Applied Mechanics Full

Applied Mechanics
Ch-01 Vector and Vector Diagrams

Prepared by-
Shahriar Akbar Sakib
B.Sc. Engg. in Mechanical Engineering (BUET)
Engineering Instructor, IMTA
Overview:
Theory
Component Division
Resultant
Sine Rule and cosine Rule
Practice
Ship
Reciprocating Engine
Chain and Rope
Jib-crane
1. Theory
Vector ≡ quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
e.g. Force, velocity etc.
1.1. Pythagorean Theorem and Trigonometry
a a c
nuse
sin 𝜃 =
c ⟹ = ⋅ sin 𝜃
ote b
etisoppO
Hy
p c a a2 b2 c2 b c
ca
+ = cos 𝜃 = ⟹ = ⋅ cos 𝜃
𝜃
b
Adjacent tan 𝜃 =
b
1.2. Component Division

y Fx F
= cos 𝜃
Head
Fy F
F
= sin 𝜃
Fy
𝜃
x Tail
Fx
1.3. Sine and Cosine Rule for triangle
1
Sine Rule :
a b c
c b
𝛼
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾
𝛽 𝛾 Cosine Rule :
a c2 a2 b2 -2ab
= + cos 𝛾
a b c
+ =
2. Ship Velocity
N
v W E
S u
v
w
u w v u + = w
vship = v
vstream = u
vresultant = w
1 nautical mile 1 852 km 1852 m
= . =
1 knot 1 nautical mile per hour 1852m

=
3600s =
due West
South West 45 South of West 45 West of South
= ° = °
30 West of South
West 30 South
°
3. Example: A ship travelling due North at 16 knots runs into a 4 knot current moving South East. Find
the resultant speed and direction of the ship.
2
N
𝛼
W E v w v
45°
S 45
°
u
u
Space Diagram Vector Diagram
Cosine Rule :
w u2 v2 -2uv 45
2
w 13 47 knots ans i
= + cos( °)
= . ( . )
Sine Rule
u w
:
sin 𝛼
=
45 sin °
4 1
u 45 sin 2 0 2099
°
×
sin 𝛼 =
w
-1 0 2099
13 47 =
.
= .
𝛼 = sin ( . 12 11 ) = . °
The ship is travelling at an angle of 12 11 East of North . ° .
7. A ship sailing due East at 18 knots runs into a 3 knot current moving 40 East of North. Find the °
resultant speed and direction of the ship.
W E 40 w
u
°
𝛼 u
v v 90 40
( + )°
S Space Diagram Vector Diagram

Cosine Rule :
w2 u2 v2 -2uv 130
= + cos( °)
w 20 06 knots ans i
= . ( . )
Sine Rule
u w
:
sin 𝛼
=
130 sin °
u 130 3 130sin ° × sin °

sin 𝛼 =
w 20 06 =
.
= ?
3
𝛼 = sin
-1 6 57
(? ) = . °
The ship is travelling at an angle of 6 57 North of East

. °
3. Reciprocating Engine
6. The length of the stroke of a reciprocating engine is 350 mm and the length of the connecting rod is
700mm. Find the thrust in the connecting rod and the load on the guide when the crank is 110 degrees
past T.D.C if the piston effort at this instant is 60 kN. Find also the distance the piston has moved down
its stroke when the crank is in this position.
Fp
FG
Fc 𝜙
mm 007
Fp
=
Fc
l
110 °
m
𝛼
71 5 m
r =
FG
Space Diagram:
4
r l
sin 𝜙
=
sin 𝜃
r sin 175 110 0 2349

sin 𝜙 =
l-1 700
𝜃 = sin ° = .
𝜙 = sin 0 2349 13 35
( . ) = ° `
Vector Diagram:
FG
tan 𝜙 =
FP
FG FP = tan 𝜙
Alternatively :
Using Sine Rule :
FG FP
sin 𝜙
=
90 -
sin( ° 𝜙)
FG FP 90 - FP
=
sin(
sin 𝜙
° 𝜙)
= tan 𝜙 = 60 × tan( 13 35
° `) = 14 5 kN
.
Similarly :
FP
cos 𝜙
FC
=
FC FP 61 73 kN
=
cos 𝜙
= .
A'
Distance of the piston that has moved down its stroke
A A
l
Fc
𝜙
r 110 °
O O
𝛼
C C B
Space Diagram Space Diagram
5
Distance of the piston that has moved down its stroke = AA
' = A O - AO
'
A'O = l + r = 700 + 175 = 875 mm
Using Sine Law: Here,

AO l 180 - 110 180 - 13 35 110
110
𝛼 = ° (𝜙 + °) = ° ( ° ' + °)
56 25
=
AO 620 5
sin 𝛼 sin ° = ° '
= .
Distance of the piston that has moved down its stroke

= AA'
A O - AO
875 - 620 5
= '
= .
= 254 5 mm ans
. ( .)
4. Chain and Rope

4.1. Equlibrium of forces
F4 F1 When forces are in equilibrium i.e. Resultant zero:
Upward Forces Downward Forces
Left forces Right forces
=
F2 =
F3
5. A wire rope 25.5 m long is slung between two vertical bulk-heads which are 21 m apart, the end
fixtures being at the same height. A freely running snatch block on the wire carries a hanging load of 30
kN. If the snatch block is pulled by a horizontal force until it is 8 m horizontally from one bulkhead,
calculate the tension in the wire rope and the horizontal force applied.
21 m 21 m
13 m 8m 13 m 8m
𝜃
𝛼
25 5
L 25 5m .
-x T h T
x
= .
F
𝜃
30 kN
Tensions on both sides of the wire are equal
since the snatch block is free to move.
6
h2 132
+ = 25 5-x 2
( . )
h2 82
+ = x2 T
132 -82 = ( 25 5-x 2 -x2
. )
T
105 650 25 - 2 25 5 x x2 -x2
𝛼
𝜃
F
= . × . +
105 = 650 25 - 51x .
51x 650 25 - 105

