietary lead intake has decreased on average from
33 µg/day in 1980 to 7 µg/day in 1990, partly as a result of a decrease in rice consumption
(Watanabe et al., 1996).
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Cereals other than rice, e.g. millet and maize, may also be important sources of dietary
lead. The lead concentration in these cereals (43–47 µg/kg) is higher than that in rice
(20–21 µg/kg) or wheat (26–30 µg/kg) (Zhang et al., 1997b). In one study in China, lead
from all cereals accounted for 26% of total dietary lead intake (Watanabe et al., 2000).
Lead intake from rice in Japan was found to be 1.5 times that from wheat in 1998–2000
(Shimbo et al., 2001).
The contribution of lead in rice and cereal products to the total dietary intake of lead
in southern India varies among different socioeconomic groups, based on occupation and
choice of consumption. It has been suggested that rice is the major source of lead among
the rural and economically-deprived populations, but sources of dietary lead appeared to
be more diverse in the urban middle-class and the economically-privileged (Srikanth
et al., 1995b).
(vi) Daily intake through food
Estimates of daily dietary intakes of lead by adults and children worldwide are
presented in Table 50. The available data indicate a general decrease in those areas where
the concentration of lead in gasoline has decreased and those where a concerted effort has
been made to avoid lead-soldered cans for food storage (Bolger et al., 1991; OECD,
1993). Similar decreases in other countries are expected to occur when similar actions to
eliminate these sources of lead exposure are taken.
Dietary lead intake by adult women in several Asian cities, in comparison with
amounts of lead inhaled, is presented in Table 51. The ratio of dietary to total lead intake
varied primarily as a reverse function of the lead concentration in atmospheric air (Ikeda
et al., 2000a). In Mumbai, India, where atmospheric lead concentrations in different zones
of the city varied between 82 and 605 ng/m3, the daily lead uptake by a nonsmoker living
in the city area was estimated to be 33 µg, of which 75% come from food. For a suburban
resident, 85% of the lead intake was estimated to come from food (Khandekar et al., 1984).
(i) Plants and fertilizers

Lead occurs naturally in plants both from deposition and uptake; there is a positive
linear relationship between lead concentrations in soil and in plants. As with other envi-
ronmental compartments, measurement of ‘background’ concentrations of lead in plants
is complicated by the general contamination of the environment from centuries of lead
use, which has included direct application of lead-containing chemicals in agriculture and
contamination of fertilizers with lead (WHO, 1995).
Lead has been detected in a superphosphate fertilizer at concentrations as high as
92 mg/kg (WHO, 1995). Sewage sludge, used as a source of nutrients in agriculture, may
contain concentrations of lead > 1000 mg/kg; concentrations as high as 26 g/kg have been
measured in the USA (WHO, 1995). In a study of soil that had received heavy sludge
applications over years in the United Kingdom, the lead concentration was found to be
425 mg/kg, compared with 47 mg/kg in untreated soil (Beckett et al., 1979).
Lead concentrations in grass and water plants in Asia are shown in Table 52.
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
Table 52. Lead concentrations in terrestrial and aquatic plants in Asia
09/08/2006
Country Location Year(s) Source of Planta Concentration Reference
of study contamination (mg/kg)
mean ± SD or
range of means
11:15
India Koraput NR NR Ipomea aquatic 83.3 ± 4.2 Chandra et al.
Trapa natans 68.5 ± 2.1 (1993)
Unnao (summer) Trapa natans 54.5 ± 2.0
46.6 ± 1.5
Page 119
Ipomea aquatica
(winter) Trapa natans 1030.0 ± 51.5
Ipomea aquatica 845.0 ± 40.0
Eastern Ghats NR Local industries Spirodela polyrrhiza 27 ± 1.6 Rai et al. (1996)
(Koraput, Orrisa) Pistia stratiotes 29 ± 0.8
Mumbai NR Lead industries Grass 145–1048 Nambi et al.
Control grass 1.42 (1997)
Lake Nainital 1997 NR Microcystis aeruginosa 46 ± 2.5 Ali et al. (1999)
Spirogyra adnata 95 ± 4.2
Salix babylonica (root) 37 ± 2.7
Residential area of 1996 Lead factory Leaf samples 214 ± 17 Chatterjee &
greater Kolkata Banerjee (1999)
4 lakes and pounds in 1998 NR Trapa natans 75–375 Rai & Sinha
Lucknow (2001)
Pond in North-Bihar 1996–97 NR Euryale ferox Salisb. 331.6–1256.6 Rai et al. (2002)
Kazakhstan Six districts in the NR Metal production Hay & pasteur grasses 1.6 ± 0.01– Farmer & Farmer
East centre 19.4 ± 6.2 (2000)
Thailand Tropical grazing land NR NR Grass 0.76– 6.62 Parkpian et al.
site (2003)
NR, not reported
119
a
Names in italics are aquatic plants.
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Phytoremediation
Currently, lead-contaminated soils are being remediated by a variety of engineered
technologies such as isolation and containment, mechanical separation, pyrometallurgical
separation, the use of permeable treatment walls, and by soil flushing and soil washing, but
these methods are expensive and not feasible at all sites (Mulligan et al. 2001). Phytoreme-
diation — the use of plants for removal of pollutants and restoration of the environment —
is an emerging clean-up technology for which various reviews provide information on
important aspects (Salt et al., 1995; Cunningham & Ow, 1996; Chaney et al., 1997; Salt
et al., 1998).
For lead remediation, phytoextraction is the more attractive and much better studied
method. Phytoextraction is the uptake of metal by roots and its accumulation in the part
of the plant above ground, i.e. the shoot. Plants that are capable of accumulating more
metal than 0.1% of dry weight of shoot are considered to be suitable for phytoextraction.
There are various reports concerning accumulation and phytoextraction of lead
(Table 53).
The basic problems with lead phytoextraction are the low bioavailability of lead in
soil and its poor translocation from root to shoot. Of all toxic heavy metals, lead is the
least phytoavailable. Water-soluble and exchangeable lead that is readily available for
uptake by plants constitutes only about 0.1% of total lead in most soils (Huang et al.,
1997). Soil properties influence its uptake and translocation. In addition, only a few
higher plants are known to hyperaccumulate lead, mainly owing to the very low trans-
location of lead from the root to the shoot. Piechalak et al. (2002) demonstrated up to 95%
lead accumulation in the roots of Vicia faba, Pisum sativum and Phaseolus vulgaris but
only 5–10% was transported to parts above ground (see Table 53).
To overcome these problems, a chelate is used to increase uptake rate and to increase
lead translocation from roots to shoots. Of the many chelates, EDTA has been found to be
the most appropriate. EDTA solubilizes soil lead and increases its translocation from root
to shoot. It has also been shown to increase rate of transpiration, an important factor in
lead phytoextraction (Wu et al. 1999). However, there are concerns about side-effects
associated with chelate application. Lead EDTA easily percolates through the soil profile
and causes groundwater pollution.
A number of plants used in phytoremediation are crop plants (see Table 53) and thus
there is a potential risk that plants grown as part of phytoremediation programmes will re-
enter the food chain. Furthermore, a number of algae and other plant species accumulate
lead. Such species, if ingested by fish, could also re-cycle lead into the food chain.
Recently, a study presented the development of a plant genetically modified to accumulate
lead, which seems promising for phyto-remediation (Gisbert et al., 2003).
Phytoremediation does have its limitations. It is a slower process than the traditional
methods. Plants remove or degrade only small amounts of contaminants each growing
season, so it can take several decades to clean up a site adequately. There are limits to plant
growth such as temperature, soil type and availability of water. Lastly, most plants are
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Table 53. Lead accumulation/biosorption and detoxification by plants
Plant Treatment Lead accumulation/ Reference

phytoextractiona
Zea mays shoot 20–100 µM Pb(NO3)2 Accumulation: Huang &

in nutrient solution 400–500 mg/kg Cunningham
Lead concentration in soil, Phytoextraction: (1996)
2500 mg/kg; treatment with 10 600 mg/kg dw
HEDTA at 2 g/kg for 7 days
Brassica juncea Lead concentration in soil, Accumulation: Blaylock et al.
shoot 1200–1800 mg/kg 45–100 mg/kg (1997)
600 mg/kg Pb: Phytoextraction:
10 mmol/kg EDTA ∼ 15 000 mg/kg
0.5 mmol/kg EDTA 5000 mg/kg
Zea mays, Pisum Lead concentration in soil, Phytoextraction: Huang et al.
sativum shoots 2500 mg/kg; treatment with ∼ 10 000 mg/kg (1997)
HEDTA at 2 g/kg for 7 days
Brassica juncea Lead concentration in soil, Phytoextraction: Vassil et al.
shoot 0.5 mM; treatment with 11 000 mg/kg dwb (1998)
EDTA at 0.75 mM for 48 h
Helianthus annuus 1 mM Pb(NO3)2 in nutrient Accumulation: Kastori et al.
solution from emergence of shoot, 11 027 mg/kg dw (1998)
1st pair of leaves until roots, 17 149 mg/kg dw
growth of 3rd pair of leaves
Vicia faba 1 mM Pb(NO3)2 treatment 46 mg/g dw (in root) Piechalak et al.
for 96 h (2002)
Pisum sativum 50 mg/g dw (in root)
Phaseolus vulgaris 75 mg/g dw (in root)
a
Accumulation refers to the natural lead uptake by the plant from soil or a nutrient solution;
phytoextraction refers to lead uptake following addition of a synthetic chelating agent to the
lead-contaminated soil to improve the bioavailability of the lead.
b
The value was 400 times higher than in untreated controls.
unable to grow on heavily-contaminated soils, thus only lightly-contaminated soils can be

phytoremediated.
( j) Others
Table 54 presents some data on lead concentrations in other sources of exposure.
(i) Traditional medicine
Some traditional medicines and customs have been found to result in exposure to high
concentrations of lead, most of which cannot be quantified with any degree of accuracy.
Rather than occurring as trace ingredients or trace contaminants, various lead compounds
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Table 54. Lead concentrations in various sources of exposure
Location Source Lead concentration Reference
Traditional remedies
Arizona, USA ‘Greta’, ‘azarcon’ 77 000–941 000 mg/kg Baer et al. (1989)
Zabreb, Croatia Metal-mineral tonics 0.90–72 900 mg/kg Prpic-Majic et al.
(1996)
Cosmetics
Morocco, UK, Eye make-up (kohl) from < 100–696 000 mg/kg Parry & Eaton
USA Eastern Mediterranean (1991)
countries
Others
Arizona, USA Pool cue chalk 1–14 080 mg/kg Miller et al. (1996)
Wisconsin, Dental intraoral radiograph 3352 µg (range, 262–34 000)a CDC (2001)
USA film storage boxes (lead
oxide)
a
Average amount of lead present on wipe samples from eight film packets stored in lead-lined boxes
are used as major ingredients in traditional medicines in numerous parts of the world
(Trotter, 1990). Lead concentrations in some traditional and complementary medicines are
shown in Table 55.
Leaded ‘kohl’, also called ‘Al kohl’, is traditionally applied to the raw umbilical
stump of the newborn in the belief of a beneficial astringent action. Lead metal and lead
sulfide are used for inhalation of the fumes (‘Bokhoor’) produced from heating on hot
coals, in the belief that this will ward off the devil and calm irritable infants and children
(Fernando et al., 1981; Shaltout et al., 1981). An Asian remedy for menstrual cramps
known as Koo Sar was reported to contain lead in concentrations as high as 12 mg/kg
(CDC, 1999). The source of lead was thought to be the red dye used to colour the pills.
The Hindus use as a treatment for diabetes ground seeds and roots, which were found to
contain 8000 mg/kg lead (Pontifex & Garg, 1985).
Latin-American countries also report the use of traditional medicines with high lead
concentrations. For example, the Mexican traditional remedies ‘azarcon’ (lead tetroxide)
and/or ‘greta’ (mixed lead oxides), distributed as finely ground powders, may contain
more than 70% lead. They are used in the treatment of ‘empacho’, a gastrointestinal
disorder considered to be due to a blockage of the intestine (Trotter, 1990).
Some Chinese herbal medicines have metallic lead added to them (up to 20 000
mg/kg) to increase their weight and sale price (Wu et al., 1996). Lead contaminants also
are present in some calcium supplements; 17 of 70 brands tested had lead concentrations
leading to a daily intake greater than the provisional total tolerable daily intake of 6 µg
(Bourgoin et al., 1993).
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Table 55. Lead concentrations in herbal and folk

medicines
Medicine Concentration Prescribed for

(µg/g)a (where indicated)
Saptamrut loh 5.12

Keshar gugal 2.08
Punarvadi gugal 1.99
Trifla gugal 4.18
Ghasard 16 000
Bala goli 25
Kandu 6.7
Arogyavardhini 63.2 Liver disease
Sankhvati 13.0
Brahmivati 27 500
Chyavan prash 7.30
Trivanga bhasma 261 200 Diabetes
Diabline bhasma 37 770 Diabetes
Hepatogaurd 0.4 Liver disease
Basant malti 276 to 42 573
Pushap Dhanva Ras 79.3 mg/tablet
Shakti 55.9 mg/tablet
Solution 5.27 µg/mL Leg abscess
Powders 2.6–105 200 Leg abscess
Tablets 1.0–2816.7 Leg abscess
From Dunbabin et al., (1992); Nambi et al. (1997)

a
Unless otherwise specified
Medicinal herbs may be a potential source of lead exposure; analysis of 28 species

showed lead concentrations (arithmetic mean ± arithmetic standard deviation) of
2.6 ± 0.4 mg/kg to 32.8 ± 3.1 mg/kg fresh weight (Dwivedi & Dey, 2002).
(ii) Cosmetics
Hair dyes and some cosmetics may contain lead compounds. Commercial hair dyes
typically contain 3000–4000 mg/kg lead (Cohen & Roe, 1991). A later survey reported
hair dyes formulated with lead acetate, with lead concentrations of 2300–6000 mg/kg
(Mielke et al., 1997b). Lead acetate is soluble in water and easily transferred to hands and
other surfaces during and following application of a hair dye product. Measurements of
150–700 µg of lead on each hand following such applications have been reported (Mielke
et al., 1997b). In addition, lead is transferred by hand to mouth of the person applying the
product, and to any other surface (comb, hair dryer, outside of product container, counter
top) that comes into contact with the product. A dry hand passed through dry hair dyed
with a lead-containing cream has been shown to pick up about 280 µg lead (Mielke et al.,
1997b).
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Some traditional eye cosmetics produced locally may contain lead compounds, and
their application, also to children, may result in lead exposure. Sprinkle (1995) reported
blood lead concentrations of 9–24 µg/dL in nine children aged 3 months–5 years receiving
daily application of such cosmetics, whereas concentrations of 2–6 µg/dL were found in
nine children aged 1–6 years who had no or unknown application. Patel et al. (2001) also
reported elevated blood lead concentrations (20.2 ± 13.0 µg/dL) in 45 children aged
6 months–6 years in India who used eye cosmetics daily.
Cosmetics used by Chinese opera actors may also contain lead (Lai, 1972).
(iii) Ammunition
Use of lead ammunition may result in exposure to lead dust, generated during gun or
rifle discharge, at concentrations up to 1000 µg/m3 (Elias, 1985), from lead pellets
ingested by or embedded in animals that are used as food source (Burger et al., 1997), and
from lead pellets embedded in humans from shooting incidents (Manton, 1994; IARC,
1999). Firing-range instructors and employees may be exposed to high concentrations of
lead and may show elevated blood lead concentrations (see Section 1.4.3.e).
(iv) Miscellaneous
Cigarette tobacco contains 2–12 µg of lead per cigarette (IARC, 2004a); the mean
concentration of lead in filter-tipped cigarettes produced between 1960 and 1980 was
2.4 mg/kg. Up to 6% of lead may be inhaled, while the remainder is present in the ash and
sidestream smoke (IARC, 2004a). Smoking a pack of 20 cigarettes per day, with 12 µg
lead per cigarette, and inhaling 6% of the smoke, would result in daily exposure to 14 µg
lead.
So-called recreational drug users who ‘sniff’ leaded gasoline vapours are at risk of
toxic effects from organolead compounds as well as the hydrocarbon components of gaso-
line (Edminster & Bayer, 1985).
A lead poisoning hazard for young children exists in certain vinyl miniblinds that have
had lead added to stabilize the plastic. Over time, the plastic deteriorates to produce lead
dust that can be ingested when the blinds are touched by children who then put their hands
in their mouths (Consumer Product Safety Commission, 1996; Norman et al., 1997; West,
1998).
(k) Blood lead concentrations from specific sources of exposure

Blood lead concentrations resulting from exposure to a variety of specific sources,
reported mainly as case reports, are presented in Table 56.
1.4.2 Exposure of the general population