W
= .
x ∴ = 10 69 m.
Now :
Upward Forces Downward Force
x cos 𝛼 = 8 Tsin T
=
W 1
8
𝛼 + sin 𝜃 = .... ( )
0 748 Right forces Left forces

=
cos 𝛼 =
x = .
F T
+ cos 𝛼 =T cos 2 𝜃 ... ( )
𝛼 = cos
-1 0 748( . )
Similarly :
cos 13 13
𝜃 =
25 5-x 25 5 - 10 69 0 8778
.
=
. .
= .
𝜃 =
-1 0 8778
cos ( . ) = ?
From eq 1
Tsin T 30
.( )
𝛼 + sin 𝜃 =
T 30
(sin 𝛼 + sin 𝜃) =
T
From eq 2
= ?
.( )
F T -
= (cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼) = ?
4. A shaft of mass 5.097 tonnes is lifted by two chains from a crane hook. The length of each chain is 4
m and their connections to the shaft are 4 m apart. If the centre of gravity of the shaft is 1.25 m from one
of the connections, find the tension in each chain.
4m 4m 4m
h 4m h
2m 4m 75m
4m m 2
5
.
12
.
7
W
T1
4m T2
𝛼
𝜃
4m
4m h 4m h
60 °
60
2 75m
°
4m 5m 1 25m
.
m 27 .
5
.
12.
Space Diagram
Mass of the shaft, m = 5.097 tonnes = 5.097 ×103 kg
Weight of the shaft, W = 5 097 9 81 kN . × . = 50 kN
From Space Diagram:
Applying Cosine rule:
h2 42 1 252 -2 4 1 25 cos 60
= + . × × . × ( °)
h 3 544 m
= .
Applying Sine Rule:

1 25 3 544
. .
sin sin60
𝜃
=
°
sin 𝜃 = ?
17 78
60 - 42 21
𝜃 = . °
𝛼 = ° 𝜃 = . °
Now drawing vector diagram:

W T1 Applying Sine Rule:
𝛼
T1 50 T1
120 °
sin17 78 sin120 = ⟹ = ?
T1 50 kN
. ° °
T2
𝛼
𝜃
4m T2 T2 50
4m sin42 21 sin120 = ⟹ T2 = ?
h 60 °
. ° °
60
𝜃
°
2 75m
1 25 m
.
Alternative way to find T1 and T2 without drawing vector diagram
8
Upward Forces Downward Forces =
W T1 = T2 cos 𝛼 + cos 𝜃
W
T1 42 21 T2 17 78 50 1
cos . °+ cos . ° = ... ( )
Left Forces Right Forces=
T1 T2 T1
T2
sin 𝛼 = sin 𝜃
T1 42 21 T2 17 78 2
𝛼
𝜃
sin . ° = sin . ° ... ( )
From 1 and 2 Solve for T1 and T2

( ) ( ):
From (2):
T1 T2 1742 7821 0 454T2
=
sin
sin
.
.
°
°
= .
Now putting the value of T1 in (1)

0 454T2 42 21 T2 17 78 50
. cos . °+ cos . ° =
⟹ T2 0 454 42 21 17 78 50
( . × cos . ° + cos . °) =
∴ T2 0 454 425021 17 78 38 8 kN ans

= = . ( .)
T1 0 454 T2 17 62 kN ans
( . × cos . ° + cos . °)
∴ = . = . ( .)
5. Jib-Crane System
5.1. Pulley
Assumption: Frictionless pulley

Tension on the rope on both sides will be equal. T2
T1 T2 = = T T1
Pulley only changes the direction of the force
5.2. Crane
Without Pulley
With Pulley
Crane Head Tie Crane Head

Post
Post
Load
Jib
9
1. Example: The angle between the jib and the vertical post of a jib crane is 42 degrees, and between the
tie and jib the angle is 36 degrees. Find the forces in the jib and tie when a mass of 3.822 103 kg is
×
suspended from the crane head.
Crane Head
Tie
36 °
Post
42 ° Jib
36 Crane Head
Ft
°
Tie
W
Post
3 822 9 81kN
37 5 kN
= . × .
Fj = .
Jib
42 °
Space Diagram
10
Ft Fj W Ft W
180 - 36 42 3 822 9 81kN
102
° ( °+ °)
36 102 36 42
= . × .
37 5 kN
= =
= ° ° sin ° sin ° sin ° = .
W Fj Fj W sin 102 °
62 404 kN
42
= ×
36 = .
42
sin °
°
Ft = W ×
sin
sin 36
°
°
= 42 68 kN
.
Vector Diagram
2. Example: The lengths of the vertical post and jib of a jib crane are 6.5 and 7 m respectively, and the
angle between the post and jib is 40 degrees. A mass of 2.854 tonnes is suspended from a wire rope which
passes over a pulley at the crane head and then led down at an angle of 50 degrees to the vertical to a
winch behind the post. Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head and measure
the forces in the jib and tie.
Solution:
With Pulley
Tie Crane Head
Post
Load
Jib
W = 2 854 9 81
. × . = 28 kN
11
Ft
6 5m T F50 T W
.
=
T
j °
Fj
40 7m °
T
Space Diagram Ft
Vector Diagram
2units = 1m 7 units = 28kN
By measuring,
Ft 4 units
= 4 287 16 kN = × =
Fj 13 5units 13 5 287 54 kN
= . = . × =
If the question asks to 'measure the forces', we will have to use graphical method.
If the question asks to 'calculate the forces', we will have to use numerical approach.
**Optional**
Solving analytically without using vector diagram
A 𝜃
C 𝜃
6 5m T
.
50 °
40 40 °
7m
°
B
Space Diagram
Here,
Post Length = AB = 6 5m
.
Jib Length = BC = 7m
From cosine law:
AC = AB2 BC2 -2AB BC 40
+ ⋅ cos ° = 6 52 72 -2 6 5 7 40
. + ⋅ . ⋅ cos ° = 4 6411 m
.
From Sine law:

AC BC
sin 40 °
=
sin 𝜃
-1 7 × sin 40 °
75 811
𝜃 = sin
4 6411
.
= . °
12
Now:
Upward Forces Downward Forces

Fj
=
75 811 40 Ftcos75 811 Fjcos40 T T 50 1

. °+ ° = + cos ° ... ( )
Ft
𝜃 = . °
°
Left Forces Right Forces

Ft 75 811 T 50 Fj 40
=
T 50 T W
sin . ° + sin ° = sin °
°
=
⟹ Ft 75 811 - Fj 40 - T 50 2
sin . ° sin ° = sin ° ... ( )
Solving 1 and 2
( ) ( ) :
Ft 14 59 kN
= .
Fj 55 377 kN
= .
13
Applied Mechanics
Ch-02 Velocity and Acceleration
Prepared by-
Overview:
Constant velocity and constant acceleration Motion
Relative Velocity
Projectile Motion
Angular Motion
1. Constant Velocity and Acceleration Motion
a
u v
s
t
a v-u
=
t
Motion
Constant Velocity Motion Constant Acceleration Motion

s vt
v u at
=
Projectile Motion
= +
u v t Angular Motion
s +
Simple Harmonic Motion
=
2 ⋮
s ut 12 at2
= +
v2 u2 2as
= +
Example: A bullet is fired vertically upward with an initial velocity of 70 m/s.Two second later another
bullet is fired upward with an initial velocity of 100 m/s. After what time and at what height above the
ground will the second bullet overtake the first?
After t seconds After t-2 seconds
End line
a = -g = - 9 81 m s2 . /
s g = 9 81 m s2
. /
u1 = 70 m s /
u2 = 100 m s
/
Starting line
At 0 second After 2 seconds
s1 u1t1 12 a1t12
= + s2 u2 t2= +
1 a2t22
2

s u1t - 12 gt2
= s u2 t-2
= ( ) - 12 g t-2 2
( )
Now:
u1t - 12 gt2 u2 t-2 - 12 g t-2 2
= ( ) ( )
⟹ 70t - 12 9 81 t2 100 t-2 - 12 9 81 t-2 2

× . × = ( ) × . ×( )
Solving for t :
t 4 4260s
s u1t- 12 gt2 70 4 4260- 12 9 81 4 42602 213 7336 m
= .
= × = × . × . × . = .
∴ Second bullet will overtake the first bullet at t 4 4260 s and at height of 213 7336 m = . . .
HW A locomotive, starting from rest, is uniformly accelerated up to maximum speed, taking one minute
and travelling a distance of 0.5 km. It then runs at maximum speed for 2 minutes and finally uniformly
retarded for 30 seconds to bring it to rest. Find the maximum speed, sketch a velocity-time graph and find
the total distance travelled.
For First one minute:
s u vt+
Here
2 s 0 5 km 500 m
,
=
t 1 min 60 s
= . =
v 2s 1000 16 2 m s u 0m s
= =
=
t 60 =
3 = /
= /
∴ Maximum Speed 16 23 m s = /
v
16 23 m s
/
1min 2min 1 min t

2 1 min = 4units
From Graph
total distance s Area under v-t diagram
:
1 16 2 60 16 2 120 1 16 2 30 2750 m
, =
=
2 3
× ×
3+
2 3 × + × × = = 2 75 km
.
2. Relative Velocity (Ship Related Problems)

vBA vB -vA
vA vB
=
A B
vA Absolute velocity of A Velocity of A with respect to observer O

= =
vB Absolute velocity of B Velocity of B with respect to observer O

= =
vBA Velocity of B with respect to A vB -vA

= =
vAB Velocity of A with respect to B vA -vB

= =
Two ships leave at the same time from the same port, one travels South East at 22 knots and the other
due East at 14 knots find the apparent speed and direction of the fast ship to slow ship and the distance
apart after 5 hours. (p64, 25)
N vA -vB vAB
vA vAB vB
=
W E = +
S vB
vB 45
°
vAB
𝜃
A
B vA
vA
Vector Diagram
Space Diagram
Applying Cosine Rule:
vAB2 vA2 vB2 -2vAvB 45
= + cos °
vAB = 222 142 -2 22 14 45 15 6340 knots ans

+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ cos ° = . ( .)
Applying Sine Rule:

vAB vA
45 =
vA 45 22 45 0 9950
sin ° sin 𝜃
sin ° × sin °
sin 𝜃 =
vAB 15 6340 =
.
= .
-1 0 9950 84 27 First Quadrant