Blood lead concentration is the most commonly used estimate of exposure to lead in
the general population. Numerous reports show blood lead concentrations declining over
time in many parts of the world, thereby validating global efforts to reduce lead exposures.
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 125
Table 56. Blood lead concentrations from various sources of exposure
Location Source Blood leada (µg/dL) Reference

individual values or
rangea
Air dust
New York, USA Burning of newspapers in 35 Perkins & Oski
fireplace (1976)
New York, USA Dust at home from Mean, 41.6–73.3 Baker et al. (1977)
workers’ clothing
California, USA Dust on clothes from 31–36 Gerson et al. (1996)
occupational exposure
New York, USA Dust from removal of 20–> 80 CDC (1997a)
lead-based paint
La Victoria and El Tejar, Tile-glazing activities Median, 60 Vahter et al. (1997)
Ecuador (range, 12–106)
Food/food containers
Hawaii, USA Lead-bearing cocktail 131–156 Dickinson et al.
glasses (1972)
Ontario, Canada Water heated in lead- 35–145 Ng & Martin (1977)
soldered electric kettles
Seattle, USA Ceramics from southern 74 and 144 Wallace et al. (1985)
Italy
Nablus district, Israel Contaminated flour Mean, 80–122 Hershko et al. (1989)
(range, 42–166)
Vancouver, Canada Water heated in a lead- 147–154 Lockitch et al.
soldered electric kettle (1991)
Hungary Contaminated paprika 18.8–213 Kákosy et al. (1996)
(lead tetraoxide)
Vermont, USA Apple cider prepared in 33–40 Carney & Garbarino
lead-soldered evaporator (1997)
California, USA Tamarindo candy 26–59 CDC (1998)
Michigan, USA Lozeena (powdered food 25–84 CDC (1998)
colouring)
Georgia, USA Moonshine whiskey > 50b Morgan et al. (2001)
California, USA Tamarindo candy and/or 22–88 CDC (2002)
folk remedies
Cor 126.qxd 01/09/2006 18:04 Page 126
Table 56 (contd)

rangea
Traditional remedies
California, USA Azarcon 27–45 CDC (1981)
Minnesota, USA ‘Pay-loo-ah’ 60 CDC (1983)
Saudi Arabia Traditional remedies 134–277 Abu Melha et al.
(1987)
Guadalajara, Mexico Azarcon (lead tetraoxide) Blood, 29.6; Cueto et al. (1989)
urine, 49.4 µg/L
California, USA Indian herbal medicine 71–80 Smitherman &
Harber (1991)
California, USA Azarcon, greta 20–86 CDC (1993)
New York, USA Contaminated hai ge fen 76 Markowitz et al.
(clamshell powder) (1994); Hill & Hill
(1995)
Zagreb, Croatia Ayurvedic metal-mineral 2.6–92.1 Prpic-Majic et al.
tonics (1996)
Connecticut, USA ‘Koo Sar’ pills (Asian 42–44 CDC (1999)
remedy for menstrual
cramps)
Australia Herbal remedy Mother, 108; Tait et al. (2002)
newborn, 244
Cosmetics
Nottingham, United Surma Mean, 34.2 Ali et al. (1978)
Kingdom
California, USA Traditional eye cosmetics Mean, 12.9 Sprinkle (1995)
(surma, kohl, alkohl)
Ammunition
Texas, USA Old gunshot wound 353 Dillman et al. (1979)
Texas, USA Retained projectiles Blood, 40–525; Linden et al. (1982)
(bullets, shrapnel, urine, 55–720 µg/L
buckshot)
Florida, USA Ingestion of 206 bullets 391 McNutt et al. (2001)
Saskatchewan, Canada Air rifle pellets 35–56 Treble & Thompson
(2002)
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Table 56 (contd)

rangea
Others
Oregon, USA Curtain weight 238 Blank & Howieson
(1983)
Maningrida, Australia Petrol sniffing 42–92 Eastwell et al.
(1983); Watson
(1985)
Australia Petrol sniffing 105 Burns & Currie
(1995)
New York, USA Ornamental clothing 144–150 Esernio-Jenssen
accessory et al. (1996)
Hospital nurseries in the Blood transfusions Mean, 3.5 (range, Bearer et al. (2000,
USA 2–7) 2003)
a
Unless stated otherwise
b
Blood lead concentration in 15/38 patients
Representative data on blood lead concentrations are presented by region in Tables

57–64, and in the text by population subgroup: adults, pregnant women and neonates, and
children.
(a) Adults
The UNEP/WHO Global Study to assess exposure to lead and cadmium through bio-
logical monitoring was one of the first international reliable studies with quality assu-
rance. The geometric mean concentration of lead in blood in different populations ranged
from 6 µg/dL in Beijing (China) and Tokyo (Japan) to 22.5 µg/dL in Mexico City
(Mexico). The values were below 10 µg/dL in Baltimore (USA), Jerusalem (Israel), Lima
(Peru), Stockholm (Sweden) and Zagreb (Serbia and Montenegro), and between 10 and
20 µg/dL in Brussels (Belgium) and Ahmedabad, Bangalore and Kolkata (India) (Friberg
& Vahter, 1983).
Data from central and eastern Europe show relatively high levels of background
exposure to lead at the time of the dissolution of the former Soviet Union (Table 57).
There have been concerted efforts to lower exposure by phasing out the use of leaded
gasoline and by controlling emissions from industries (Regional Environmental Center
for Central and Eastern Europe, 1998).
In the USA, the extent of recent exposures to lead in the general population has been
estimated based on blood lead measurements from the National Health and Nutrition
Examination Surveys (NHANES). Geometric mean blood concentrations in adults aged
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Table 57. Lead concentrations in blood in adults and children in central and
eastern European countries
Country City or area Year(s) Population Blood lead (µg/dL)

of study mean or range
Bulgaria Momchilgrad 1991 Children, 5–7 years old 11.4

Momchilgrad 1991 Teenagers, 12–14 years old 11.6
Krichim 1991 Children 9.2
Kurtovo Konare 1991 Children and teenagers 17.0
Haskovo 1995 Children, 5–7 years old 10.1
Haskovo 1995 Teenagers, 11–12 years old 11.4
Nationwide 1995–96 Adults (men+women) 15
Czech Pribram 1992–94 Children, 1–3 years old 14.66; 6.61; 4.95a
Republic Children, 4–7 years old 10.2; 4.95; 4.67
Children, 8–11 years old 12.50; 5.37; 4.51
Teenagers, 12–14 years old 7.21; 4.84; 4.69
Hungary Budapest 1992 – 11.9
Sopron 1993 – 11.6
Local 1994 – 7.4
National 1995 – 6.26
Budapest 1996 – 6.5
Poland Five towns with no 1992–94 Men 4.25–7.68
industrial lead Women 2.38–4.83
emitters Children 2.39–6.23
Based in the vicinity 1992–94 Men 9.85–15.90
of zinc and copper Women 4.94–10.50
mills Children 7.37–11.40
Romania North Railway Station 1983–85 Children 17.1
(six areas of Balta Alba 1983–85 Children 18.40
Bucharest) Center 1983–85 Children 20.20
Giurgiuhu 1983–85 Children 21.93
Militari 1983–85 Children 17.84
Pantelimon 1983–85 Children 20.51
Slovakia Bratislava 1993 Children 3.65
Middle Slovakia 1995 Children 4.5
North Slovakia 1996 Children 3.04
From the final report of the National Integrated Program on Environment and Health Project (1995),
presented in Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (1998)
–, not stated
a
Geometric mean values for subjects living at distances from the lead smelter of less than 3 km, 3–5 km,
and over 5 km, respectively
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Table 58. Lead concentrations in blood in adults and children in the USA
Years of Population No. of Average Smokers Blood lead (µg/dL) Reference

survey subjects age
(years) GM 95% CI
1976–80 Men + women 5537 20–74 Included 13.1 12.7–13.7 Pirkle et al.
(1994)
1988–91 Men + women 6922 20–74 Included 3.0 2.8–3.2 Pirkle et al.
(1994)
1999–2000 Men + women 4207 ≥ 20 Included 1.8 1.67–1.83 CDC (2003a)
1978–80 Children 2271 1–5 – 15.0 14.2–15.8 Pirkle et al.
(1994)
1988–91 Children 2234 1–5 – 3.6 3.3–4.0 Pirkle et al.
(1994)
1991–94 Children 2392 1–5 – 2.7 2.5–3.0 CDC (1997b)
1999–2000 Children 723 1–5 – 2.2 2.0–2.5 CDC (2003a)
a
GM, geometric mean; CI, confidence interval
20 years or older have declined by 87% from 13.1 µg/dL in 1976–80 to 1.75 µg/dL in
1999–2000 (Table 58). Concentrations were higher in men than in women, and higher in
Mexican-Americans and non-Hispanic blacks than in non-Hispanic whites. In general,
blood lead concentrations in adults increase slowly with age (Pirkle et al., 1994; CDC,
1997b, 2003a).
Lead concentrations in the general population in several countries in Africa are
summarized in Table 59. Most values were > 10 µg/dL, except for two rural areas in South
Africa (Grobler et al., 1985; Nriagu et al., 1997a).
Reports from several Asian countries of blood lead concentrations in adults with no
known occupational exposure to lead and no exposure to heavy traffic are summarized in
Table 60. The values were mostly < 10 µg/dL, and few were above 13 µg/dL, with the
exception of one concentration of 24 µg/dL for a rural population in Pakistan (Khan et al.,
1995). One study used urinary lead concentrations to monitor lead exposure in Japan.
A substantial decrease in urinary lead was reported over the last 13 years. The amounts
of lead excreted (geometric means) in 24-h urine samples were 4.74, 2.67 and 1.37 µg for
men in 1985, 1993 and 1998, respectively, and 3.21, 2.14 and 1.02 µg for women in the
same years (Jin et al., 2000).
Blood lead concentrations in adults in Australia are summarized in Table 61. As
observed in other parts of the world, concentrations have declined in the general popu-
lation over the past two decades.
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Table 59. Lead concentrations in blood in the general population in some

countries in Africa
Country City/area Population/ No. of Blood lead Reference

age range subjects (µg/dL)
mean (range)
Egypt Urban area Adults NR 17.0–36.0 Kamal et al.

Rural area 14.0–25.0 (1991)
Cairo No lead 50 18.2 Kamal et al.
exposure (1991)
Nigeria Ibadan Men 11.4 Omokhodion
Women 12.3 (1984)
NR Adults 24 12.9 ± 7.0 Ogunsola et al.
(1.7–32.5) (1994b)
Kaduna 1–6 years 87 10.6 Nriagu et al.
(max. 39) (1997b)
South Urban area Children NR 22 [von Schirnding
Africa Rural area Children NR 11 & Fuggle (1984)]
Remote area 14–16 years 30 3.4 ± 1.5 Grobler et al.
(0.5–7.5) (1985)
Cape Town 1st year-grade 200 12 (white) von Schirnding
18 (mixed) et al. (1991a)c
Cape Town 1st year-grade 104 18b von Schirnding
et al. (1991b)c
Cape Province Children NR 14–16 Nriagu et al.
Mining village Children NR 16 (1996b)
Village 40 km from Children NR 13
mining area
Besters 3–5, 8–10 years 1200 10 Nriagu et al.
Valamehlo (rural) 660 3.8 (1997a)
Johannesburg 6–9 years 433 11.9 (6–26) Mathee et al.
(2002)
Urban areas Children NR 15 Harper et al.
(2003)a
Updated from Nriagu et al. (1996b); reference in square brackets could not be retrieved as original
papers.
NR, not reported
a
Review of several published studies
b
Median value
c
[It was not clear to the Working Group whether the two articles presented data from the same study
population.]
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
Table 60. Lead concentrations in blood in adults in the general population in Asia
09/08/2006
Country City/area Years of Population No. of Smoking Blood lead Reference
study subjects status (µg/dL)
arithmetic meana
(range)
11:15
China Shanghai 1986–88 Women 165 NR 14.1 Jiang et al. (1992)
3 areas 1993–97 Women 250 Nonsmoker 4.6b Zhang et al. (1999)
Hubei NR Women Wang et al. (2000)
urban 33 NR 6.7
Page 131
mining area 28 NR 6.7
rural 44 NR 5.3
Province of 1991–94 ≥ 15 years of age 8828 NR 7.7 (ND–69.1) Liou et al. (1996)
Taiwan 1993–94 Men 1471 Included 7.3 Chu et al. (1998)
Women 1332 Included 5.7
India Ahmedabad NR Men + women 200 Included 13.8 Friberg & Vahter (1983)
Bangalore 73 Included 17.9
Kolkata 100 Included 10.7
Slums of 1994–95 Women 500 NR 14.3 (13.0–15.7) Awasthi et al. (1996; 2002)
Lucknow
Indonesia Bandung 1983 Rural men 20 NR 12 Suzuki (1990)
Iraq Bassora NR Men 60 NR 14.6 Mehdi et al. (2000)
Japan Kanagawa 1991 Adults 62 NR 1.0 (0.6–2.4) Arai et al. (1994)
NR NR Men 70 NR 11.0 (5.0–17.2) Oishi et al. (1996a)
Women 68 NR 6.4 (3.8–11.4)
Kyoto, Sendai 1991–93 Women 72 Nonsmoker 3.2b Zhang et al. (1999)
& Tokyo
30 sites 1991–98 Women 607 Nonsmoker 1.9b Shimbo et al. (2000)
NR NR Women 70 NR 6.4 (3.8–11.4) Nomiyama et al. (2002)
Jordan Irbid City NR Men 21 NR 5.7b Hunaiti et al. (1995)
131
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132
09/08/2006
Table 60 (contd)
Country City/area Years of Population No. of Smoking Blood lead Reference

study subjects status (µg/dL)
11:15
arithmetic meana

(range)
Page 132
Pakistan Rural area 1994–95 Men 36 NR 24.1 Khan et al. (1995)
Philippines Manila 1999 Men + women 50 NR 12.6 Suplido & Ong (2000)
Republic of NR NR NR 26 NR 10.8 Kim et al. (1995a)
Korea Chonan 1997–99 Men + women 135 87% current 5.3 (2–10) Lee, S.-S. et al. (2001);
Schwartz et al. (2001)
Thailand Bangkok 1993 Women 500 NR 6.2 Phuapradit et al. (1994)
NR NR Men 30 NR 6.0 (2.1–9.7) Wananukul et al. (1998)
Chaiyapoom NR Rural 29 Nonsmoker 6.6 (4.0–9.0) Suwansaksri & Wiwanitkit
(2001)
United Arab Abu Dhabi 1999 Men 100 NR 19.8; 13.3b Bener et al. (2001)
Emirates
NR, not reported; ND, not detectable

a
b
GM, geometric mean
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
Table 61. Lead concentrations in blood in adults and children in Australia
Reference Location Period Population No. of Age (years) Blood lead AM (range) Comments
09/08/2006
of study subjects concentration
(µg/dL)
Mencel & Thorp Sydney, NSW 1974 Adults 133 NR 12.4 2.7–51.1
(1976)
Moore et al. Tasmania NR Clerks and students 47 18–61 14.3 SE, 0.72 Capillary blood
11:15
(1976) samples
de Silva & Melbourne, Vic. NR Male office workers 20 42.8 10.9 SD, 2.8 Venous blood
Donnan (1977) samples
Page 133
de Silva & Victoria, Vic. 1979 Children 446 School age 11.4 3–3.7
Donnan (1980)
Calder et al. Adelaide, SA, 1984 Boys and girls 513 ≤ 4 yrs 16.3 2.7% > 30 µg/dL
(1986) industrial suburb
Wilson et al. Port Pirie, SA 1982 Boys and girls 1239 1–14 18.2 15.4% ≥ 25 µg/dL
(1986) 95.4% ≥ 10 µg/dL
Fett et al. (1992) Central Sydney, NSW, 1991–92 Boys and girls 158 9–48 months 11.2 50.6% > 10 µg/dL
inner urban areas
Threlfall et al. Perth, WA 1991 Boys and girls 123 0.2–17 6.9a 3.2–14.7
(1993)
Gulson et al. Broken Hill, NSW 1991–92 Adults and children 146 NR – 2.7–47.1
(1994)
Taylor et al. Victoria, Vic. 1993 Children 252 0.3–14 5.4a 1.0–36.8
(1995)
Mira et al. Central and southern 1992–94 Boys and girls 718 9–62 months 7.0 16.1% > 10 µg/dL
(1996) Sydney, NSW
Chiaradia et al. Goulburn, NSW NR Children of employees 8 2–5 5.7 SD, 1.7 Lead–zinc–copper
(1997) Control children 10 2–5.5 4.1 SD, 1.4 mine employees
Maynard et al. Port Pririe, SA 1993 Boys and girls 679 1–4 13.6 NR Surveys evaluating
(2003) (town with widespread 1994 Boys and girls 551 13.3 NR interventions
contamination from 1995 Boys and girls 803 12.1 NR
lead smelter) 1997 Boys and girls 753 11.4 NR
1998 Boys and girls| 775 10.1 NR
1999 Boys and girls 825 10.6 NR
AM, arithmetic mean; NR, not reported; SE, standard error; SD, standard deviation
133
a
Geometric mean
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
134
Table 62. Lead concentrations in blood in children living near the Santo Amaro smelter in Bahia, Brazil
Year of No. of Age Blood lead Other bioindicators Reference Comments
09/08/2006
study subjects (years) (µg/dL) mean ± SD (range)
mean ± SD
(range)
1980 555 1–9 59.2 ± 25.0 ZPP: Carvalho et al. (1984, Initial survey
(16.0–152.1) 95.3 ± 80.2 µg/dL 1985a); Silvany-Neto
11:15
(3.8–782.8) et al. (1985); Tavares

(1990)
263 Lead in hair: Carvalho et al. (1989)
Page 134
558 ± 644 ppm
1985 250 1–9 36.9 ± 22.9 ZPP: Silvany-Neto et al. 90-m chimney built; population within 300 m
(2.9–150.0) 70.4 ± 43.9 µg/dL (1989); Tavares (1990, from smelter transferred; EDTA treatment for
(10.3–522.7) 1992) 31 children; discontinued donation of smelter
dross and used filters to neighbours; installation
of stack filters; provided working clothes to
employees
1992 100 1–5 ZPP: Silvany-Neto et al. Higher values found in girls; children with
65.5 ± 1.7 µg/dLb (1996); Carvalho et al. darker-skinned racial background; smelter slag
(1996, 1997) present in home; children with pica; children of
smelter workers
1998 47 1–4 17.1 ± 7.3 Carvalho et al. (2003) Smelter closed in 1993
(2.0–36.2) Sources of exposure remaining; higher blood
lead found in: children with pica; smelter slag
present in home; malnutrition; lead intoxication
family history; sewage tubing being placed
with disturbance of slag previously used on
streets
a
ZPP, zinc protoporphyrin; SD, standard deviation
b
Geometric mean
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
09/08/2006
Table 63. Lead concentrations in blood in children in Latin America and the Carribean
Country Location Year(s) Source of exposure No. of Age Mean blood lead Reference
of study subjects (years) (µg/dL)
11:15
Chile Antofagasta 1997–98 Lead storage site 432 0–7 8.7 ± 1.99a Sepúlveda et al.
(railway) (2000)
Port area 54 0–7 6.9 ± 1.94a
Page 135
No exposure 75 0–7 4.2 ± 1.54a
Equador La Victoria NR Ceramic glazing 166 0.3–15 40.0 (6.2–119.1) Counter et al. (2000)
Zamora Province NR No exposure 56 1–15 6.6 (2.0–18.0)
Jamaica NR 1994–95 Rural 242 3–11 9.2b (3–28.5) Lalor et al. (2001)
Urban 90 3–11 14.0b (4–34.7)
Former mining area 61 3–11 35b (18–> 60)
Mexico Mexico City < 1992 Urban 782 girls 5–11 10–17 Olaiz et al. (1996)
801 boys 5–11 14–16.7
Ciudad Juárez, 1974 Smelter 1–9 Ordóñez et al. (2003)
Chihuahua < 1 mile 35 38.7
1–2.5 miles 113 31.6
2.6–4 miles 198 28.7
4.1–6 miles 200 28.5
6.1–8 miles 206 27.7
Total 752 29.3
NR, not recorded

a
Geometric mean
b
Median value
135
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
136
Table 64. Lead concentrations in blood in children in Asia
Country City/area Year(s) Popula- No. of Age Blood lead (µg/dL) Reference Comments
09/08/2006
of study tion subjects (years)
AMa Range
Bangladesh Dhaka 2000 B+G 779 4–12 12.3–17.5b Kaiser et al. (2001)
China Jiangsu NR B+G 27 6–9 8.8 5.9–14.8 Zhou & Chen (1988)c Capillary samples
11:15
Shanghai NR B+G 83 8–13 18.4 ND–55.0 [Wang (1988)c] Capillary samples
Beijing 1990 B+G 287 5–7 7.8–12.3b 3.9–24.8 [Zheng et al. (1993)c] Capillary samples

Multiple sites NR B+G [3746] 1–15 6.6–96.8 Shen et al. (1996) Review of 17 articles published
between 1986 and 1994
Page 136
Shanghai 1997 B+G 1969 1–6 9.6 0.1–69.7 Shen et al. (1999) After removal of lead from
1998 B+G 1972 1–6 8.1 1–23.9 gasoline
Rural area 1998–2001 B+G 959 5–12 49.6 19.5–89.3 Wu et al. (2002) Children exposed to parental
lead-recycling small industry
B+G 207 5–9 12.6 4.6–24.8 Non-polluted area
Rural area NR B+G 469 mean, 8.5 50.5 22.0–93.8 Zheng et al. (2002) Rural area near smelter
Shantou 1999 B+G 332 1–5 10.4 3.4–38.6 Luo et al. (2003) After removal of lead from
2001 B+G 457 1–5 7.9 1.1–29.5 gasoline in 1998
China Kaohsiung 1998–99 B+G 934 8–12 5.5 0.2–25.5 Wang et al. (2002a)
(Province of
Taiwan)
India Delhi NR B+G 82 0.2–13 9.6 Gogte et al. (1991) Control
23 Pica
11.6 Surma
30.8 Pica + surma
New Delhi NR B+G 75 3–5 14 4–40 Kaul (1999) Finger-prick method
Jammu NR B+G 50 3–5 15 4–87
3 sites NR B+G Kumar & Kesaree
urban 25 5–15 32.0 25–43 (1999)
semi-urban 75 5–15 25.0 20–31
rural 50 5–15 15.0 13–22
Mumbai 1986–94 NR 566 6–10 8.6–14.4b Raghunath et al. (1999) Middle-class families
Mumbai 1984–96 [B+G] 560 6–10 8.6–69.2b Tripathi et al. (2001) Capillary samples
Delhi 1998 B+G 190 4–6 7.8 Kalra et al. (2003) Children with ZPP > 50 µg/dL
P 075-140 DEF.qxp
09/08/2006
Table 64 (contd)
Country City/area Year(s) Popula- No. of Age Blood lead (µg/dL) Reference Comments
of study tion subjects (years)
AMa Range
11:15
Indonesia Jakarta < 2001 B+G 397 6–12 8.6b 2.6–24.1 Albalak et al. (2003) Capillary samples
Malaysia Urban 1997 B+G 179 7–11 5.3 0.9–18.5 Hashim et al. (2000) Finger-prick method
Page 137
Semi-urban 112 7–11 2.8 0.1–12.3
Rural 55 7–11 2.5 0.05–5.2
Republic of Ulsan 1997 B+G 426 8–11 4.77b Lee et al. (2002) Lead in gasoline was reduced to
Korea 1999 B+G 250 8–11 5.11b 0.013 g/L in 1993.
2001 B+G 242 8–11 5.21b
Mongolia 6 sites NR NR 142 NR 0.34–1.75 Burmaa et al. (2002) Highest in Ulaanbaatar
Pakistan Karachi NR Boys 77 6–8 16.9 Rahman et al. (2002)
NR Girls 61 6–8 15.12
5 districts in 2000 B+G 400 3–5 12.0–21.6 Rahbar et al. (2002)
Karachi
Saudi Arabia Riyadh NR Girls 533 6–12 8.1 2.3–27.4 Al-Saleh et al. (2001)
Thailand Kanchanaburi, 1997 NR 48 mean, 3.4 27.8 Tantanasrikul et al. Initial survey
downstream 1998 NR 48 30.6 (2002) After environmental deleading
lead refinery 1999 NR 48 30.3 Second survey
plant
NR, not reported; B, boys; G, girls; ZPP, zinc protoporphyrin

a
AM, arithmetic mean, unless stated otherwise
b
Geometric mean
c
Cited by Shen et al. (1996); references in square brackets could not be retrieved as original papers.
137
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 138
(b) Pregnant women and neonates

Lead concentrations were measured in maternal blood and umbilical cord blood from
50 parturient women at delivery in a hospital in Athens, Greece. Lead concentrations
(mean ± standard deviation) for women living in industrial areas with high air pollution
were 37.2 ± 4.7 µg/L in maternal blood and 20.0 ± 3.4 µg/L in umbilical cord blood
(correlation coefficient, r = 0.57), while those for women living in agricultural areas with
low air pollution were 20.5 ± 5.6 µg/L and 12.9 ± 3.6 µg/L, respectively (correlation
coefficient, r = 0.70). The authors concluded that the placenta demonstrates a dynamic
protective function that is amplified when maternal blood lead concentrations are
increased (Dussias et al., 1997).
Data from Kosovo (Serbia and Montenegro) showed that 86% of the pregnant women
living in the vicinity of a lead smelter had blood lead concentrations ≥ 10 µg/dL, while in
a comparable area not near a smelter, only 3.4% of pregnant women showed elevated con-
centrations (Graziano et al., 1990).
Rabinowitz and Needleman (1982) reported an umbilical cord blood lead concen-
tration of 6.6 µg/dL (arithmetic mean), with a range of 0–37 µg/dL, in over 11 000 samples
collected between 1979 and 1981 in Boston, USA. A decrease in the blood lead concen-
tration of approximately 14% per year was noted during the period of collection.
Concentrations of lead (expressed as mean ± standard deviation) in umbilical cord
blood of two groups of women giving birth in a hospital in Boston, USA, in 1980 and
1990, were found to be 6.56 ± 3.19 µg/dL and 1.19 ± 1.32 µg/dL, respectively (Hu et al.,
1996a).
In a study conducted at a medical centre in South Central Los Angeles, one of the
most economically-depressed regions in California, USA, maternal blood lead concen-
trations in the third trimester of pregnancy were significantly higher in a group of 1392
immigrant women (geometric mean, 2.3 µg/dL) than in a group of 489 non-immigrant
women (geometric mean, 1.9 µg/dL). Years living in the USA was the most powerful
predictor of blood lead concentration. Drinking coffee during pregnancy, a history of pica,
and/or low calcium intake were all significantly associated with higher blood lead concen-
trations (Rothenberg et al., 1999).
In a study conducted in the United Arab Emirates, blood samples were collected from
113 mothers of 23 different nationalities and from their neonates (cord blood). Mean
maternal blood lead concentration was 14.9 ± 2.14 µg/dL (range, 6.6–27.8 µg/dL) and
mean cord blood lead concentration was 13.3 ± 2.49 µg/dL (range, 6.0–30.3 µg/dL).
Sixteen per cent of samples from the mothers and 9% of cord blood samples had lead con-
centrations > 20 µg/dL (Al Khayat et al., 1997a).
There are several studies showing high blood lead concentrations in pregnant women
in India (Saxena et al., 1994; Awasthi et al., 1996; Raghunath et al., 2000). The mean blood
lead concentration in a cohort of 500 pregnant women living in the slums of Lucknow,
north India, was 14.3 µg/dL, and 19.2% of women had concentrations ≥ 20 µg/dL. Blood
lead concentration was not associated with age, height, weight, gestation, or history of
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 139
abortion, although it was higher with higher parity. Women living in inner-city neighbour-
hoods with heavy vehicular traffic had mean blood lead concentrations significantly higher
than those living in other neighbourhoods (Awasthi et al., 1996). In another study con-
ducted in Lucknow, India, the mean maternal blood lead concentration was significantly
higher in cases of abnormal delivery (22.5 µg/dL) compared with normal deliveries
(19.4 µg/dL). No significant difference in placental blood, cord blood and fetal membrane
lead concentrations was observed between cases of normal and abnormal deliveries
(Saxena et al., 1994).
(c) Children
Data on blood lead concentrations in children are presented in Tables 57–59 and
61–64.
Between 1978 and 1988, decreases of 25–45% in average blood lead concentrations
in children have been reported in Belgium, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden and
the United Kingdom (OECD, 1993).
Blood lead concentrations were measured in 286 children aged 0–7 years living in the
three largest cities of Finland (n = 172), in rural areas (n = 54) and near a lead smelter
(n = 60) (Taskinen et al., 1981). Mean blood lead concentrations among children in the
urban, rural and lead-smelter areas varied between 6.0 and 6.7 µg/dL, with a range of
2–17 µg/dL. There were no statistically significant differences between groups. The five
children who lived within 500 m of the lead smelter had a mean blood lead concentration
of 9.2 µg/dL, with a range of 5–13 µg/dL, which was significantly higher than the mean
blood lead concentration among 485 children in the rest of the country. In a study carried
out in Sweden, 1395 blood samples were obtained from children living in an urban or rural
area or near a smelter during the period 1978–88. The mean blood lead concentration for
all locations together decreased from 6.4 µg/dL (range, 1.8–25 µg/dL) in 1978 to 4.2 µg/dL
(range, 1.4–12.9 µg/dL) in 1984, to 3.3 µg/dL (range, 1.5–7.1 µg/dL) in 1988. The
decrease was statistically significant for all three areas studied (Skerfving et al., 1986;
Schütz et al., 1989).
In Finland, the mean blood lead concentration for the children in two day-care centres
in Helsinki was 4.8 µg/dL in 1983 (range, 2.1–8.3 µg/dL), 3.0 µg/dL in 1988 (range,
2.1–4.1 µg/dL), and 2.6 µg/dL in 1996 (range, 1.7–3.7 µg/dL) (Pönkä et al., 1993; Pönkä,
1998).
In 1993, almost 30% of 431 children in a lead-mining community in the Upper Silesian
industrial zone of Poland had blood lead concentrations > 10 µg/dL (Zejda et al., 1995). In
Belovo, Russian Federation, lead releases from a metallurgy enterprise decreased between
1983 and 1996 from 120 to 9 tonnes per year, due to almost complete cessation of activity.
In 1983, mean blood lead concentrations in newborn children and their mothers living in
the area were 23.4 and 25 µg/dL, respectively; in 1996, mean blood lead concentrations in
91 children (age, 7–8 years) had decreased to 9.9 µg/dL (range, 0.5–39 µg/dL), with 46%
of values still exceeding 10 µg/dL (Revich et al., 1998).
P 075-140 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:15 Page 140
In a community near a smelter in Bulgaria, blood lead concentrations in 109 children

varied from 8–63 µg/dL. The higher concentrations in these children were correlated with
the consumption of home-grown products. Lower blood lead concentrations were observed
in children whose food came from a distant market (Fischer et al., 2003).
The mean blood lead concentration in children in the USA has dropped dramatically
since the late 1970s (Brody et al., 1994; Pirkle et al., 1994, 1998; CDC, 1997b, 2003a,b).
Results of the NHANES studies in children aged 1–5 years are shown in Table 58.
The NHANES II and NHANES III, Phase I, results showed that from 1976 to 1991,
high blood lead concentrations correlated with low income, low educational attainment
and residence in the north-eastern region of the USA (Pirkle et al., 1994). Data from
Phase II of NHANES III (October 1991 to September 1994) indicated that blood lead con-
centrations in children aged 1–5 years continued to decrease and were more likely to be
elevated among those who were poor, non-Hispanic black, living in large metropolitan
areas or living in older housing (with potential exposure to lead from lead-based paint);
approximately 4.4% of the children aged 1–5 years had blood lead concentrations
≥ 10 µg/dL (CDC, 1997b). In addition, 1.3% of children aged 1–5 years had blood lead
concentrations ≥ 15 µg/dL and 0.4% had concentrations ≥ 20 µg/dL. The downward
trends continued in 1999–2000 (CDC, 2003a). For all periods of this study, mean lead
concentrations were consistently lower among the older age groups, i.e. age 1–5 years,
2.2 µg/dL; 6–11 years, 1.5 µg/dL; 12–19 years, 1.1 µg/dL in the period 1999–2000 (CDC,
2003a).
A study assessing the source of lead exposure during early childhood in the USA
showed that lead-contaminated floor dust was a major source of lead exposure during
early childhood, whereas window sills became an increasingly important source as
children stood upright (Lanphear et al., 2002).
One of the most serious episodes of general population exposure to lead reported in
Latin America occurred in Brazil (Table 62). For 24 years, a lead smelter processing
30 000 tonnes/year operated in the vicinity of Santo Amaro da Purificação (30 000
inhabitants) in the state of Bahia. No proper air pollution control system was used.
Smelter dross (solid wastes) was distributed free of charge to the neighbouring population
and spread over gardens, backyards, schools and streets, and chimney filters from the
smelter were used in homes as carpets, bed spreads and rags. Four cross-sectional studies
in children under 9 years of age were conducted in 1980 (Carvalho et al., 1985a), 1985
(Silvany-Neto et al., 1989), 1992 (Silvany-Neto et al., 1996) and 1998 (Carvalho et al.,
2003). Blood lead concentrations were among the highest reported in the world. Most
children involved in the last study were born after the smelter closed down in December
1993. Five years later, lead concentrations in blood averaged 17.1 ± 7.3 µg/dL, ranging
from 2.0 to 36.2 µg/dL. Blood lead concentrations were approximately 5 µg/dL higher in
children with pica, with visible presence of dross in home premises, with previous history
of lead intoxication in the family and with malnutrition (Carvalho et al., 2003).
In Antofagasta, Chile, a study was conducted with 432 children under 7 years of age
living around a minerals storage site, 54 living near the port and 75 in non-exposed areas
P 141-164 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:26 Page 141
(Table 63). Average concentrations of lead in blood of exposed and unexposed children
were 8.7 µg/dL and 4.2 µg/dL, respectively. Forty-seven per cent of exposed children, but
no unexposed children, had blood lead concentrations > 10 µg/dL. The habit of pica, the
number of cigarettes smoked daily at home, the level of education of the mother and
having a mother working outside the home were variables that partly explained the
variation in blood lead concentrations in the exposed area (Sepúlveda et al., 2000).
In view of airborne lead pollution across the border from a lead smelter in El Paso,
TX, USA, an epidemiological study on lead was conducted in 1974 in Juárez City,
Chihuahua, Mexico, among 752 children aged 1–9 years. The average blood lead concen-
tration was 29.27 ± 7.30 µg/dL in children living within 8 miles of the lead source. Con-
centrations decreased with greater distances from the smelter (Ordóñez et al., 2003; see
Table 24 and Section 1.4.1(b)).
Lead-glazing of ceramics has for many years been a source of exposure of the popu-
lation of La Victoria, Ecuador, where around 70 kilns operate within an area of 250 km2.
One hundred and sixty-six children aged 4 months to 15 years living in the area and many
of them helping their parents in glazing activities had blood lead concentrations ranging
from 6.2 to 119.1 µg/dL (mean, 40.0 µg/dL) compared with an average of 6.6 µg/dL in a
reference population of 56 children aged 1–15 years living 500 km away in the province
of Zamora. Lead isotope ratios of the soil and blood samples were highly similar and
clustered for both study areas, indicating that lead in soil resulting from contamination by
the glazing activities is probably one of the main routes of exposure to lead in these
children (Counter et al., 2000).
Blood lead concentrations among children in several Asian countries (Table 64) were
basically similar to those in adults (Table 60), and were generally between 5 and 15 µg/dL
(geometric mean). It should be noted, however, that finger-prick or capillary blood samples
were employed in some studies (see Section 1.5 for quality assurance). Blood lead concen-
trations in children in Mongolia (Burmaa et al., 2002) were substantially lower than in all
the other studies listed in Table 64.
In a study carried out at 15 sites in India, the highest (69 µg/dL) and second highest
(21 µg/dL) geometric mean blood lead concentrations were observed in children who
lived near a scrap-yard and near a lead smelter, respectively. Values for children in the
remaining sites were in a range of 9–14 µg/dL (Tripathi et al., 2001). Wu, Y. et al. (2002)
observed significantly higher blood lead concentrations in children who lived in an area
polluted by lead from a battery-recycling plant compared with a control group. Similarly,
Zheng et al. (2002) described elevated blood lead concentrations (up to 94 µg/dL) in
children living in an area with heavy lead pollution. Tantanasrikul et al. (2002) found high
blood lead concentrations in children in a Thai village area downstream from a lead
refinery plant. Wang et al. (1998) reported that 22 of 36 children in a kindergarten near a
battery recycling factory in Taiwan, China, had blood lead concentrations in excess of
15 µg/dL in comparison with none of 35 children in a kindergarten in a non-exposed area.
In a study of 566 children aged 6–10 years residing in 13 locations in Mumbai, India,
a correlation coefficient of 0.88 was observed between air lead and blood lead concen-
P 141-164 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:26 Page 142
trations. It was also found that a 1-µg/m3 increase in lead concentration in air resulted in
a 3.56-µg/dL increase in blood lead concentration in children (Raghunath et al., 1999).
In another study among children in India, the differences in the mean blood lead
concentrations were statistically significant (p < 0.001) between the urban, semi-urban
and rural populations. The age-related differences in blood lead concentrations were also
significant for urban, semi-urban and rural children (Kumar & Kesaree, 1999).
In a study comparing children with and without pica in Delhi, India, only six out of
82 children with no symptoms of pica had a mean blood lead concentration ≥ 30 µg/dL
(30–39 µg/dL). Among 88 children with pica, 26 had high blood lead concentrations
(30–92 µg/dL) (Gogte et al., 1991).
Among 400 children aged 36–60 months from the city centre, two suburbs, a rural
community or an island situated in the harbour at Karachi, Pakistan, about 80% had blood
lead concentrations > 10 µg/dL, with an overall mean of 15.6 µg/dL. Housing near a main
intersection in the city centre, application of surma (a lead-containing cosmetic) to
children’s eyes, father’s exposure to lead at the workplace, father’s illiteracy, child’s hand-
to-mouth activity and eating from street vendors were among variables found likely to be
associated with elevated lead concentrations in blood (Rahbar et al., 2002).
The phase-out of leaded gasoline in Indonesia began in Jakarta on 1 July 2001. In a
study conducted before the beginning of the phase-out activities, 35% of children aged
6–12 years in Jakarta had blood lead concentrations ≥ 10 µg/dL and 2.4% had concen-
trations ≥ 20 µg/dL. Lead concentrations in the blood of children who lived near a high-
way or major intersection were significantly higher than those in children who lived near
a street with little or no traffic. The source of household water was also a significant pre-
dictor of blood lead concentrations ≥ 10 µg/dL, after adjustment for age and sex (Albalak
et al., 2003).
Hashim et al. (2000) measured blood lead concentrations in urban and rural primary-
school children in Malaysia; the percentage of children with blood lead ≥ 10 µg/dL was
6.36% overall, and was highest for Kuala Lumpur (11.73%). Urban schoolchildren were
found to have higher blood lead concentrations than their rural and semi-urban
counterparts, even after controlling for age, sex, parents’ education and income levels.
1.4.3 Occupational exposure