180 -84 27 95 73 Second Quadrant
. °
𝜃 = sin ( . ) =
° . ° = . °
From figure 90 95 73
Ship is travelling 95 73 -90 5 73 East of South ans
, 𝜃 > °, ∴ 𝜃 = . °
( . ° °) = . ° . ( .)
Separation of two ships after 5hrs

dBA vBA t
= × = 15 6340 5
. × = 78 17 nm
.
HW Two ships, A and B, leave the same port at the same time. A travels North West at 15 knots, and B
travels 30° South of West at 17 knots. Find the velocity of A relative to B, and the time taken for the
ships to be 100 nautical miles apart.
2.1. Nearest Distance between two ships
Example: One ship A is steaming due West at 19 knots and another ship B which is 5 nautical miles South
West of A is steaming North 30 East at 17 knots. Find the distance between the two ships when they are
°
nearest together and the time for them to get there.
North 30 East° = 30 East of North = উত্তরের সাথে ৩০ ডিগ্রি করে পূর্ব দিকে
°
N vB -vA vBA
W E vB vBA vA
=
= +
S vA
A
vA vB 120 𝛼
vB
°
30 °
mn
5
30 °
vBA 𝛼
B
From Vector Diagram:
vBA vA2 vB2 -2vAvB 120 192 172 -2 19 17 120 31 1929 knots
vB vBA
= + cos( °) = + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ cos( °) = .
=
120
vB 120 17 sin 120 0 4719
sin 𝛼 sin °
sin ° × ( °)
⟹ sin 𝛼 =
vBA 31 1929 =
.
= .
𝛼 = sin
-1 0 4719
( . 28 16
) = . °
A
hcatosreraeN
Nearest Approach AB1 AB 16 84

ppA
5 sin16 84
= = sin . °
1 4485 nm
= × . °
B B1
= .
45 -28 16 f Ship
mn
16 84 se o Time to get there BB 1 5 cos16 84

5
r
° . °
Cou
× . °
= .
ren
°
t vBA 31 1929 = =
Appa 0 1534 hr
.
45 28 16
° =
0 1534 60 min
.
9 204 min
. ° = ( . × )
B = .
Space Diagram
A tanker is steaming due South at 16 knots. At 12 noon a passenger ship is 7.5 nautical miles due West of
the tanker and steaming South East at 18 knots. At what time will the two ships be closest together and
what is then their distance apart?
N vB -vA vBA
W E vB vBA vA
=
= +
S
B 7.5 nm A 45 vB °
45 vB °
vA vA
vBA
𝛼

vBA vA2 vB2 -2vAvB 45 162 182 -2 16 18 45 13 1417 knots
vB vBA
= + cos( °) = + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ cos( °) = .
=
120
vB 45 18 sin 45 0 9685
sin 𝛼 sin °
sin ° × ( °)
⟹ sin 𝛼 =
vBA 13 1417 =
.
= .
𝛼 = sin
-1 0 9685
( . 75 58
) = . °
B1 Nearest Approach AB1 AB 14 42

7 5 sin14 42
= = sin . °
ipB 1 8677 nm
= . × . °
of S h = .
urse
chaosrepraeN
o
Time to get there BB 1 7 5 sin14 42
pA
C
ent90 -75 58
ar
. × . °
App vBA 13 1417

t
= =
14 42 0 1421 hr
° . ° .
A
= . °
0 1421 60 min
= .
B 7.5 nm
8 526 min
= ( . × )
Space Diagram = .
HW One ship is steaming due South at 121 knots and another ship is steaming 20° North of West at 11
knots. When the first ship is 2 nautical miles from the point of intersection of their courses, the other is 5
nautical miles from this point. Find, graphically, the distance between the ships at their closest approach to
each other and the time to reach these positions. .
3. Projectile Motion
v0 initial velocity
0 initial angle of throwing
=
vx
𝜃 =
v0 v R range
H y v H highest elevation
=
y T time of flight
=
=
𝜃 0 x
R
T
vx v0 0 x v0 0t
1
= ( cos 𝜃 )
vy v0 0 -gt
= cos 𝜃
= sin 𝜃
y v0 = ( sin 𝜃 ) 0 t- 2 gt 2
H y when vy 0
vy 0 tH v0 g 0
= ( = )
= ⟹ =
sin 𝜃
H v02 sin 𝜃
20
1 v 2 20
0
=
2g
∴ H v0 0 t- 2 gt= (
2
2g
sin 𝜃 ) =
sin 𝜃
T 2tH 2v0 g 0 sin 𝜃

T 2v0 sin 𝜃 0
= = =
g
R x when t T
R v0 0 t v0 0 2v0 g 0
= ( = )
= ( cos 𝜃 ) = ( cos 𝜃 ) ×
sin 𝜃
R v02 2 0
sin( 𝜃 )
v02sin 2 0 ( 𝜃 )
=
g
g =
A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 600 m/s at an angle of elevation of 30 degrees to the
horizontal. Find the range on horizontal ground.
Here
v0 600 m s
,
0 30
v0
= /
R
𝜃 = °
= ?
𝜃 0
R
A stone is thrown horizontally at 12 m/s from a 60 m high cliff. Find the time it takes for the stone to
reach the ground and the horizontal distance covered.
Here
y 12 gt2 v0 = 12 m/s
,
t = ?
Now y = 60m
x v0 t
:
= = ?
x= ? m
4. Angular Motion
s
𝜃
s r
= 𝜃 2
𝜋
v T
𝜔
v r
𝜔 =
a 𝛼 = 𝜔
2r
a r = 𝛼
v =
𝜋
T = r
𝜔
Angular Motion
Constant Velocity Motion Constant Acceleration Motion

𝜃 = t
𝜔
t
𝜔 = 𝜔 o +𝛼
𝜔+𝜔 o t
𝜃 =
2 ×
ot
1 t2
𝜃 = 𝜔 +
2𝛼
𝜔
2 = 𝜔
2
0 + 2 𝛼𝜃
2. Example: A wheel 240 mm diameter is keyed to a shaft 40 mm diameter mounted in bearings which
carry the shaft horizontally. A cord is wrapped around the shaft, one end of the cord being fixed to the
shaft and the other end carrying a load. When the load is allowed to fall from rest, it falls a distance of 2
m in 5 seconds. Neglecting the thickness of the cord, find (i) linear velocity of the load after 5 seconds, (ii)
the angular velocity of the wheel and shaft 5 seconds, (iii) the linear velocity of the rim of the wheel after
5 seconds, (iv) the linear acceleration of the load, (v) the angular acceleration of the wheel and shaft.
Here
v ut Wheel
,
s =
2
+
2 v 5
=
2 ×
Shaft d 40 mm
vload 0 8 m s ans i
=
= . / ( . )
D 240mm
=
shaft
v 08 .
𝜔
r=
40 10-3
2
=
×
= 40 rad s ans ii / ( . )
𝜔 shaft = 𝜔 wheel Load

vwheel wheel rwheel
u = 0
40 0 224
= 𝜔
.
= ×
4 8m s ans iii s 2m
t 5s
=
= . / ( . ) =
Now v
aload v-u 08
:
= ?
a
.
t
=
5 =
0 16 m s2 ans iv
= ?
= . / ( . )
a 0 16
rshaft 0 2 0 8 rad s ans v
𝛼 shaft =
2 =
.
= . / ( . )
.
𝛼 shaft wheel 0 8rad s 2

= 𝛼 = . /
Applied Mechanics
Ch-03 Mass Accelerating Force
Prepared by-
Overview:
Dynamics of Translating bodies
Dynamics of Rotating bodies
1. Dynamics of Linear Motion
F m m
ma
≡
Newton s First Law No Force No change in motion

Newton s 2nd Law Fnet ma
' : ,
' : =
F1
F2 Newton s 3rd Law F1
' : = -F2
F1 m F2 ≡
m a
F1 -F2 = ma
1.1. Pulley Related Problems
1
3. A block of wood of 9 kg mass stands on, a horizontal table. A cord is connected at one end to the
block, is led parallel with the table, over a guide pulley, and hangs down over the side of the table. It is
found that 0.9 kg hung on the end of the cord is just sufficient to overcome friction between the block and
the table. If an additional 0.45 kg is hung on the end, find.
(i) the acceleration of the block
(ii) its velocity after 2.5 seconds from rest.
(iii) the distance traveled in the above time.
(iv) the tension in the cord.
Motion
m1 = 9kg
m2 0 9 0 45 kg
= ( . + . ) = 1 35 kg
.
Free body diagram of m2 :

T
≡ m2g-T m2a
T m2g-m2a 1
=
= ... ( )
m2 g m2 a
Since 0.9 kg weight is sufficient to overcome friction, f 0 9 9 81 8 829 N
∴ = . × . = .
Now
T-f m1a
:
f T m2g-m2a-f m1a from eq 1

=
m1 a m2g-f m1 m2 a
≡ ⟹ = [ . ( )]
a mm12g-f
⟹ = ( + )
1 35 9 81-8 829 0 4265 m s2 ans i . × . .

∴
m2 =
9 1 35 +
=
+ .
= . / ( . )
Now: After 2.5 seconds

v u at 0 0 4265 2 5 1 06625 m s ans ii
s ut 12 at2 0 2 5 12 0 4265 2 52 1 3328125 m ans iii
= + = + . × . = . / ( . )
= + = × . + × . × . = . ( . )
Now:
From eq.(1)
T m2g-m2a m2 g-a
= = ( ) = 1 35 9 81-0 4265
. ×( . . ) = 12 67 N ans iv
. ( . )
2
4. A light flexible cord is hung over a pulley of negligible mass in frictionless bearings. Masses of 1.8 kg
and 1.9 kg respectively are hung on the two ends of the cord and the system allowed to move from rest.
Find,
(i) the acceleration of the system,
(ii) the velocity after 4 seconds,
(iii) distance moved in this time,
(iv) the tension in the cord,
(v) the total load on the pulley bearings when the system is moving under the above conditions.
t = 0s t = 4s
Motion
m1 1 9 kg
= .
m2 1 8kg = .