Potentially high levels of lead may occur in the following industries or workplaces:
lead smelting and refining industries, battery manufacturing plants, steel welding or
cutting operations, construction, painting and printing industries, firing ranges, vehicle
radiator-repair shops and other industries requiring flame soldering of lead solder, and
gasoline stations and garages.
Workers in many occupations and job activities within or outside these industries have
the potential for relatively high exposures to lead with varying degrees of frequency (Fu
& Boffetta, 1995; ATSDR, 1999; NIOSH, 2001). These exposures and workers are (the
asterisks indicate occupations for which there is at least one epidemiological study of lead
P 141-164 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:26 Page 143
exposure and cancer, as summarized in Section 2 of this volume): on-going exposure —

battery-production workers*, battery-recycling workers*, foundry workers, lead chemical
workers*, lead smelter and refinery workers*, leaded-glass workers*, pigment workers*,
vehicle radiator-repair workers and traffic controllers; moderate frequency of exposure —
firing-range instructors, house renovators, lead miners*, newspaper printers*, plastics
workers*, rubber workers, jewellery workers, ceramics workers and steel welders and
cutters; low frequency of exposure — automobile-repair workers, cable-production
workers, construction workers, demolition workers, firing-range participants, flame-
solder workers, plumbers and pipefitters, pottery-glaze producers, ship-repair workers
and stained-glass producers.
Epidemiological studies have also reported exposure to organic lead compounds, at a
chemical plant in Texas, USA, and at an organic lead manufacturing company in New
Jersey, USA. However, there are a number of activities that present a potential for high
lead exposure but for which no epidemiological data are available.
The most common route of occupational exposure to lead is through inhalation of
lead fumes or lead dusts from ambient air, leading to absorption of lead through the
respiratory system. Lead may also be ingested and absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract.
Organic lead is absorbed through the skin (Bress & Bidanset, 1991).
The lead concentration in air can be measured as a means of monitoring occupational
exposure in work areas. However, occupational exposure is more often inferred from
measurement of blood lead concentrations in individual workers.
Workers occupationally exposed to lead may carry lead home on their body, clothing
and tools. Thus, children of workers exposed to lead can also be at increased risk of expo-
sure. For example, blood lead concentrations of children in households of occupationally-
exposed workers were found to be almost twice those of children in neighbouring homes
whose parents were not exposed to lead in their occupation (median ranges, 10–14 and
5–8 µg/dL, respectively) (Grandjean & Bach, 1986). Exposures to lead in workers’
families have been identified in association with nearly 30 different industries and occu-
pations; the most commonly reported include lead smelting, battery manufacturing and
recycling, radiator repair, electrical components manufacturing, pottery and ceramics and
stained-glass making (NIOSH, 1995).
The results of surveys of occupational exposure to lead in a large variety of industries
in New Zealand, expressed as air lead concentrations and/or blood lead concentrations for
the period 1988–89, are presented in Table 65 (Grant et al., 1992).
Lead concentrations in workplace air and in the blood of exposed workers for specific
job categories are presented in Tables 66–73. Whereas lead concentrations in air were
reported only in a limited number of studies, blood lead concentrations are available for
most studies and the exposure intensity is evaluated in terms of blood lead for the groups
of exposed workers. Examples of extreme exposures reported in the literature include
mean occupational air lead concentrations as high as 1200 µg/m3 for welding structural
steel, 4470 µg/m3 for primary smelting and 5400 µg/m3 within a storage-battery plant
(WHO, 1977).
P 141-164 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:26 Page 144
Table 65. Occupational exposure to lead in men in New Zealand,

1988–89
Occupation in order of decreasing No. of Blood lead (µg/dL)

mean blood lead concentration workers
Mean SD Range
Radiator repairer 51 78.7 47.6 11–155

Smelter/furnaceman 57 78.7 51.8 14–148
Muffler repairer 33 70.4 33.1 31–109
Scrap metal worker 69 66.2 60.0 14–145
Foundryman general 58 64.2 49.7 23–128
Metal moulder 24 64.2 66.2 14–181
Container repairer 13 60.0 26.9 40–61
Engine reconditioner 33 53.8 33.1 23–154
Panel beater 22 55.9 47.6 23–115
Metal machinist 35 55.9 43.5 18–111
Printer 4 55.9 33.1 28–69
Gas cutter/welder 17 43.5 49.7 6–90
Spray painter 42 43.5 29.0 17–80
Plastic worker 55 43.5 35.2 9–124
Metal polisher 29 43.5 55.9 10–119
Paint removal worker 8 41.4 22.8 19–54
Painter/decorator 208 41.4 51.8 5–181
Leadlight worker 11 39.3 29.0 14–64
Metal extruder 16 35.2 31.1 18–77
Garage mechanic 47 35.2 43.5 9–82
Miscellaneous lead product worker 65 31.1 35.2 5–113
Pottery/ceramics worker 3 29.0 24.8 9–46
Workers exposed to exhaust fumes 6 26.9 26.9 14–47
Plumber 10 26.9 20.7 12–46
Cable jointer 174 26.9 26.9 5–91
Car assembler 25 26.9 31.1 5–76
Electroplater 17 22.8 18.6 9–46
Boat builder 30 20.7 18.6 7–47
Bright solderer 9 20.7 20.7 11–49
Petrol pump attendant 10 20.7 14.5 5–33
Adapted from Grant et al. (1992)

SD, standard deviation
A NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation (HHE) is a study of a workplace in the USA con-
ducted to learn whether workers are exposed to hazardous materials or harmful condi-
tions. The HHE is not necessarily representative of an industry or general work practices,
since the inspections and measurements are typically done in response to a request by an
employee, an officer of a labour union that represents employees, or any management
official on behalf of the employer. Table 74 presents data from a series of HHE reports
where blood and air concentrations of lead have been measured.
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Table 66. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: lead–acid battery factories
Country or Year(s) Job/task Study No. of Age Job history Smoking Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (µg/m3) Reference
area of survey popu- subjects (years) (years) status
lation AMa Range/SD AMa Range/SD
11:26
Brazil [1984] Battery repairb M 5 15–66 ≤1 NR 35.0c NR Carvalho
11 1–3 NR 37.3c et al. (1985b)
23 ≥4 NR 47.7c
Page 145
6 15–18 36.7c
33 19–66 44.0c
Bulgaria 1992–96 Lead–acid battery M 103 39.1 9.7 Included 56.2 NR Vaglenov
et al. (2001)
China 1950–83 Lead–acid battery Wang (1984)
Charging NR 30 NR NR NR 26.2d NR 500
Plate moulding NR 34 NR NR NR 25.6 d NR 60
Printing NR 30 NR NR NR 22.8 d NR 5
China NR Lead–acid battery M 118 37.0 > 6 months 80% 67.0 ± 26 190 Lai et al.
(Province W 101 36.3 > 6 months 2% 45.0 ± 18.7 (1997)
of Taiwan) NR Lead–acid battery M 120 18–67 0.2–35 38% smokers 67.7 ± 28.2 ≥ 0.1 in Wang et al.
W 109 18–71 0.2–17 48.6 ± 17.0 46% of (2002b)
samples
1989–98 Lead–acid battery 17 M 30 38.3 13.1 NR 20–60d,e NR Hsiao et al.
13 W (2001)
1991 Lead–acid battery M+W 284 NR NR Included 34.7 ± 15.0 NR Chuang et al.
1997 M+W 392 NR NR Included 23.9 ± 12.4 NR (1999)
Finland NR Lead–acid battery M+W 91 40.6 12.2 NR 30 NR Erkkilä et al.
(1992)
Irak 1996 Lead–acid battery Mehdi et al.
Charging M 11 NR >4 40% smokers 36.4 ± 11.40 NR (2000)
Repair M 8 NR >4 58.0 ± 13.35 NR
Casting M 18 NR >4 71.7 ± 24.80 NR
145
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146
Table 66 (contd)
09/08/2006
lation AM a
Range/SD AM a
Range/SD
Israel 1975 Administration NR 3 41.3 13.3 Most 28.6 20–34 14.5 11.9–17.0 Richter et al.
Maintenance NR 3 41.3 5.5 smokers 44.0 43–46 23 – (1979)
Assembly NR 6 47.0 9.8 55.0 41–73 49.3 48–50.7
11:26
Miscellaneous NR 17 35.2 4.3 59.5 43–87 84.5 71–98
Grid smelting and NR 10 43.9 13.1 58.4 43–73 190 118–299

casting
Plate drying and NR 15 31.9 4.6 75.2 48–105 399 266–475
Page 146
formation
Oven smelting NR 3 36.3 6.5 76.3 64–90 885 –
Pasting/drying/ NR 4 33.5 6.4 90.7 79–108 1187 1060–1315
oxide formation
Japan NR Lead battery, mostly M 214 NR ≥2 NR 48.9c 17.0–101.0 NR Fukui et al.
W 44 NR ≥2 NR 49.1c 28.0–75.0 NR (1999)
Philippines 1990 Lead–acid battery M 199 33.8 10.7 NR 64.5b 23–121 NR Makino et al.
(1994)
Republic NR Lead–acid battery NR 66 40 ≥ 3 months NR 45.7 ± 15.7 NR Kim et al.
of Korea Casting and 5 39 40.6 ± 8.8 83 40–154 (1995a)
pasting
Plate forming, 17 44 49.2 ± 17.4 170 12–468
finishing
Assembling 22 39 47.2 ± 11.6 145 15–411
Others 22 39 42.6 ± 18.7 NR
NR Lead–acid battery 14 M, 92 40.1 8.6 NR 27.6 19c Hwang et al.
Cast-on-strap 78 W 37 29.6 32c (2000)
Plate processing 3 36.8 29c
Battery cell 19 22.6 13c
setting
Finish processing 21 22.4 9c
Supervisor 12 44.5 27c
1998 Lead–acid battery M 156 36.3 8.8 68% smokers 32.0 ± 13.0 NR Hwang et al.
W 56 47.0 6.2 Nonsmokers 19.8 ± 9.2 NR (2001)
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Table 66 (contd)
11:26
lation AMa Range/SD AMa Range/SD
Page 147
Singapore NR Lead–acid battery M Chia et al.
Chinese 11 39.1 10.8 Included 23.6 12.4 35 ± 31 (1991)
Malay 25 31.7 7.5 Included 34.3 10.5 51 ± 39
NR Lead–acid battery M 50 38.3 10 NR 32.5 19.1–50.9 88.6 ± 176.3 Ho et al.
(1998)
1987–89 Lead–acid battery NR 61 NR NR NR 28.4 12.9 NR Chia et al.
(1993)
South NR Lead–acid battery M 382 41.2 11.6 52% smokers 53.5 23–110 145 10–5480 Ehrlich et al.
Africa (1998)
Turkey NR Lead–acid battery M 71 32.7 NR 73% smokers 34.5 13.4–71.8 NR Süzen et al.
(2003)
USA 1947–72 Lead–acid battery M 1083 NR >1 NR 62.7 NR Wong &
Harris (2000)
NR, not reported; M, men; W, women

a
Arithmetic mean, unless stated otherwise
b
Nineteen different establishments recycling batteries; 76.9% of the workers operating in areas < 30 m2 and involved in fusion of lead
c
Geometric mean
d
Median value
e
Values read from graph
147
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
148
Table 67. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: mining/primary smelter
Country Year of Job/task Study No. of Age Years of Smoking Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (µg/m3) Reference
09/08/2006
survey popu- subjects years employ- status
lation mean ment AMa Range/ AMa Range
(range) SD
Canada 1994 Primary smelter M+W 368 NR NR NR 22–25 NR NR Fleming

et al. (1998)
11:26
Italy 1977–78 Primary smelter M 1388 NR >1 NR NR 47.6 1–1650 Cocco et al.

(1997)
Japan NR Copper smelter M 42.9 Included Karita et al.
± 5.5
Page 148
Blending 13 (21–60) – 8.9 7 5–8 (2000)
Smelting 51 – 13.5 ± 7.2 29 6–67
Converter 28 – 15.7 ± 7.3 41 17–78
Anode 31 – 25.7 ± 6.1 313 165–436
Current 26.3 14–39
Former 21.0 19–23
Never 25.9 15–34
Kazakhstan 1998 Smelter and mining NR 38 NR NR NR 34 13–> 65 NR Kaul et al.
(2000)
Sweden 1987 Primary smelter Active 70 37.4 14.3 NR 32b 5.0–47.4 NR Gerhardsson
Retired 30 67.9 32.6 NR 9.9b 3.3–20.9 et al. (1993)
Sweden 1950–87 Primary smelter M 3979 NR NR NR 62.1–33.1c NR Lundström
Other metal workers 55.9–16.6c et al. (1997)
Other personnel 53.8–12.4c
United 1970–79 Cadmium plant M 123 NR >1 NR 28 50% Ades &
Kingdom Furnace area M 426 NR >1 NR 59 > 2000 in Kazantzis
Sinter area M 343 NR >1 NR 56 whole plant (1988)
USA 1976 Primary smelter M 173 NR 9.9 NR 56.3 3100 Steenland
et al. (1992)
NR, not reported; M, men; W, women

a
b
Median value
c
Decrease over the study period
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
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Table 68. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: secondary smelter
Country or Year(s) Job/task Study No. of Age Job history Smoking Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead Reference
area of survey popu- subjects years (years) status in air
lation mean AMa Range/ (µg/m3)
AMa

(range) SD
11:26
China NR Battery recycling Wang et al.
(Province Furnace NR 19 37 11 months NR 87 14 NR (1998)
Page 149
of Taiwan) Fragmentation NR 10 35 15 months NR 69 16 NR
Office, guards NR 5 52 31 months NR 38 4 NR
Ghana NR Battery recycling 23 M, 2 W 25 (18–60) ≥5 NR 108 60–270 NR Ankrah et al.
(1996)
Japan NR Secondary lead smelter 19 M, 3 W 22 47 5 NR 43 8–78 NR Tomokuni
(22–63) et al. (1992)
Philippines NR Secondary lead smelter M 107 32.1 6.6 NR 80.8b 19–153 NR Makino et al.
(battery recycling) W 6 27.8 4.0 NR 44.7b 35–61 NR (1994)
Republic 1996 Secondary lead smelter 83 M, 5 W 88 NR > 1 month NR 52.4 17.7 324 Kim et al.
of Korea A M+W 12 47.4 18.8 310 (2002)
B M+W 17 47.2 20.7 194
C M+W 18 49.7 13.1 464
D M+W 25 55.4 19.7 316
E M+W 16 60.0 12.1 290
Sweden 1969–85 Secondary smelter M 664 28 at 2.8b NR 62.1–33.1c NR Gerhardsson
entry et al. (1995a)
USA 1947–72 Smelters (primary, M 254 NR >1 NR 79.7 NR Wong &
second, recycling) Harris (2000)
NR, not reported; M, men; W, women; A–E, five different lead smelters
a
Arithmetic mean, unlewss stated otherwise
b
Median value
c
Decrease over the study period
149
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150
09/08/2006
Table 69. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: leaded glass
11:26
Country Years of Job/task Study No. of Age Job Smoking Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (mg/m3) Reference
or area survey population subjects (years) history status
Page 150
(years) AMa Range AMa Range
China NR Lead-coloured glass Women 36 21–35 2–17 Never 55.6 25.8–79.3 NR 0.4–1.2 Murata et al.
(1995)
Japan 1989–90 Lead-coloured glass NR 5 29–55 2–17 NR Hirata et al.
high exposure (15)b 67.1 38–102 1050 741–1658 (1995)
low exposure (60)b 52.3 38–69 286 22–1331
NR Lead glass processing Men 160 36 1–28 NR 55.1 18.1–87.9 NR Oishi et al.
and lead pigment Women 138 28 1–28 NR 54.7 21.5–99.4 NR (1996a)
production
NR, not reported

a
Arithmetic mean
b
Number of samples collected during 15 months
Cor 151.qxd
01/09/2006
Table 70. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: welders and solders
Country or Year of Job/task Study No. of Age Job Smoking Blood lead (μg/dL) Lead in air μg/m3) Reference
area survey popu- subjects (years) history status
18:14
lation (years) AMa Range/SD AMa Range