T
≡ m1g-T m1a
T m1g-m1a 1
=
= ... ( )
m1 g m1 a
T T-m2g m2a m2 a
m1g-m1a-m2g m2a Putting the value of T in 1
=
m1g-m2g m1a m2a m1 m2 a

= [ ( )]
a g mm11 -m
= + = ( + )
9 81 1 9-1 8 0 2651 m s2 ans i

≡
2 ( ) . ×( . . )
m2 g m2 19 18 ∴ =
( + )
=
. + .
= . / ( . )
v u at 0 2651 4 1 0604 m s ans ii

s ut 12 at2 12 0 2651 42 2 1208 m ans iii
= + = . × = . / ( . )
= + = × . × = . ( . )
T m1g - m1a m1 g-a 1 9 9 81-2 1208 14 60948 N ans iv

= = ( ) = . ×( . . ) = . ( . )
Free body diagram of pulley:

2T
T T Total load on the pulley = 2T = 2 14 60948

× . = 29 21896 N ans v
. ( . )
3
A body of mass 10 kg is pulled along a horizontal table by a cord which is parallel to the table. The cord
passes over a frictionless pulley and hangs down with a mass of 3 kg attached to its end. If the coefficient
of friction between body and table is 0.15, find the acceleration of the body and the tension in the cord.
[Class-1, 8]
Motion
m1 = 10kg
𝜇 = 0 15.
m2 3 kg =

T
≡ m2g-T m2a
T m2g-m2a 1
=
= ... ( )
m2 g m2 a
N m1 g N
f N m1 g
=
f T Now
∴ = 𝜇 = 𝜇
≡
m1a T-f m1a :
m2g-m2a-f m1a from eq 1

=
m1 g m2g- m1g m1 m2 a
⟹ = [ . ( )]
a mm2 1- mm21 g 3-0 1510 103 9 81

⟹ 𝜇 = ( + )
( 𝜇 ) ( . × )× .
∴ = =
+ +
1 1319m s2 ans
= . / ( .)
Now:
From eq.(1)
T m2g-m2a m2 g-a
= = ( ) = 3 9 81-1 1319 26 0343 N ans
×( . . ) = . ( .)
1.2. Other Problems

The total mass of the reciprocating parts of a vertical I.C. engine is 317.5 kg. At a certain position on the
downward stroke the effective pressure on the piston is 6 bar and the acceleration of the piston is 21
m s2 . If the piston diameter is 250 mm, find, neglecting friction, the thrust on the crosshead. One bar=
/
105 N m2 .
/
4
p 6bar 6 105 N2 m2
Fp pA p D4 6 105 0 252 29452 4311 N 29 45 kN
= = × /
𝜋 𝜋× .
= = × = × ×
4 = . = .
Free body diagram of reciprocating parts:

Ft Thrust force
Ft mg Weight
=
Fp Pressure force
=
≡
Fp mg-Ft ma
Ft Fp mg-ma
+ =
mg ma 29452 4311 317 5 9 81-317 5 21

= +
25899 6061 N
= . + . × . . ×
Fp 25 9 kN
=
= .
.
A mass of 4000 kg hangs on the end of a lifting cable. Find the shortest time the mass can be lifted
through a height of 27 m, starting from rest and coming to rest, if the tension in the cable is not to
exceed 50 kN. [Class 1, 3]
When lifting up:
T 50kN T-mg ma1
ma1
a1 T-mg 50 103 -4000 9 81 2 69 m s2
=
=
× × .
≡
=
m 4000 = = . /
mg
When slowing the mass to rest:
T 0N mg ma2
=
=
a2 9 81 m s2
= . /
mg ma2
Let, It takes t1 seconds to accelerate the body and another t2 seconds to decelerate it to rest.
5
v vmax vmax 2 69t1 Apply v u at
vmax 9 81t2
= .
[ = + ]
= .
2 69t1 9 81t2
t1 9281t692 1
. = .
.
= .... ( )
From v-t Graph

.
s 12 t1 t2 vmax 27
:
= ( + )× =
t1 t2 t 1 9 81t2 t2 9 81t2 27 .
⟹
2 2 69 + × . =
Solving for t2
.
t2 1 0883 s
:
t1 9 81 2 691 0883 3 9688 s

= .
. × .
∴ = = .
total time t1 t2 .
3 9688 1 0883
= +
5 0571 s
= . + . =
= .
2. Dynamics of Rotating bodies
m r I = mr2 = Moment of Inertia
I mk2 Moment of Inertia

= =
Where
k Radius of Gyration
,
k =
Radius of gyration is not the same as the

m centroidal distance of the body from the axis
"
."
The values of k will be given in the question .
The more the moment of inertia of the body, the harder it is to rotate it.
Newton's 2nd Law for Rotating body: T I = 𝛼
Where,
T = torque
I = Moment of Inertia
𝛼 = Angular Acceleration
6
Example: The torque to overcome frictional and other resistances of a turbine is 317 N m and be
considered as constant for all speeds. The mass of the rotating parts is 1.59 tonne and the radius of
gyration is 686 mm. If the steam is cut off when the turbine is running free of load at 1920 rev/min, find
the time it will take to come to rest and the number of revolutions turned during that time.
Given
m 1 59 tonnes
:
k 6862 mm
= .
I mk 1 59 103 0 6862 748 24764 kgm2

=
T 317 Nm
= = . × × . = .
We know :
T I
T 317 0 4236 rad s2
= 𝛼
𝛼 =
I 748 24764 = = . /
Now
.
1920 2 rad s
:
o 1920rev min
× 𝜋
𝜔 =
60
/ = /
0 rad s 2
0 4236 rad s
𝜔 = /
𝛼 = . /
t = ?
𝜔 = 𝜔 0- t 𝛼
1920 2 × 𝜋
t 0 4236
=
60 474 6504 s = .
Again
.
,
1920 2 × 𝜋
0 60
2 t 2 474 6504 47717 0627 rad
𝜔 +𝜔
𝜃 = = × . = .
47717 0627 rev 7594 4063 rev 7594 rev .
2 =
𝜋
= . ≈
HW The winding drum of an electric hoist is 1.5 m diameter, the mass of the rotating parts of the drive
and drum is 1225 kg and the radius of gyration is 0.53 m. The wire rope from the drum carries a load of
450 kg. Find the total torque required to raise the load with an acceleration of 0.6 m/s 2 when 190 N m of
torque are required to overcome friction.
7
mrotating parts 1225kg
k 0 532 m
=
I mk 1225 0 532
= .
= = × . =
m = 450kg
8
Applied Mechanics
Ch-04 Work, Power and Energy
Prepared by-
Overview:
Work and Power
Conservation of Momentum and Energy
Rotating Bodies Rotation: Moment of Inertia, Radius of Gyration
Rolling Motion
1. Work and Power
Formulas:
Force F ma 1N 1 Newton
, = [ = ]
Work W Fs 1J 1 Joule
Power P Wt 1W 1 Watt
, = [ = ]
, = [ = ]
Efficiency Pout Wout

Pin Win
, 𝜂 = =
Energy Consumed = Work done [Joule]

1kWh is the unit of energy or work. It refers to the amount of energy consumed by a 1kW power machine
running for an hour.
1kWh = 1000 W 3600 s × = 3 6 105 Ws
. × = 3 6 105 J
. ×
A load of 9 kg is raised through a vertical distance of 900 mm when the applied effort of 54 N is moved
through a distance of 3 m. Find the input power required to this machine to raise a mass of 30 kg through
15 m in 120 s.
Here,
Fload sload× ( 9 9 81 900 10-3
× . )× ×
0 4905
𝜂 =
Feffort seffort
×
=
54 3 ×
= .
Now:
To raise 30 kg mass:
Woutput mgh 30 9 81 15 J
Poutput Woutput
= = ( × . × )
30 9 81 15 36 7875 W × . ×
t =
120 = = .
We know:
Poutput
𝜂 =
Pinput
∴ Pinput Poutput 360 4905
=
7875 75 W ans
𝜂
=
.
.
= ( .)
1
2. Conservation of Momentum and Energy
Formulas:
Momentum p mv =
Conservation of Momentum:
m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 v1 m2 v2
+ = +
u1 u2
m1 m2
m1 m2
v1 v2
m1 m2
Gravitational Potential Energy Ep mgh

Kinetic Energy Ek 12 mv2
, =
, =
Conservation of Energy Total Energy at 1

: ( ) = Total Energy at 2 ( )
1
( )
Ep mgh
=
v h
Ek 12 mv2
=
2
( )
2.1. Work-Energy Theorem:

𝛥 Ek = W
Total work on a body by all forces is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
2
s
W Fs
F u
=
Ek1 12 mu2
= Ek2 12 mv2 =
According to Work-Energy Theorem

Ek W
:
𝛥 =
1 mv2 - 1 mu2 Fs
2 2 =
1 mv2 - 1 mu2 mas F ma

2 2 = [ ∵ = ]
v2 u2 2as
= +
2. Example: The mass of the pendulum of an impact testing machine is 40 kg and the effective length of
the arm is one metre. The arm is raised so that it makes an angle of 60 degrees to the vertical and then
released to strike the test piece. Calculate (i) the kinetic energy and velocity of the mass just before
impact, and (ii) the kinetic energy lost in breaking the specimen if the pendulum swings to an angle of 35
degrees to the vertical after impact.
1 cos60 1m
60 35 1 cos35
× °
°
°
40 kg 1m 1
( )
× °
h1 1-cos60
= °
3
h3 1-cos35
( )
2
( )
= °
Test piece
Kinetic Energy just before impact:
Ek 2 Ep 1 mgh 40 9 81 1-cos60
= = = × . ×( °) = 196 2 J ans i
. ( . )
1 mv2 196 2
( ) ( )
∴
2 = .
v2 2 40196 2
=
× .
v 2 40196 2
∴ =
× .
3 1320 m s ans i
= . / ( . )
Kinetic Energy lost:

𝛥 KE Ep 1 -Ep 3
=
mgh1 -mgh3
( ) ( )
mg h1 -h3
= ( )
40 9 81 1- 60 - 1
= × . ×( cos ° + cos 35 °)
3
= 125 2352 J ans ii
. ( . )
A truck of mass 5000 kg moving at 10.8 km/h collides with another truck of mass 9500 kg moving in the
opposite direction at 18 km/h. At impact they lock and move on together. Calculate (i) the common
speed and direction after impact and (ii) the loss of kinetic energy at impact.
u1 10 8km h
= . /
u2 18 km h
= /
m1 5000kg
= m2 9500kg
=
After Impact
v
m1 m2 5000 9500kg
+ = +
According to conservation of momentum:

m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 m2 v
+ = ( + )
5000 -10 8 9500 18 5000 9500 v

v -5000 5000 10 8 9500 18 8 0689 km h
×( . )+ × = ( + )×
× . + ×
=
9500 = . /
Common speed after impact 8 0689 km h in the direction of the motion of the second truck ans i
+
∴ = . / . ( )
Loss of kinetic Energy

1 m1 m2 v2 - 1 m1u12 1 m2u22
=
2 ( +
2 2) +
1 5000 9500 8 0689 1000 2 1 5000 10 8 1000 2 9500 18 1000 2

=
2 ( +
3600 2 )×
3600
. ×
3600 + × . × + × ×
= 177671 822 J .
= 177 67 kJ ans ii
. ( . )
3. Rotating Bodies
Formulas:
Moment of Inertia, I mk 2 =
Where, k = radius of gyration