Welding
Page 151
Jordan NR Radiator welding M 22 27.7 1–40 NR 32.8b NR Hunaiti et al. (1995)
Malaysia NR Shipyard welding M 51 > 18 1–17 Includedc 12 4–31 NR Mokhtar et al. (2002)
Mexico NR Radiator repair NR 73 33.2 NR Included 35.5 6.7–79.4 19.1 0–99 Dykeman et al. (2002)
29 Smoker 40.4 13.9–79.4
30 Nonsmoker 32.3 14.6–56.9
Philippines 1999 Radiator mechanic M+W 16 40.2 16.2 NR 20.0 ± 10.6 NR Suplido & Ong (2000)
NR Welding mechanic M 29 NR NR Nonsmoker 9.1 5.0–17.0 NR Suwansaksri et al. (2002)
Thailand NR Mechanic NR 40 NR NR Never 11.2 3.9–17.0 0.1–0.5 Suwansaksri & Wiwanitkit
(2001)
USA 1992 Radiator repair M 63 39 11 39% current 29d 6.6–94 NR Dalton et al. (1997)
NR Radiator repair NR 56 39.5 NR 52% current 37.1 16–73 NR Goldman et al. (1987)
1990 Radiator repair NR 7 NR NR NR NR 17–35 PBZ: 209 < 20–810 Tharr (1993)
TWA:
< 10–> 40
1986 Radiator repair NR 53 37.1 14.3 60% current 31.7 5–58 Area: 40 0–281 Lussenhop et al. (1989)
PBZ: 113 0–590
Soldering
Philippines NR Electronic industry M 21 25.4 1.8 NR 14.9b 7–45 NR Makino et al. (1994)
W 193 21.9 1.8 NR 9.9b 3–47 NR
Singapore 1987 Electronics industry NR 118 NR NR NR 16.1 ± 8.5 110 10–1240 Chia et al. (1993)
NR, not reported; M, men; W, women; PBZ, personal breathing zone; TWA, time-weighted average
a
Arithmetic mean, unless specified otherwise
b
Geometric mean
c
Stratification by smoking did not reveal a significant difference between values.
d
Median value
151
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152
09/08/2006
Table 71. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: professional drivers and traffic policemen
Country or Year(s) of Job/task Study No. of Age Job Smoking Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (µg/m3) Reference
area survey popu- subjects (years) history status
a a
lation (years) AM Range/ AM Range
11:26
SD

China 1998 Taxi and bus drivers M 164 NR NR 75% 10.8b ± 1.26 NR Zhou et al.
Page 152
smokers (2001)
Egypt NR Traffic controllers M 45 20–60 Max., 40 NR 68.3 37–97 NR Ahmed et al.
(Alexandria) (1987)
Egypt NR Traffic policemen M 126 48.7 9–36 NR 29.2 7.5 NR Kamal et al.
(1991)
India NR Traffic constables M 88 41.7 2.7 30% 11.2 0.5–40.2 NR Potula & Hu
Bus drivers M 22 43.6 5.6 77% 12.1 0.5–35.7 NR (1996a,b)
Indonesia 1983 Policemen M 24 NR NR NR 31 ± 18 NR 0.7–6.0 Suzuki
Drivers NR 22 NR NR NR 25 ± 17 NR 0.7–6.0 (1990)
Jordan NR Bus drivers, gasoline NR 47 NR NR NR 7.6 NR Hunaiti et al.
station workers (1995)
Pakistan 1994–95 Traffic exposed M 212 19–59 >1 Included 52.2 NR Khan et al.
Traffic police 36 53.4 (1995)
Transportation staff 150 51.1
Shopkeepers 36 52.1
NR, not reported; M, men

a
b
Geometric mean
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
09/08/2006
Table 72. Air and blood lead concentrations measured at indoor and outdoor firing ranges
Country Year(s) of study Settings/task No. of Age Job history Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (µg/m3) Reference
subjects (years) (years)
and sex AMa Range AMa Range
11:26
China NR Employees in indoor 10 NR 4–21 37.2 22.4–59.6 GA, 134; PBZ, 413 NR Chau et al.
(Province range (1995)
of Taiwan)
Page 153
New 1990–91 Indoor small-bore rifle 52 M + W 17–68 Recreational End of PBZ, 120 George
Zealand range shooters season, GA, 140–210 et al.
55.0; start of (1993)
season, 33.3
Sweden NR Indoor range Svensson
Powder gun 22 M + W 42.4 10.2 13.8b 6.9–22.8 660 112–2238 et al.
Air gun 21 M + W 46.8 13.7 8.4b 2.0–22.2 4.6 1.8–7.2 (1992)
1994 On- and off-duty police 75 M 43 NR 5.0 1.0–18.2 NR Löfstedt
officers 3W 32 > 9 years 3.7 et al.
(1999)
United NR Indoor range for police 7 NR NR 30–59 30–160 Smith
Kingdom officers (1976)
NR Soldiers 35 21.9 4.2 19.25 9.6–30.1 TWA: 190 Brown
(1983)
USA 1985 Indoor range NR NR Showroom, 2.7 Novotny
Full-time employee 2 59–77 Firing line, 13.6 et al.
Part-time employee 2 17–49 Midway to target, (1987)
57.4;
Target, 90.5
1987 Covered outdoor range 15 NR NR 5.6 (pre- GA, 68.4 3.8–298.6 Tripathi
exposure) PBZ, 128.5 34.7–314.3 et al.
10.7 (day 2) (1989)
14.9 (day 5)
8.7 (day 69)
153
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154
Table 72 (contd)
Country Year(s) of study Settings/task No. of Age Job history Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (µg/m3) Reference
09/08/2006
subjects (years) (years)
and sex AMa Range AMa Range
USA 1987 Indoor range with training 17 M + W 24–40 Trainees Valway

(contd) Jan.-Feb. 3 Feb.–28 April 6.45 < 5–23.1 1483–1860 304–2688 et al.
March (early) 51.4 31.2–73.3 2906–3226 994–5589 (1989)
553–2567c
11:26
March (late) 44.6 27.1–62.3 1231
May 39.8 23.1–51.2

Lead bullet 1410
Nylon-coated 78.3
Page 154
Copper jacketed 43.1
1987 Covered outdoor range 6 NR NR Before GA, 9.53 5.50–14.56 Tripathi
using copper-jacketed shooting, PBZ, 5.88 0.42–7.66 et al.
bullets 6.0 ± 1.7 (1990)
After
shooting,
6.5 ± 1.5
1987–88 Uncovered outdoor range NR NR Goldberg
June 1987 7 28–66 – et al.
July 1987 – 460–510 (3-h TWA) (1991)
Dec. 1987 7 25–70 –
April 1988 5 – 100–170 (3-h TWA)
June 1988 28–38 –
1987 Covered outdoor range NR Instructors Tripathi
Non-jacketed bullets 2 14.2–24.2d 10–27 67.1–211.1 36.7–431.5 et al.
Jacketed bullets 2 13.1–22.1 5.4–8.7 (1991)
1991–93 University rifle range College Recreational Prince &
Old ventilation system students shooters 11.8–16.4 5–21 176 24–239 Horstman
New ventilation system 13.2–13.6 8–23 129 67–211 (1993)
GA, general area; NR, not reported; PBZ, personal breathing zone; TWA, time-weighted average
a
b
Median value
c
New ventilation system installed
d
Range of means of three sampling dates
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
Table 73. Lead concentrations in blood of occupationally exposed subjects: miscellaneous
09/08/2006
Country Year(s) Job/task Sex No. of Age Years of Smoking Blood lead (µg/dL) Lead in air (µg/m3) Reference
of survey subjects (years) employ- status
mean ment AMa Range/SD AMa Range
and/or
range
11:26
Mechanics/garage
Denmark 1976 Automobile mechanics M 138 16–68 NR NR 40.0–44.8 50–125 3.19 0.2–9.2 Clausen & Rastogi (1977)
Ghana NR Automobile mechanics M 25 17–46 2–29 NR 27.8 0–60 NR Ankrah et al. (1996)
Page 155
NR Gasoline retailers M+W 40 20–46 0.1–17 NR 8.6 0–20 NR Ankrah et al. (1996)
India NR Automobile mechanics M 22 20–45 NR NR NR 24.3–62.4 NR Kumar & Krishnaswamy
(1995b)
NR Workers in petrol NR 22 10–15 >1 NR 39.3 ± 3.7 NR National Institute of
storage bunkers Nutrition (1995–96)
Jordan NR Mechanics M 62 NR NR NR 8.1b NR Hunaiti et al. (1995)
Thailand NR Repair mechanics M 23 NR NR Non- 8.4 3.9–14.5 NR Suwansaksri et al. (2002)
smokers
United Arab 1999 Heavy industry, garage M 100 34.8 8.3 NR 77.5 NR Bener et al. (2001)
Emirates and painting
Others
Finland 1973–82 Lead-exposed industry M 18 329 33.8 at 0–46 NR 29.0–14.5b,c NR Anttila et al. (1995)
workers entry
b,c
W 2412 37.5 at 0–46 NR 20.7–6.2
entry
India NR Silver jewellery makers M 9 25–65 5–40 NR 120.8 40.0–210.0 NR Behari et al. (1983)
1981 Papier-mâché workers M+W 30 10–70 NR NR 69.1 23–122 NR Kaul & Kaul (1986)
NR Silver jewellery workers M 7 25–70 12–50 NR 113.4 71.0–208.1 NR Kachru et al. (1989)
NR Printing press M 23 20–50 15–30 NR 41.9 ± 7.0 NR Kumar & Krishnaswamy
(1995a)
NR Papier-mâché workers M 70 17–40 3–26 NR 68.1 18.2–272.7 NR Wahid et al. (1997)
India NR Printing press M+W 25 18–35 3–5 NR 88 ± 30 NR Agarwal et al. (2002)
6–9 59 ± 22
9–15 36 ± 11
Italy NR Electrician M 1 20 6 NR 66 NR Franco et al. (1994)
155
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156
Table 73 (contd)
09/08/2006
and/or
range
Japan NR Ceramic painting M 58 54.7 1–53 Refrain 16.5b 3.5–69.5 NR Ishida et al. (1996)
W 70 52.2 3–47 for 12 h 11.1b 2.1–31.5 NR
11:26
NR Pigment (lead stearate) M 49 48.0 14.5 NR 18.0 7–36 NR Yokoyama et al. (1997)

production (27–63) (2–34)
NR Crystal toy production W 123 27.3 7.2 NR 55.4 22.5–99.4 920 390–1910 Nomiyama et al. (2002)
(17–44) (0.8–25)
Page 156
NR Cloisonné production NR NR NR NR NR Arai et al. (1994)
Glazing 49 47.8 11.3–111
Silver-plating 16 11.3 3.2–19.5
Jordan NR Metal casting M 26 NR NR NR 41.6b NR Hunaiti et al. (1995)
Car painting M 85 NR NR NR 10.7b NR
Malaysia NR Shipyard M > 18 < 1–17 Included NR Mokhtar et al. (2002)
Painting 15 16 8–38
Fabrication 19 12 3–28
Nigeria NR Lead-exposed industry NR 86 24.8 NR Included 56.3 26–97 NR Adeniyi & Anetor
(SW) workers 40% > 60 (1999)
Pakistan 1994–95 Tannery M 46 19–59 >1 Included 60.6 ± 3.8 NR Khan et al. (1995)
Philippines NR Refrigerator production M 59 25.7 4.7 NR 21.5b 8–38 NR Makino et al. (1994)
W 6 21.8 2.1 NR 17.5b 14–22 NR
Republic of 1999 Various (24 facilities) M+W 723 39.4 6.3 61% of 31.7 5.4–85.7 NR Todd et al. (2001a)d
Korea smokers
1997–99 Various (26 facilities) 639 M, 803 40.4 8.2 57% of 32.0 ± 15 NR Schwartz et al. (2001)d
164 W smokers
Singapore 1989 Plastics NR 104 NR NR NR 26.0 ± 15.8 NR Chia et al. (1993)
Metal products NR 70 NR NR NR 32.5 ± 13.1 NR
Solder production NR 22 NR NR NR 25.0 ± 9.1 NR
Paint production NR 88 NR NR NR 14.3 ± 6.8 NR
Telecommunication NR 218 NR NR NR 15.4 ± 5.7 NR
Ship building NR 92 NR NR NR 17.9 ± 6.7 NR
NR PVC compounding M 61 38.3 ca. 10 NR 23.9 6.7–75.8 35.7 ND–277 Ho et al. (1998)
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09/08/2006
11:26
Table 73 (contd)
Page 157
and/or
range
United NR Painters and decorators M 3 22–51 NR NR [85.5] 84.2–87.1 NR Gordon et al. (2002)
Kingdom
Uruguay [1993] Lead–acid battery and M 31 NR 9.5 12 49.7 24.4–87.0 NR 3–1300 Pereira et al. (1996)
lead scrap smeltere
USA 1984 Electronics industry M+W 151 > 11 NR NR 8.0 1–22 NR 61–7000 Kaye et al. (1987)
1994 Custodial activities NR 13 40 8.5 NR 5.4 2.8–10 0.1–3.9 ND–36 Tharr (1997)
1994–96 Labourers M 60 38 15.5 NR 11.2 1.2–50 NR Reynolds et al. (1999)
Painters M 83 39 16.4 NR 7.0 1.5–26.3 NR
NR, not reported; M, men; W, women; ND, not detectable

a
b
Geometric mean
c
Decrease over the 10-year study period
d
[The participants in the study by Todd et al. (2001a) most likely are included in the study by Schwartz et al. (2001).]
e
Two storage battery plants (n = 16, n = 8); lead scrap smelter (n = 6); one self–employed storage battery reconditioner
157
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
158
Table 74. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation reports with air and/or blood lead concentration data, 1978–2003
09/08/2006
Industry Year(s) Blood lead (µg/dL) Air lead (µg/m3) Reference
of study
No. of AMa Range No. of Type of AMa Range
workers samples sampling
tested taken
11:26
Bridge, tunnel and elevated highway 1980 Landrigan et al. (1980)
construction: deleading

Grit blasting 13 33 25–47 4 PBZ 305 10–1090
Scraping and priming 19 61 30–96 3 PBZ 391 24–1017
Page 158
Bridge, tunnel and elevated highway 1990–91 Sussell et al. (1992a)
construction: repainting
Inside containment 8 PBZ [13 671] 3620–29 400
Inside containment, inside hood 6 PBZ [78] 9–194
Outside containment 16 PBZ 5–6720b
GA ND–8170
Heavy abrasive blasting Spring 1991 23 5–61
Moderate abrasive blasting Summer 1991 12 13–43
Bridge, tunnel and elevated highway 1993 22 7.2 2.2–16.5 Ewers et al. (1995)
construction: renovation
Blaster/painter 24 PBZ 250 3–1800
Apprentice 11 PBZ 110 1–680
Recycling equipment operator 2 PBZ 140 100–180
Commercial testing laboratories 1986 10 > 17–192 Gunter et al. (1986)
Lakewood, CO 8 PBZ + GA 321 90–800
Sparks, NV 14 PBZ + GA 114 4–490
Copper foundries 1991 10 21 10–39 7 PBZ NA ND–172 Clark et al. (1992)
Electric services 1991 43 20 < 5–43 18 PBZ [9.4] 1.2–55 Venable et al. (1993)
Electric services 1995 NR NR 43 PBZ NA ND–181 Mattorano (1996)
Electronic components 1993 NR NR 3 PBZ NA ND–36 Blade & Bresler (1994)
Electronic components 1993 7 19 9–27 NR Guo et al. (1994)
Fabricated metal products 1987 3 31 25–43 4 PBZ [803] 7.3–1900 Lee (1987)
Fabricated plate work 1991 9 32 10–51 NR Hales et al. (1991)
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
Table 74 (contd)
09/08/2006
of study
tested taken
11:26
Fabricated plate work 1991 17 34 11–77 McCammon et al.
Lead burners 3 PBZ [254] 215–307 (1991)
Tinning 3 PBZ-LT [354] 282–390
Grinding 4 PBZ-LT [32] 0–46
Page 159
General contractors, industrial buildings and 1989 16 [10] 3–21 Stephenson & Burt
warehouses (1992)
Oxyacetylene cutting 6 PBZ 522 160–1300
Other renovation tasks 9 PBZ NA ND–2
General contractors, single family houses: 1989–91 95 ND–27 1402 PBZ 3.1c < 0.4–916 Sussell et al. (1992b)
lead paint abatement 1233 GA 2.0c < 0.4–1296
General contractors, single family houses 1993 53 5.2c NR–17.5 13 PBZ 3.2c 0.05–12 Sussell et al. (1997)
37 GA 0.6c 0.1–25
77 Task-based PBZ 0.2–9.1c 0.03–120
General contractors, single family houses 1998 NR NR Sussell & Piacitelli
Manual paint scraping 5 PBZ-ST NA < 1–250 (1999)
Power paint removal 6 PBZ-ST [5054] 54–27 000
General contractors, single family houses 1996–98 40 16 1–65 20 PBZ 29c 1.5–1100 Sussell et al. (2000)
152 Task-based PBZ 1.3–150 0.17–2000
General contractors, single family houses 1999 NR NR 128 PBZ 22c ND–660 Sussell & Piacitelli
130 GA 1.5c ND–37 (2001)
General contractors, single family houses 1999 NR NR 15 PBZ 100c 39–526 Sussell et al. (2002)
5 GA [2.2] 0.29–6.1
79 Task-based PBZ 71c 1.4–2240
Glass products, stained glass art studio 1986 3 [19] 7–33 7 PBZ + GA 80 10–260 Gunter & Thoburn
(1986a)
Glass products, made from purchased glass 1991 18 12 < 10–24 4 PBZ 18 7–35 Lee (1991)
Glass products, made from purchased glass 1993 2 2 1.8–2.1 17 PBZ NA ND–80 Donovan (1994)
13 GA NA ND–0.7
Gold ores (fire assay) 1987 NR NR 4 PBZ 76 36–117 Daniels (1988)
159
5 GA 48 14–100
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
160
Table 74 (contd)

of study
09/08/2006
tested taken
Gold ores (fire assay) 1989 Daniels & Hales

Assay laboratory personnel 6 42 23–65 1 PBZ 850d (1989)
11:26
Non-assay laboratory personnel 5 18 7–36 6 GA NA ND–110

Gold ores (fire assay) 1989 6 42 23–65 1 PBZ 170 Daniels et al. (1989)
4 GA NA ND–170
Page 160
Gold ores (fire assay) 1989 6 37 13–55 3 PBZ [112] 15–200 Lee et al. (1990a)
5 GA [26] 6–61
Gold ores, assay laboratory 1989 2 < 40 1 PBZ 10d Hales & Gunter (1990)
3 GA 10–30d
Grey iron foundries 1985 NR NR 4 PBZ NA ND–70 Gunter (1985)
3 GA 53 30–70
Heavy construction 1991 6 Sussell et al. (1992c)
Before blasting 34 before 15–44 6 PBZ ND–35
During blasting, outside job 6–43 5 PBZ ND–47
containment 28 during 4 GA 620–3000
During blasting, inside job PBZ
containment, inside helmet 16–25
Industrial inorganic chemicals 1980–81 79 35 NR–69 75 PBZ 13–79 0–359 Landrigan et al. (1982)
Industrial valves 1989 25 15 < 20–33 2 PBZ [91] 87–94 Kinnes & Hammel
4 GA [69.5] 32–120 (1990)
Inorganic pigments 1981 228 8–32 Slovin & Albrecht
Bagging zinc oxide 11 [33] 9–96 (1982)
Mixing zinc oxide 5 [34] 16–68
Mixing barium ores 7 [9] ND–15
Mixing of inert clays 4 [2] ND–8
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1981 66 23 11–52 25 PBZ 37 7–113 Zey & Cone (1982)
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1983 14 31 ± 12 7 PBZ [49] 25–104 Ruhe & Thoburn
(1984)
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1986 5 < 29–60 4 PBZ [172] 40–380 Gunter & Thoburn
4 GA [68] 20–190 (1986b)
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
Table 74 (contd)
09/08/2006
of study
tested taken
11:26
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1988 8 [29] 8–44 10 PBZ + GA 160 10–290 Gunter & Hammel
(1989)
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1987–88 28 [9] < 5–43 NR NR Driscoll & Elliott
(1990)
Page 161
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1989 2 [34] 30–37 2 PBZ [70] 60–80 Gunter & Hales
(1990a)
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1989 7 32 17–64 Gunter & Hales
Radiator mechanics 5 38 23–64 4 PBZ [28] 10–50 (1990b)
Delivery employees 2 17.5 17–18 2 GA [55] 20–90
Motor vehicle parts and accessories 1989 Gunter & Hales
Radiator mechanics 4 [30] 13–41 4 PBZ [98] 30–220 (1990c)
Delivery employees 2 [18] 14–21
Motor vehicle parts and accessories: 1989 4 [21] 11–33 3 PBZ [43] 20–60 Gunter & Hales
mechanics and delivery employees 1 GA 90 (1990d)
Nitrogenous fertilizers 1991 13 4–13 9 PBZ ND–7 Decker & Galson
7 GA ND–12 (1991)
Non-ferrous foundries (castings) 1988 18 [34] 4–67 6 PBZ [294] 38–520 Montopoli et al. (1989)
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1982 NR NR 5 PBZ [1130]d 940–1300d Bicknell (1982)
6 GA [1120]d 750–1520d
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1987–88 NR NR 4 PBZ 142–2073 102–3361 Reh & Klein (1990)
8-h TWA 13–194d
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1991 NR NR 5 PBZ 14 7–23 McManus (1991)
8-h TWA < 3d
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1991 NR NR Echt et al. (1992)
Student 26 PBZ 26–32d 1–116d
Range officer 14 PBZ 16–18d 0.15–53d
General area 13 GA 0.15–2450
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1991 NR NR 10 5.4d 1–16d Lee & McCammon
(1992)
161
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162
Table 74 (contd)

of study
09/08/2006
tested taken
Police protection (outdoor firing range) 1991 NR NR 16 PBZ ND–8d NR Rinehart & Almaguer
(1992)
11:26
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1992 NR NR 3 PBZ 6d 5–7d Cook et al. (1993)
13 GA NA ND–845

Police protection (in- and outdoor firing 1989–91 Barsan & Miller
ranges) (1996)
Page 162
Instructor 7–14 8–15 < 4–27 NR PBZ 12.4 ND–52
Technician 5 10–16 6–28 12 PBZ 0.6 ND–2.7
Gunsmith 5–11 11–12 < 4–24 18 PBZ 0.6 ND–4.5
Custodian 6 <4 3 PBZ NA ND–220
Police protection (indoor firing range) 1997–98 NR NR Harney & Barsan
1997 (during shooting) 9 PBZ + GA 144d 4–190d (1999)
1998 (during shooting) 20 PBZ + GAe 230d ND–640d
8 PBZ + GAf 433d 100–960d
Pressed and blown glass and glassware 1984 12 20 2–36 4 PBZ 52 30–60 Gunter & Thoburn
2 GA 75 70–80 (1985)
Pressed and blown glass and glassware 1986 9 13 4–33 16 PBZ + GA NA ND–80 Gunter (1987)
Pressed and blown glass and glassware 1997 NR NR 7 GA [17] 1.6–51 Hall et al. (1998)
Primary smelting and refining of copper 1984 49 11 0–24 15 PBZ + GA NA < 3–60 Gunter & Seligman
(1984)
Secondary smelting and refining of non- 1989 12 29 5–63 5 PBZ NA < 2–40 Gunter & Daniels
ferrous metals 2 GA NA < 2–50 (1990)
Primary and secondary smelting and 1981 3 32 26–37 6 PBZ 123 5–295 Apol (1981)
refining of non-ferrous metals 9 GA NA ND–1334
Refuse systems 1990–91 NR NR 6 PBZ NA ND–30d Mouradian & Kinnes
4 GA NA ND–30d (1991)
Scrap and waste materials 1987 6 4–33 10 PBZ + GA NA ND–2.3 Hills & Savery (1988)
Scrap and waste materials 1991 15 66 9–86 NR Gittleman et al.
(1991)
Scrap and waste materials 1993 16 20 4–40 NR Malkin (1993)
P 141-164 DEF.qxp
Table 74 (contd)
09/08/2006
of study
tested taken

Ship breaking, ship repair, dismantling 1998 NR NR McGlothlin et al.
11:26
ships (1999)
Inside a ship 4 PBZ [355] 253–435
Process area 5 PBZ [189] 41–399
Inside barge tank 5 PBZ [198] 79–356
Page 163
Under a barge 4 PBZ NA < 0.6–2.5
Shipbuilding and repairing 1985 10 38 25–53 7 PBZ 257 108–500 Landrigan & Straub
(1985)
Shipbuilding and repairing 1994 NR NR 14 PBZ-ST [133] 3–900 Sylvain (1996)
Shipbuilding and repairing 1997 67 4.4 0–18 347 PBZ 32 0–1071 Kiefer et al. (1998)
Special trade contractors: cleaning of lead- 1992 NR NR 36 PBZ-ST 66 5–360 Sussell et al. (1993)
based paint 5 PBZ 30 6–73
18 GA-ST 44 4–180
Steel works, blast furnaces (including coke 1984 26 33 27 PBZ 40 < 3–190 Gunter & Thoburn
ovens) (1984)
Steel works, blast furnaces (including coke 1980–82 79 8–15 1–33 42 NR NR NR–79 Hollett & Moody
ovens) (1984)
Steel works, blast furnaces (including coke 1989 22 18 20 PBZ 12 < 3–31 Lee et al. (1990b)
ovens)
Steel works, blast furnaces (including coke 1990 NR NR 12 [PBZ] [16] 1.3–44.2 Tubbs et al. (1992)
ovens)
Storage batteries 1983–84 317 10–39 3–58 675 PBZ 30 1–1600 Singal et al. (1985)
Storage batteries 1987 Matte & Burr (1989a)
Location 1 27 31–47 NR–64 26 PBZ [652] 40–5300
2 GA [7] 4–10
Location 2 12 65c NR–89 10 PBZ [860] 50–3400
Location 3 6 28–> 60 3 PBZ [100] 30–190
3 GA [57] 10–100
Storage batteries 1987 23 64c 28–86 7 PBZ 21c NR–66 Matte & Burr (1989b)
Storage batteries 1991 43 41 12–66 12 PBZ [276] 9–846 Clark et al. (1991)
163
2 GA [59] 10–107
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164
09/08/2006
Table 74 (contd)

of study
11:26
tested taken

Storage batteries 1994–95 111 30–43 Esswein et al. (1996)
Page 164
Pasting operation 19 PBZ 291 68–495
4 GA 1–165
First assembly 12 PBZ 108 15–418
5 GA 13–39
Pouching 7 PBZ 50 31–77
8 GA 11–51
Grid casting 3 PBZ 12–43
6 GA 16–141
Tanks, fabricated plate work 1991 22 23 4–38 22 PBZ [352] 23–1970 McCammon et al.
(1992)
Valves and pipe fittings 1981 2 < 30 2 PBZ [45] 10–80 Ruhe (1982a)
Valves and pipe fittings 1981 2 < 30 2 PBZ [839] 321–1356 Ruhe (1982b)
AM, arithmetic mean; PBZ, personal breathing zone; NA, not applicable; ND, not detected; NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (USA); NR, not reported; GA,
general area; ST, short-term; TWA, time-weighted average; LT, long-term; [....] calculated by the Working Group
a
Unless otherwise stated
b
Highest value probably a contaminated sample; next highest values at 202 µg/m3
c
Geometric mean
d
8-h TWA value calculated from a short-term sample, assuming no other lead exposure during the day than during sampling
e
Measured with 37-mm cassette
f
Measured with Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) sampler
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 165
(a) Lead–acid battery workers

Blood lead concentrations have been studied most extensively in workers in lead
storage-battery factories (Table 66). Occupational exposure to lead may occur during the
production of lead–acid batteries, when grids are manufactured either by melting lead
blocks and pouring molten lead into molds or by feeding rolled sheets of lead through
punch presses. In addition, a lead oxide paste is applied into grid spaces. Average lead
concentrations in blood were generally in the range 20–45 µg/dL. Particularly high con-
centrations (> 65 µg/dL) were detected in workers engaged in grid casting in a study in
Iraq (Mehdi et al., 2000), in workers at several workstations in a study from Israel
(Richter et al., 1979) and in a study in Taiwan, China (Wang et al., 2002b).
(b) Workers in mining and primary smelting

The most commonly mined lead ore is galena (87% lead by weight), followed by
anglesite (68%) and cerussite (78%). Workers in lead smelter and refinery operations
such as sintering, roasting, smelting and drossing are exposed to lead sulfide, sulfates and
oxides. Miners of copper and zinc also are exposed to lead.
Relatively high blood lead concentrations (> 60 µg/dL) have been recorded in such
workers, in particular in two studies in Nigeria (Adeniyi & Anetor, 1999) and in Uruguay
(Pereira et al., 1996) (Table 67).
(c) Workers in secondary smelting

Battery-recycling workers in secondary smelters are exposed to lead as they convert
used batteries and other leaded materials to lead of varying purity. From Table 68, it
appears that the mean blood lead concentrations reported for workers in secondary lead
smelters were higher than for workers in other occupations (see Tables 66–73). Of the
different job categories within secondary smelting, the highest mean blood lead concen-
trations (87 µg/dL) were observed in workers in charge of furnace operation (Wang et al.,
1998). In some individual workers, blood lead concentrations in excess of 150 µg/dL were
measured (Makino et al. 1994).
(d) Workers in leaded-glass manufacturing

Leaded glassware is made by combining lead oxide compounds with molten quartz.
This process results in lead fumes and dusts, and glass-blowing is an additional activity
that involves potential contact with lead. Production of leaded glass has been associated
with high lead exposure, with mean blood lead concentrations in excess of 50 µg/dL in
all studies (Table 69).
(e) Workers in welding/soldering

Typical solders contain 60% lead and the high temperatures involved in flame solder
work volatilize some of this lead. Workers repairing vehicle radiators are exposed to lead
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 166
dusts during radiator cleaning in addition to lead fumes during flame soldering (Tharr,
1993).
Surveys on welding work in radiator-repair workers (Table 70) generally showed
mean blood lead concentrations in the range of 10–35 µg/dL. A study of 56 mechanics
working in radiator shops in the Boston area, USA, reported that 80% had blood lead con-
centrations greater than 30 µg/dL and 16 had concentrations > 50 µg/dL (Goldman et al.,
1987). Relatively high blood lead concentrations (up to 47 µg/dL) were also reported
among women engaged in soldering in an electronics plant (Makino et al., 1994).
Welders are exposed to lead in the welding fumes generated by gas metal arc welding
of carbon steel. However, in one study, lead concentrations in the welding fumes were
found to range from 1.0 to 17.6 µg/m3, well below the established permissible exposure
limit for the workplace (Larson et al., 1989).
(f) Professional drivers and traffic controllers

Professional drivers (e.g. taxi and bus drivers) and traffic policemen are exposed to
lead in ambient air from vehicle exhausts (Table 71). The blood lead concentrations
reported are distributed over a wide range, from 10 µg/dL (Zhou et al., 2001) to > 60 µg/dL
(Ahmed et al., 1987), probably as a result of variations in traffic intensity and use of leaded
gasoline.
(g) Firing-range instructors

Lead exposure associated with the discharge of firearms at indoor firing ranges began
to be monitored in the early 1970s. Over the last 20 years, numerous exposure assess-
ments have been performed at both indoor and outdoor firing ranges (Table 72). Several
sources of airborne lead have been identified: fragmentation of bullets during firing; the
explosive vaporization of the primer, which can contain both lead styphnate and lead
peroxide; and inadequate ventilation of the range (Landrigan et al., 1975b; Fischbein
et al., 1979; Muskett & Caswell, 1980; Dams et al., 1988). Instructors are generally
exposed to the highest concentrations of airborne lead and tend to have the highest blood
lead concentrations due to their regular duties, which include supervising the range,
cleaning and test-firing weapons, and preparing training ammunition from commercially
purchased components. A positive correlation was reported between exposure of firearms
instructors to elemental lead at covered outdoor firing ranges and increased blood lead
concentrations (Tripathi et al., 1991). Concentrations of airborne lead can be significantly
reduced (97–99%) by using a lead-free primer and bullets jacketed with nylon, brass or
copper (Valway et al., 1989; Robbins et al., 1990; Tripathi et al., 1990, 1991; Goldberg
et al., 1991; Löfstedt et al., 1999; Bonanno et al., 2002).
(h) Other occupational exposures

Several studies have found elevated blood lead concentrations in other occupational
settings, such as in employees working in automobile garages. Mean blood lead
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 167
concentrations in children working in petrol storage bunkers in India for more than one
year were almost double (39.3 ± 3.7 µg/dL) those of age-matched unexposed children
(23.1 ± 0.5 µg/dL) (National Institute of Nutrition, 1995–1996).
Silver jewellery workers are exposed to high concentrations of lead and may have
blood lead concentrations > 200 µg/dL (Behari et al., 1983; Kachru et al., 1989).
People working in arts and crafts may be exposed to lead in paints, ceramic glazes
and lead solder used in sculpture and stained glass (Hart, 1987; Fischbein et al., 1992).
Newspaper printing has been associated with lead exposure (Agarwal et al., 2002). In
one study, more than 3/4 of the monocasters showed some clinical symptoms of lead
poisoning (Kumar & Krishnaswamy, 1995a). Where computerized printing techniques
have replaced the traditional printing techniques, however, lead exposure is no longer a
significant concern in this profession.
1.5 Analysis
Analysis of lead and lead compounds in various matrices has been reviewed (Fitch,
1998).
1.5.1 Environmental samples

Although lead occurs in the environment in the form of a range of inorganic or
organic compounds, it is always measured and expressed as elemental lead. Determi-
nation of lead in environmental samples requires sample collection and sample prepa-
ration, often by wet or dry ashing or acid digestion to solubilize lead in aqueous solution
before analysis. Care must be taken during sampling and sample preparation to avoid
contamination or loss of lead (WHO, 1995).
The techniques most commonly used for the analysis of particulate lead and inorganic
lead compounds in air, water, dust, sediments, soil and foodstuffs include flame atomic
absorption spectrometry (AAS), graphite furnace–atomic absorption spectrometry (GF–
AAS), inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS), inductively coupled
plasma–atomic emission spectrometry (ICP–AES), anode-stripping voltametry (ASV) and
X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
Organic lead species such as tetramethyl lead and tetraethyl lead can be trapped cryo-
genically or by liquid or solid sorbents. Gas chromatography (GC) coupled with GF–AAS
or photoionization detection (PID) can be used to differentiate between organic lead
species (Birch et al., 1980; De Jonghe et al., 1981; Chakraborti et al., 1984; NIOSH,
1994a; ATDSR, 1999).
Selected methods used for the analysis of lead in various matrices are presented in
Table 75.
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 168
Table 75. Selected methods for analysis of lead in various matrices
Matrix Methoda Detection limit Method number Referenceb
Air Flame AAS 2.6 µg/sample Method 7082 NIOSH (1994b)

GF–AAS 0.02 µg/sample Method 7105 NIOSH (1994a)
ICP–AES 0.062 µg/sample Method 7300 NIOSH (2003a)
ASV 0.09 µg/sample Method 7701 NIOSH (2003b)
XRF 6 µg/sample Method 7702 NIOSH (1998)
AAS or 0.01 µg/mL (qual.) Method ID-121 OSHA (2002a)
AES 0.05 µg/mL (anal.)
ICP–AES 2.1 µg/sample (qual.) Method ID-125G OSHA (2002b)
ICP–AES 0.071 µg/mL (qual.) Method ID-206 OSHA (2002c)
0.237 µg/mL (quant.)
XRF 22 µg/sample Method OSS-1 OSHA (2003)
Air (TEL) c
GC–PID 0.1 µg/sample Method 2533 NIOSH (1994c)
Air (TML) d
GC–PID 0.4 µg/sample Method 2534 NIOSH (1994d)
Water ICP–AES 42 µg/L Method D1976 ASTM (2002)
ICP–MS 0.08 µg/L Method D5673 ASTM (2003a)
XRF 1 µg/L Method D6502 ASTM (2003b)
AAS 100 µg/L Method 239.1 US EPA (1978)
Ambient water ICP–MS 0.0081 µg/L Method 1640 US EPA (1997a)
GF–AAS 0.036 µg/L Method 1637 US EPA (1996c)
ICP–MS 0.015 µg/L Method 1638 US EPA (1996d)
Marine water GF–AAS 2.4 µg/L Method 200.12 US EPA (1997b)
ICP–MS 0.074 µg/L Method 200.10 US EPA (1997c)
Soil, wastes and AAS 100 µg/L Method 7420 US EPA (1986b)
groundwater GF–AAS 1 µg/L Method 7421 US EPA (1986c)
Marine sediment GF–AAS 0.2 µg/g Method 140.0 NOAA (1998a)
and soils ICP–MS 0.15 µg/g Method 172.0 NOAA (1998b)
XRF 0.2 µg/g Method 160.0 NOAA (1998c)
Aqueous and solid ICP–AES 28 µg/L Method 6010C US EPA (2000)
matrices
Food GF–AAS 0.1 mg/kg Method 999.10 AOAC (2000a)
AAS NR Method 972.25 AOAC (2000b)
Evaporated milk ASV 5 ng/sample Method 979.17 AOAC (2000c)
and fruit juice
Sugars and syrups GF–AAS 3.3 µg/kg Method 997.15 AOAC (2000d)
Edible oils and fats GF–AAS 18 µg/kg Method 994.02 AOAC (1994)
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 169
Table 75 (contd)
Matrix Methoda Detection limit Method number Referenceb
Ceramic foodware AAS NR Method 4-1 US FDA (2000a)

GF–AAS NR Method 4-2 US FDA (2000b)
Paint, soil, dust, ICP–AES Variable, NR Method E1613 ASTM (1999)
air AAS Variable, NR
GF–AAS Variable, NR
NR, not reported

a
AAS, atomic absorption spectrometry; ASV, anode-stripping voltametry; GD–PD, gas chromato-
graphy–photoionisation detector; GF–AAS, graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry; ICP–
AES, inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry; ICP–MS, inductively-coupled
plasma mass spectrometry; XRF, X-ray fluorescence
b
NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; OSHA, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration; ASTM, American Society for Testing and Materials; AOAC, Association of
Official Analytical Chemists; US EPA, US Environmental Protection Agency; NOAA, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; US FDA, US Food and Drug Administration
c
TEL, tetraethyl lead
d
TML, tetramethyl lead
Use of lead isotope ratios in source attribution and apportionment

Stable lead isotopes have been used to identify the source(s) of lead in environmental
and biological samples (source attribution and apportionment). Lead isotopes vary over
geological time because they are the end-product of radioactive decay of uranium and
thorium. Thus, lead deposits of different geological age have different lead isotope ratios;
e.g. the major Broken Hill lead–zinc–silver mine deposit in Australia formed approxi-
mately 1700–1800 million years ago has an isotope ratio expressed as the 206Pb/204Pb ratio
of 16.0. In contrast, geologically younger deposits formed approximately 400–500 million
years ago, found on the same continent and in various places around the world, have a
206Pb/204Pb ratio of about 18.0 (Gulson, 1986, 1996a).
Techniques have been developed to measure lead isotope ratios in environmental and
biological samples. Lead is extracted from samples by acid digestion and separated from
potentially interfering cations (iron, zinc) by anion-exchange chromatography. Lead iso-
topes are measured as ratios (e.g. 208Pb/206Pb, 207Pb/206Pb, 206Pb/204Pb) by solid source
thermal ionization–mass spectrometry or ICP–MS (Franklin et al., 1997; Eades et al.,
2002).
Lead in the environment and in humans (and animals) is often a mixture of lead origi-
nally derived from different mines, and it is possible to estimate the relative contribution
of the different sources. Where there are two major sources, the estimation is straight-
forward. For example, if the lead present in a blood sample with a 206Pb/204Pb ratio of 17.5
comes from two major sources, the skeleton (ratio of 17.0) and diet (ratio of 18.0), there is
an equal contribution to blood from both sources. For three or more sources, the attribution
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becomes more complex and requires application of specialized computational procedures

(Franklin et al., 1997).
1.5.2 Biological indicators of lead contamination in soil and water

Lead affects many physiological parameters in plants (Singh et al., 1997). Plants and
some fungi synthesize cysteine-rich low-molecular-weight peptides called phytochelatins
(class III metallothioneins) in response to heavy metal stress (Grill et al., 1985). Phyto-
chelatins have the general structure (γ-Glu-Cys)n-Gly (n = 2–11); the majority of legumes
(of the order Fabales), on the other hand, synthesize homophytochelatins in which the
carboxy-terminal glycine is replaced by β-alanine (Grill et al., 1986). For example, when
exposed to lead, roots of Vicia faba synthesize phytochelatins, Phaseolus vulgaris
synthesizes homophytochelatins, and both phytochelatins and homophytochelatins are
induced in Pisum sativum (Piechalak et al., 2002). These peptides are involved in accu-
mulation, detoxification and metabolism of metal ions including lead (Grill et al., 1985;
Mehra & Tripathi, 2000). Phytochelatins detoxify metal by thiolate coordination (Grill
et al., 1987). They are synthesized enzymatically from glutathione or its precursor by the
enzyme γ-glutamyl cysteine dipeptidyl transpeptidase, also called phytochelatin synthase;
the enzyme is present constitutively in cells and is activated by heavy metal ions (Grill
et al., 1989). Thus, phytochelatins are synthesized enzymatically in response to exposure
to many metals including lead (Grill et al., 1987; Scarano & Morelli, 2002).
Phytochelatins can be detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
(Grill et al., 1991) and thus have the potential to be used as plant biomarkers of heavy
metal contamination of soil and water. There are ample laboratory and field data indi-
cating that phytochelatins are biological indicators of exposure to metals, including lead
(Ahner et al., 1994; Pawlik-Skowronska, 2001; Pawlik-Skowronska et al., 2002).
1.5.3 Biological samples

Lead distribution between blood, soft tissue and hard tissue is complex (see Section 4.1
for details). The time required for equilibration of lead between tissues is dependent upon
the type of tissue and varies from hours to decades. In addition, equilibration between
tissues is subject to a variety of physiological states that affect bone metabolism. Hence,
exposure to lead can be estimated by the analysis of various human tissues, either directly
for lead or indirectly for biomarkers of exposure to lead. The tissues include blood, plasma,
urine, saliva, bone, teeth, nails and hair. The following section summarizes the methods
used for the direct determination of lead in tissues and the indirect determination of
exposure to lead using biomarkers. Methods that measure distribution of lead throughout
the body are discussed in Section 4.1.
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(a) Analysis in hard tissues

(i) Bone
Exposure to lead over time results in the progressive accumulation of lead, predomi-
nantly (> 95% of total lead burden) in bones (Barry, 1975). Hence, the analysis of lead in
bones is a suitable approach to determine exposure to lead during the lifetime of an indi-
vidual. Using GF–AAS to measure lead concentrations in bone tissue from individuals
from prehistoric and modern times, it has been estimated that the body burden of lead in
humans in the late 20th century is more than twice that of the late Roman times (Drasch,
1982). Since GF–AAS analysis cannot be performed on human bone in vivo, various XRF
methods have come into use as a direct measure of lead in bone (Todd & Chettle, 1994).
XRF is based on the property of lead to emit X-rays when it is exposed to photons of an
appropriate energy; the fluorescence from lead accumulated in bone provides a low-risk,
non-invasive measure of total lead content. In the 1990s, XRF analysis was limited to
research institutions and was deemed unlikely to become a useful screening tool for expo-
sure to lead (Todd & Chettle, 1994). Intrinsic variability in the instruments used, variability
of lead deposition between the two main compartments of bone (cortical versus trabe-
cular), patients’ bone density and the use of a minimal detectable limit all increase the com-
plexity of data analysis in epidemiological studies (Hu et al., 1995; Kim et al., 1995b).
Efforts continue to improve understanding of the variables that affect the XRF signal
(Hoppin et al., 2000; Todd et al., 2000a, 2001b) and to use XRF for meaningful epidemio-
logical analysis (Hoppin et al., 1997; Roy et al., 1997; Markowitz & Shen, 2001). XRF has
been used successfully to study the factors involved in the mobilization of lead from bone
(Schwartz et al., 1999; Oliveira et al., 2002). With the understanding that bone lead is pro-
bably the best overall indication of lifetime exposure to lead (Börjesson et al., 1997; Hu,
H. et al., 1998), it is reasonable to consider application of XRF to the analysis of the contri-
bution of exposure to lead to the development of cancer.
(ii) Teeth
The dentin of shed deciduous teeth (also known as baby teeth) is a suitable source for
analysis of prior and current lead exposure in children during their teeth-shedding years
(Gulson, 1996a; Kim et al., 1996a) but this method suffers from the limited availability
of samples. It has been estimated that deciduous tooth lead (measured in ppm or µg/g)
correlates with about half the value of blood lead (measured in µg/dL), but that this
correlation does not hold for the permanent, adult teeth (Rabinowitz, 1995). The studies
to determine lead concentrations in teeth each include a specific method for digestion of
the tooth, followed by analysis of lead by ASV, ICP–MS or AAS.
(iii) Hair and nails
Available data on analysis of lead in hair can be divided into three groups. The first
group of studies describe hair analysis as a general toxicological screen for heavy metals.
In this case, the primary concerns are sample preparation, i.e. washing, with the intent to
remove surface contamination. A recent study of six commercial laboratories advertising
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multimineral hair analysis showed high variability between laboratories, thus giving cause
for concern about the validity of these results (Seidel et al., 2001). The second use of hair
lead analysis has been for patients suspected of having chronic, mild or subacute lead
poisoning (Kopito et al., 1967). The third documented use is in epidemiologial studies
(Tuthill, 1996). However, an analysis of the distribution of heavy metals in tissues of 150
corpses concluded that hair was not an appropriate tissue for monitoring exposure to lead
(Drasch et al., 1997). In general, the available data do not support the use of hair as a
resource for analysis of exposure to lead.
The use of nails seems attractive as a non-invasive approach to determining exposure
to lead. However, lead concentrations in nails is not a reliable indicator of exposure to lead
(Gulson, 1996b).
(b) Analysis in soft tissues and body fluids

(i) Blood
The benchmark for analysis of lead exposure is the determination of blood lead
concentrations by AAS. Using this method, lead is typically reported in µg/dL, which can
be converted to concentration in µM (µmol/L) by dividing the value reported in µg/dL by
20.7.
Analytical methods have changed over time because health-based standards and
guidelines have changed. For example, the intervention level set by CDC in the USA has
dropped from 60 µg/dL to 35 µg/dL in 1975, to 25 µg/dL in 1985, and to 10 µg/dL in 1991
(CDC, 1991).
Analytical methods used to determine lead concentrations in whole blood detect both
the lead associated with proteins in the erythrocytes and that in the plasma (Everson &
Patterson, 1980; Cake et al., 1996; Manton et al., 2001). The relationship between lead in
whole blood, in erythrocytes and in plasma is discussed in detail in Section 4.2.1. Lead in
blood is in equilibrium between the plasma and the erythrocytes. Since the plasma fraction
has a greater bioavailability than the lead pool in the red blood cells and is in equilibrium
with extravascular compartments, the lead content of plasma should be considered to be a
better estimate of the internal dose than the concentration of the metal in whole blood
(Cavalleri & Minoia, 1987; Schütz et al., 1996). To obtain an accurate quantification of low
concentrations of lead in plasma, Everson and Patterson (1980) introduced the technique
of isotope-dilution mass spectrometry and concluded that prior studies had grossly over-
estimated the amount of lead in the plasma compartment of blood. ICP–MS was also
shown to be sensitive enough for monitoring low concentrations of plasma lead, and
plasma samples could be frozen prior to analysis without any alteration in the analytical
results (Schütz et al., 1996).
As whole blood became the material of choice for the determination of lead exposure,
various atomic absorption techniques were introduced and evaluated for this purpose. By
the late 1980s, the popularity of GF–AAS stemmed from its high sensitivity (0.05 µg/dL)
and small sample-size requirements (< 50 µL); however, there was considerable variation
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in the different sample preparation techniques and an optimal method could not be defined
(Subramanian, 1989). By 2001, commercial laboratories used predominantly electro-
thermal atomization atomic absorption spectroscopy, ASV and ICP–MS (Parsons et al.,
2001). A comparison of GF–AAS and ICP–MS performed in a Japanese laboratory showed
the two methods to be equally sensitive but the latter took only one fifth of the time.
ICP–MS results tended to be 10–20% lower than those obtained by atomic absorption
analysis (Zhang et al., 1997c).
For screening purposes, the simplest blood lead test is conducted with a capillary
blood sample obtained from a finger-prick. Concerns over false positives due to skin
surface contamination with environmental lead dust have resulted in the recommendation
that a positive capillary blood lead test result be followed by a test on venous blood.
Following the recommendation of universal screening of children in the USA (CDC,
1991; American Academy of Pediatrics, 1998), an analysis of the cost effectiveness of
strategies for screening of lead poisoning concluded that a screening method based on
direct analysis of venous blood was the least expensive (Kemper et al., 1998). Other
studies have shown an excellent correlation between the results of capillary blood lead
analysis and venous blood lead analysis, thus advocating the former as an appropriate
method for screening purposes (Parsons et al., 1997).
Regardless of the method chosen, blood lead analysis is the only diagnostic for lead
exposure for which there exists an international standard for quality control (ACGIH,
2001; WHO, 1996; see Section 1.6) and an external quality assurance programme (Schaller
et al., 2002).
(ii) Urine
Urine is a readily available biological sample for the direct analysis of lead content
by AAS. This method has been used successfully to monitor relative levels of exposure
in workers with chronic occupational exposure to lead (Vural & Duydu, 1995; Jin et al.,
2000). One study argued against the routine use of urine as a surrogate for blood lead
analysis because of the poor correlation between the two values on an individual person
basis, particularly at blood lead concentrations < 10 µg/dL (Gulson et al., 1998b).
(iii) Placenta
During development of biomonitoring methods, non-invasive tissue acquisitions are
frequently sought and analysis of lead in placental tissue has been suggested and evaluated
as a possible indicator of exposure. However, studies show that placenta is not a suitable
tissue for exposure monitoring, because lead is not distributed uniformly throughout the
tissue (Lagerkvist et al., 1996a).
(iv) Sweat and saliva
Lead concentrations in sweat and saliva have been evaluated and are not recommended
for exposure monitoring because of the poor correlation with blood lead concentrations
(Lilley et al., 1988; Koh et al., 2003).
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1.5.4 Biomarkers of lead exposure

(a) Biomarkers related to haeme biosynthesis
It has long been known that lead interferes with haeme biosynthesis (Chisolm, 1964;
Lamola & Yamane, 1974). Aberrations in the haeme biosynthetic pathway form the basis
for many of the methods used for biomonitoring of human exposure to lead.
Haeme is the tetrapyrrole cofactor component of haemoglobin responsible for direct
binding of oxygen. An early step in the pathway of haeme biosynthesis is the synthesis of
the monopyrrole porphobilinogen from δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). This reaction is
catalysed by the enzyme porphobilinogen synthase (PBGS) also commonly known as δ-
aminolevulinate dehydratase (ALAD). Despite the fact that the recommended IUPAC
name is PBGS, ALAD is still commonly used in the clinical literature. The inhibition of
PBGS by lead manifests itself in a decrease in measurable PBGS activity in blood and an
accumulation of the substrate ALA in serum, plasma and urine.
Porphobilinogen continues on the pathway to haeme through the action of additional
enzymes to form the immediate haeme precursor protoporphyrin IX, also called free proto-
porphyrin, erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) or, erroneously, zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP).
Insertion of iron into protoporphyrin IX is then catalysed by the enzyme ferrochelatase to
form haeme. When iron is lacking, ferrochelatase inserts zinc into protoporphyrin IX to
form ZPP. There is a tight and not fully understood interrelationship between haeme
biosynthesis and iron homeostasis such that exposure to lead is seen to increase ZPP
(Labbé et al., 1999). Hence, between 1974 and 1991, measurement of ZPP was the method
recommended by CDC in the USA for screening for exposure to lead (CDC, 1975).
One limitation in using these biomarkers is that they can be perturbed by conditions
other than exposure to lead. The correlation between these biological parameters and a
direct measure of blood lead may include significant scatter (Oishi et al., 1996b) and may
not be useful at low blood lead concentrations (Schuhmacher et al., 1997). There are both
genetic and environmental factors other than lead that can effect ALA in urine or serum,
PBGS activity in blood and ZPP in blood (Moore et al., 1971; Labbé et al., 1999; Kelada
et al., 2001).
(i) PBGS (ALAD) activity in blood
PBGS activity in blood is the most sensitive biomarker of lead exposure (Toffaletti &
Savory, 1976; Schuhmacher et al., 1997). Human PBGS is a zinc metalloenzyme in which
the catalytically essential zinc is in an unusually cysteine-rich environment that has a very
high affinity for lead relative to the corresponding region in other zinc metalloenzymes.
Although the activity of PBGS in blood shows normal biological variation, a comparison
of the enzyme activity before and after various treatments that displace the inhibiting lead
enables the determination of lead-specific enzyme inhibition (Granick et al., 1973; Chiba,
1976; Sakai et al., 1980). The PBGS assay is either a colorimetric determination of the
complex of porphobilinogen with Ehrlich’s reagent (Berlin & Schaller, 1974) or a quanti-
fication by HPLC of the porphobilinogen formed (Crowne et al., 1981). Despite the sensi-
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tivity of PBGS to inhibition by lead, determination of the enzyme activity is not widely
used in the clinical setting to determine lead exposure. In part, this is due to the fact that
the inhibition of PBGS activity is only observed at low levels of exposure and reaches a
plateau above 50–80 µg/dL lead (Toffaletti & Savory, 1976). The PBGS assay also gained
a reputation for being complex and irreproducible. This may be due to the fact that the
enzyme recovers its activity during the assay procedure, thus producing a variation in
specific activity with incubation time (Jaffe et al., 1991, 2001). Because assays used clini-
cally require the analysis of a stopped mixture, a fixed incubation time is used, which may
vary between laboratories.
PBGS in erythrocytes has a very high affinity for lead (Simons, 1995) and an indivi-
dual’s allotype for the gene encoding PBGS appears to affect the percentage of lead bound
by the protein (Bergdahl et al., 1997). Hence, a variety of epidemiological studies have
suggested that an individual’s PBGS allotype affects the pharmacodynamics of lead
poisoning (Sakai, 2000). PBGS activity in blood can also be affected by the condition of
hereditary tyrosinaemia, wherein an aberrant metabolic by-product of tyrosine acts as a
PBGS inhibitor (Lindblad et al., 1977) (see Section 4.2).
(ii) ALA in urine and plasma
Haeme precursors in urine were among the first biomarkers used for detection of lead
intoxication. The synthesis of ALA is the primary regulatory target for haeme bio-
synthesis: haeme down-regulates ALA synthase expression directly by decreasing the
half-life of ALA synthase mRNA (Hamilton et al., 1991). Thus, inhibition of PBGS by
lead, which results in a decrease in haeme biosynthesis, will upregulate ALA biosynthesis,
and increase ALA concentrations in plasma and urine. An increased concentration of
plasma ALA in turn increases the affinity of zinc for PBGS, thus giving some reprieve
from the lead-induced inhibition of PBGS (Jaffe et al., 2001). This interrelationship
between lead, PBGS and ALA contributes to the complex clinical correlations between
lead exposure and accumulation of ALA in urine. ALA concentrations in plasma increase
slowly below blood lead concentrations of 40 µg/dL and rapidly above this concentration.
Significant correlations are found in both the slow and rapid phases (Sakai, 2000). Plasma
ALA (expressed in µg/L) is generally found to be about five times the value measured in
urine (expressed in mg/g creatinine) (Oishi et al., 1996b).
Analysis of ALA in biological fluids is generally performed either by colorimetry
after chemical transformation of ALA into an Ehrlich’s-positive pyrrole (Tomokuni &
Ichiba, 1988a) or by fluorometry after HPLC analysis using pre- or post-column deriva-
tization (Tabuchi et al., 1989; Okayama et al., 1990; Oishi et al., 1996b).
(iii) Zinc protoporphyrin in blood
In the 1970s, the CDC approved ZPP as the preferred biomarker for the monitoring
of lead exposure in the USA. The approved assay used spectrofluorometry, could readily
be carried out on-site and was widely adopted for screening childhood lead poisoning.
However, ZPP is generally not elevated in individuals with blood lead concentrations
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below 30 µg/dL (Schuhmacher et al., 1997). With the current cut-off for lead poisoning
in young children being 10 µg/dL blood lead (CDC, 1991), ZPP has generally fallen out
of favour in the USA.
Although ZPP is not expected to be elevated in individuals casually exposed to low
concentrations of lead, it continues to be a valuable tool for monitoring occupational
exposure (Lee, 1999; Sakai, 2000) and bioresponse to lead (Lauwerys et al., 1995). Also,
elevation of ZPP is a diagnostic commonly used to detect iron deficiency (Labbé et al.,
1999).
(b) Biomarkers related to pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism

Although it has received far less attention than PBGS, the enzyme pyrimidine 5′-nucleo-
tidase (P5′N), also known as uridine monophosphate hydrolase-1, is extremely sensitive to
inhibition by lead (Paglia & Valentine, 1975). As with other biomarkers, both genetic and
environmental factors can affect P5′N activity (Rees et al., 2003). By analogy to the clinical
manifestations of hereditary deficiencies in P5′N, the majority of the haematological
features of lead poisoning can be explained by inhibition of P5′N (Rees et al., 2003).
Although not yet widely used, recent studies suggest that P5′N activity in blood is an
excellent biomarker for exposure to lead, although less sensitive than PBGS (Kim et al.,
1995a). The three-dimensional structure of human P5′N is not yet known, but the docu-
mented sequence contains a cysteine-rich cluster (Amici et al., 2000), which may be the site
of lead binding.
P5′N catalyses the hydrolysis of pyrimidine nucleoside 5′-monophosphate to pyrimi-
dine nucleoside and monophosphate (inorganic phosphate). Assays for P5′N activity fall
into two categories. Colorimetric assays are based on the determination of inorganic
phosphate. These tests require pre-assay sample dialysis and/or lengthy assay times and
are not used for monitoring purposes (Sakai, 2000). Assays based on determining pyrimi-
dine nucleosides have been introduced, using either a radiolabelled nucleoside (Torrance
et al., 1985) or HPLC analysis of the liberated pyrimidine nucleoside (Sakai & Ushio,
1986). A significant correlation was reported between log P5′N and blood lead concen-
trations over the range of 3–80 µg/dL (Sakai, 2000). Measurements of concentrations of
pyrimidine nucleosides in blood have been suggested as alternative biomarkers for expo-
sure to lead (Sakai, 2000).
(c) Other biomarkers

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide synthetase activity in blood has been suggested as
a biomarker for exposure to lead, but this method has received little attention apart from
the work of Sakai (2000). Recent investigations into the biological chemistry of lead
suggest that lead can bind to a variety of proteins that normally bind zinc and/or calcium,
most notably transcription factors. These observations may lead to the future development
of alternative biomarkers for measurement of exposure to lead (Godwin, 2001).
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1.6 Regulations and guidelines

Regulations and guidelines for lead concentrations in blood in non-occupationally
exposed populations, ambient air and drinking-water have been defined in many countries
and are given in Table 76.
Regulations and guidelines for occupational exposure to lead and lead compounds
from several countries are presented in Table 77; maximum permissible lead concen-
trations in blood of occupationally exposed populations for several countries are presented
in Table 78.
Many countries have set guidelines for lead in drinking water, gasoline, paint, foods,
industrial emissions, and other products such as ceramic-ware and solder (Consumer
Product Safety Commission, 1977; US DHUD, 1987; OECD, 1993; US Food and Drug
Administration, 1994).
JECFA first evaluated lead in 1972, when a provisional tolerable weekly intake of
50 µg/kg bw was established. The value was reconfirmed by the Committee in 1978. In
1986, a provisional tolerable weekly intake of 25 µg/kg bw was established for infants
and children for lead from all sources. This value was extended to the general population
in 1993 and was reconfirmed in 1999 (WHO, 2000b; JECFA, 2002).
Analytical methods have changed over time (see Section 1.5) because health-based
standards and guidelines have changed. A historical review of the CDC guidelines in the
USA shows a progressive downward trend in tiered screening and intervention guidelines
for childhood lead poisoning. Maximum permissible blood lead concentrations in the USA
dropped from 35 µg/dL in 1975 to 25 µg/dL in 1985 to 10 µg/dL in 1991 (CDC, 1975,
1985, 1991). Efforts to maintain this downward trend (Bernard, 2003) may continue to
drive development of increasingly sensitive analytical techniques.
The Commission of European Communities reports the following binding biological
limit values [maximum allowed lead levels] and health surveillance measures for lead and
its ionic compounds: (1) biological monitoring must include measuring the blood lead
concentration using absorption spectrometry or a method giving equivalent results. The
binding biological limit is 70 µg lead/dL blood; (2) medical surveillance is carried out
when exposure occurs to a concentration of lead in air that is greater than 0.075 mg/m3,
calculated as a time-weighted average over 40 h per week, or when a blood lead concen-
tration greater than 40 µg/dL is measured in individual workers; (3) practical guidelines
for biological monitoring must include recommendations of biomarkers (e.g. ALA, ZPP,
ALAD) and biological monitoring strategies (European Commission, 1998).
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
recommends a biological exposure index (BEI) for lead in blood of 30 µg/dL. Women of
childbearing age whose blood lead exceeds 10 µg/dL are at risk of delivering a child with a
blood lead concentration above the current CDC guideline of 10 µg/dL (ACGIH World-
wide, 2003). The ACGIH considers analysis of lead in blood by GF–AAS, ASV or ICP–MS
to be sufficiently sensitive for concentrations below the recommended BEI (ACGIH, 2001).
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Table 76. International standards and guidelines for lead concen-

trations in blood, air and drinking-water
Country Blood (µg/dL) Air (µg/m3) Drinking-water (µg/L)
Australia 10 (GP) 0.5 (federal) 10–50 (OECD)

1.5 (states)
Austria 50
Belgium 2.0
Brazil 10
Canada 10 (GP) 1.0–2.5 (BC) 10
2.0 (QC)
5.0 (MB, NF, ON)
Czech Republic 0.5 50
Denmark 0.4 50
European Union 40a 1.0; 40a 50
Finland 0.5 10
France 2.0 50
Germany 15 (GP) 2.0 40
10 (C+W)
India 100
Ireland 2.0 50
Israel 0.5 50
Italy 2.0 50
Japan 10
Mexico 50
Namibia 1.5 50
Netherlands 0.5 50
New Zealand 1.0 50 (OECD)
Norway 20
Republic of Korea 1.5 50
Russian Federation 0.3
Serbia and Montenegro 100–200 50
South Africa 4.0 50–100
Spain 2.0 50
Sweden 10 (OECD)
Switzerland 10–15 (F) 1.0 50 (OECD)
10 (C)
United Kingdom 2.0 50
USA 10 (GP) 1.5 15 (OECD)a
WHO 20 (GP) 10
From OECD (1993); International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2000); Ministry of
Health, Brazil (2004); IOMC (1998)
BC, British Columbia; C, children; F, fetus; GP, general population; MB, Manitoba; NF,
Newfoundland; ON, Ontario; QC, Quebec; W, women of childbearing age
a
Action level
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Table 77. Regulations and guidelines for occupational exposure to

lead and lead compounds
Country/Agency Exposure limit (mg/m3) Interpretationa
Lead
Argentina 0.15 TWA
Australia 0.15 (dust and fume) TWA
Austria 0.10 (men); 0.02 (women) TWA
Belgium 0.15 TWA
Canada 0.15
Alberta 0.05 (dust and fume) TWA
Ontario 0.05 (excluding tetraethyllead) TWA
Quebec 0.15 TWA
China 0.3 (fume) Ceiling
0.05 (dust) Ceiling
Czech Republic 0.05 TWA
Denmark 0.10 TWA
European Union 0.15 TWA
0.10 (dust and fumes < 10 µm) TWA
Finland 0.10 TWA
France 0.15 TWA
Germany 0.1 (excluding lead arsenate and TWA (MAK)
8 lead chromate) STEL (MAK)
India 0.15–0.20 TWA
Ireland 0.15 (excluding tetraethyl lead) TWA
Israel 0.10 (men); 0.05 (women of fertile age) TWA
Italy 0.15 TWA
Japan 0.10 (excluding alkyls) TWA
Malaysia 0.05 TWA
Mexico 0.15 (dust and fume) TWA
Morocco 0.20 TWA
Namibia 0.15 TWA
Netherlands 0.15 (dust and fume) TWA
New Zealand 0.1 (dust and fume) TWA
Norway 0.05 TWA
Peru 0.20 TWA
Poland 0.05 TWA
Republic of Korea 0.05 TWA
Serbia and Montenegro 0.05 TWA
South Africa 0.15 TWA
Spain 0.15 TWA
Sweden 0.10 (total) TWA
0.05 (respirable) TWA
Thailand 0.20 TWA
United Kingdom 0.15 Ceiling (OES)
0.15 TWA
USA
ACGIH 0.05 TWA (TLV)
NIOSH < 0.1 TWA (REL)
OSHA 0.05 TWA (PEL)
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Table 77 (contd)
Lead acetate
Norway 0.05 (dust and fume) TWA
Lead hydrogen arsenate (PbHAsO4)
Canada
Alberta (as As) 0.15 TWA
0.45 STEL
China, Hong Kong SAR 1.5 TWA
(as PbHAsO4)
Mexico (as Pb) 0.15 TWA
0.45 STEL
USA (as As)
NIOSH 0.002 Ceiling (REL)
OSHA 0.01 TWA (PEL)
Lead arsenate (as Pb3(AsO4)2)
Australia 0.15 TWA
Belgium 0.15 TWA
Canada
Quebec 0.15 TWA
China 0.05 (dust) TWA
New Zealand 0.15 TWA
USA
NIOSH (as As) 0.002 Ceiling (REL)
OSHA (as As) 0.01 TWA (PEL)
Lead chromate (as Cr)
Australia 0.05 TWA
Belgium 0.012 TWA
Canada
Alberta 0.05 TWA
0.15 STEL
Ontario 0.012 TWA
Quebec 0.012 TWA
China 0.012 TWA
Finland 0.05 TWA
Germany 0.1 (dusts and aerosols) TWA (TRK)
0.05 (NOSb) TWA (TRK)
Malaysia 0.012 TWA
Netherlands 0.025 STEL
New Zealand 0.05 TWA
Norway 0.02 TWA
Spain 0.012 TWA
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 181
Table 77 (contd)
USA
OSHA 0.001 TWA (REL)
Lead chromate (as Pb)
Belgium 0.05 TWA
Canada
British Columbia 0.012 TWA
Malaysia 0.05 TWA
Spain 0.05 TWA
USA
Lead (II) oxide
Finland 0.1 TWA
Lead phosphate (as Pb)
Norway 0.05 TWA
USA
OSHA 0.05 TWA (PEL)
Lead sulfide
China 5 Ceiling
Tetraethyl lead (as Pb)
Australia 0.1 (skc) TWA
Belgium 0.1 (sk) TWA
Canada
Alberta 0.1 (sk) TWA
0.3 (sk) STEL
British Columbia 0.075 (sk) TWA
Quebec 0.05 (sk) TWA
China 0.02 (sk) TWA
0.06 (sk) STEL
China, Hong Kong SAR 0.1 (sk) TWA
Finland 0.075 (sk) TWA
0.23 (sk) STEL
Germany 0.05 (sk) TWA (MAK)
0.1 (sk) STEL (MAK)
Ireland 0.1 (sk) TWA
Japan 0.075 (sk) TWA
Malaysia 0.1 (sk) TWA
Mexico 0.1 (sk) TWA
0.3 (sk) STEL
Netherlands 0.05 (sk) TWA
New Zealand 0.1 (sk) TWA
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 182
Table 77 (contd)
Norway 0.01 (sk) TWA

Poland 0.05 (sk) TWA
0.1 (sk) STEL
Spain 0.1 (sk) TWA
Sweden 0.05 (sk) TWA
0.2 (sk) STEL
USA
ACGIH 0.1 (sk) TWA (TLV)
NIOSH 0.075 (sk) TWA (REL)
OSHA 0.075 (sk) TWA (PEL)
Tetramethyl lead (as Pb)
Australia 0.15 (sk) TWA
Belgium 0.15 (sk) TWA
Canada
Alberta 0.15 (sk) TWA
0.5 (sk) STEL
Quebec 0.05 (sk) TWA
China, Hong Kong SAR 0.15 (sk) TWA
Finland 0.075 (sk) TWA
0.23 (sk) STEL
Germany 0.05 (sk) TWA (MAK)
0.1 (sk) STEL (MAK)
Ireland 0.15 (sk) TWA
Malaysia 0.15 TWA
Mexico 0.15 (sk) TWA
0.5 (sk) STEL
Netherlands 0.05 (sk) TWA
New Zealand 0.15 (sk) TWA
Norway 0.01 (sk) TWA
Spain 0.15 (sk) TWA
Sweden 0.05 (sk) TWA
0.2 (sk) STEL
USA
ACGIH 0.15 (sk) TWA (TLV)
NIOSH 0.075 (sk) TWA (REL)
OSHA 0.075 (sk) TWA (PEL)
From ACGIH Worldwide (2003); European Commission (1998); International Lead

and Zinc Study Group (2000)
ACGIH, American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; NIOSH,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; OSHA, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration
a
TWA, time-weighted average; STEL, short-term exposure limit; MAK, maximum
allowable concentration; OES, occupational exposure standard; TLV, threshold limit
value; REL, recommended exposure limit; PEL, permissible exposure limit; TRK,
technical exposure limit
b
NOS, not otherwise specified
c
sk, skin notation
Note: For the most current information on these regulations and guidelines, the reader
is referred to the relevant regulatory authority.
P 165-200 DEF.qxp 09/08/2006 11:30 Page 183
Table 78. Regulations and guidelines for maximum lead concentrations in

blood in occupational settings
Country MLLa (µg/dL) Country MLLa (µg/dL)
Australia 50 (men, and women not Japan 60

capable of reproduction);
20 (women of reproductive
capacity)
Austria 45–70 Luxembourg 70
Belgium 80 Morocco 60
Canada 50–80 Namibia 80
Czech Republic 50 Netherlands 70
Denmark 50–70 Norway 2 µmol/L [41.4 µg/dL]
(men)
Finland 50 Peru 60 (men)
France 70–80 South Africa 80 (men);
40 (women)
Germany 70 (men); Spain 70
30 (women under 45 years)
Greece 70–80 Sweden 50 (men and women over
50 years);
30 (women under 50 years)
Ireland 70 Thailand 80
Israel 60 (men); United Kingdom 60 (men);
30 (women of reproductive 50 (adolescents under
age) 18 years);
30 (women of reproductive
capacity)
Italy 70 USA 50

a
MLL, maximum lead level

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P 039-074 DEF.

qxp 09/08/2006 11:04 Page 39

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS

1.1 Chemical and physical data

Calcium plumbate Pigment Brown 10 12013-69-3 Ca2PbO4 [351.4]

IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS

IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS

IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS

46 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

1.1.2 Technical products and impurities

Table 3. Specifications for metallic lead from selected countries

Country % Pb (min.) Contaminants with limits (% max.a) Reference

NR, not reported

Country Compound Contaminants with limits (% max.) Gradea Reference

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS

VRLA, valve-regulated lead acid; MF, maintenance-free; NR, not reported

48 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

1.2.1 The ores and their preparation

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 49

Table 5. Mine production of lead concentrate in 2000a

Country Production Country Production

Algeria 818 Mexico 137 975

From Smith (2002)

50 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

Table 6. Trends in lead mine production worldwide

Year Production (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona

1960 370 207 822 84 306 583 2372

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990, 2004)

(b) Direct smelting processes

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 51

1.2.3 Hydrometallurgical processes

1.2.4 Primary lead refining

52 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

Table 7. Trends in refined lead production worldwide

Year Production (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona

1960 950 70 1114 164 211 718 3227

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990, 2004)

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 53

(a) Pyrometallurgical processes

54 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

(b) Electrolytic processes

1.2.5 Secondary lead production

(a) Secondary lead smelting

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 55

Table 8. Trends in recovery of secondary lead (refined lead and

Year Recovery (thousand tonnes) by geographical regiona

1970 619 21 532 78 37 1287

From International Lead and Zinc Study Group (1990)

56 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 87

(b) Secondary lead refining

1.2.6 Lead production by compound and country

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC LEAD COMPOUNDS 57

Table 9. Lead production by compound and country

Compound No. of Countries

Metallic lead 10 Japan