Torque T I = 𝛼
Kinetic Energy 1I 2
=
2 𝜔
4
3. Example: The torque required to turn a flywheel and shaft against friction at the bearings is 34 N m.
The mass of the wheel and shaft is 907 kg and the radius of gyration is 381 mm. Assuming frictional
resistance to be constant at all speeds, find the number of revolutions the system will turn whilst coming
to rest from a speed of 450 rev/min when the driving power is cut out, and also the time taken in coming
to rest.
Solution:
I mk2 907 0 381 2 131 661027 kgm2
= = ×( . ) = .
T 34 Nm
T 34
=
I 131 661027 0 2582rad s

𝛼 = =
2 = . /
450 260 rad s

.
0 450 rpm
𝜋
𝜔 = = × /
Now 2 :
𝜔
2 0 -2
= 𝜔 𝛼𝜃
2 450 2 2
60 4300 2730 684 4097 rev ans i
𝜋
0 4300 2730 rad

×
𝜔 .
𝜃 =
2 2 0 2582 = =
2 . = = . ( . )
Again
𝛼 × . 𝜋
0
2 t
𝜔 +𝜔
𝜃 =
t 02 2 4300 2730 182 5092 s ans ii

𝜃 × .
450 260
⟹ = = = . ( . )
𝜋
𝜔 +𝜔
×
4. Example: The total mass of a wheel and axle is 27.2 kg The axle is 76 mm diameter and is supported
in horizontal bearings. A cord is wrapped around the axle, one end being fixed to it and the other end with
a hook attached hangs freely. In an experiment to determine the radius of gyrations of the wheel and axle
it was found that a force of 6.8 newtons on the cord was just sufficient to overcome friction. When this
force is removed and a mass of 3 kg is suspended from the hook, it falls through 1.25 metres in 10 seconds
from rest. Calculate the radius of gyration from this experiment.
Solution:
m2 27 2kg
= .
Wheel Axle
m1 3kg =
s 1 25m = .
5
u vt Here
s s 1 25 m
,
+
=
2 t 10 s
= .
v 2s 2 1 25 × .
0 25 m s uv 0 m s
=
t 10
= /
= = = . /
= ?
Here
v 0 25 Diameter of axle D 76 mm
,
0 038 Radius of axle r 76 38 mm

. , =
∴ 𝜔 =
r =
0 038 m
2
.
, = = = .
Work-Energy Theorem:
Ek W
1 m1v12 1 I 2 -0
𝛥 =
∴
2 +
2 𝜔 = m1gs - fs
1 m1v12 1 m2 k 2 2 3 9 81 1 25-6 8 1 25
2 +
2 𝜔 = × . × . . × .
1 m1v12 1 m2 k 2 2 28 29 J
2 +
2 𝜔 = .
1 m2 k 2 2 28 29 - 12 m1v12
2 𝜔 = .
28 29 - 12 m1v12
k2
.
=
1m 2
2 2 𝜔
k ∴ = 218 9 mm .
6. The total mass of a flywheel and shaft is 2.54 tonne, the radius of gyration is 686 mm and it is running
at 150 rev/min. The torque required to overcome friction at the bearings is 27 Nm. Find (i) the kinetic
energy stored in the wheel and shaft, (ii) the energy lost per revolution due to friction, (iii) the number of
revolutions made in coming to rest when uncoupled from the driving motor, (iv) the time to come to rest.
[p-104, f19]
Solution:
Here ,
2
K E 12 I 2 12 mk2 2
. = 𝜔 = 𝜔 =
1 2 54 103 0 6862 150 2
2 × . ×
60 × . ×
× 𝜋
= 147465 9341
. = 147 47 kJ ans i
. ( . )
Energy lost in friction in 1 rev = 2 rad angular displacement

𝜋
= Tfriction 27 2× 𝜃 = × 𝜋 = 169 6 J ans ii

. ( . )
Here
150 2 rad s
,
× 𝜋
𝜔0 =
60 /
0 rad s rest
Tfriction 27
𝜔 = / ( )
Here , 𝛼
I =
2 54 =
. × 103 0 6862
× .
= 0 0225 rad s2
. /
2 o2 -2
𝜃 = ?
𝜔 = 𝜔 𝛼𝜃
150 2 2
o2 60
5483 1135 rad 54832 1135
× 𝜋
𝜃 =
𝜔
2 𝛼
=
2 0 0225
× .
= . =
.
𝜋
= 872 6646 rev ans iii
. ( . )
6
Again ,
0
2 t
𝜔 +𝜔
𝜃 =
t 2 0 2 5483
=
150 2
𝜔
1135 698 1316 s
𝜃
=
×
× 𝜋
.
= . =
698 1316 min
60
.
= 11 6355 min
.
60
5. The mass of the flywheel of a shearing machine is 1220 kg and its radius of gyration is 0.58 m.
(i) Find the accelerating torque required to attain a speed of 200 rev/min from rest in 60 seconds,
(ii) If the speed falls from 200 to 180 rev/min during the cutting stroke of 150 mm, find the average
cutting force exerted assuming the whole of the work done during the cutting stroke is due to the kinetic
energy given out by the flywheel. [p-103, f18]
Solution:
Here,
Here
- 0 200 260 - 0 0 349 rad s2 200 rpm
,
𝜋
Angular acceleration 0 0 rpm rest

𝜔 𝜔 × 𝜔 =
, 𝛼 =
t 2 60 = = . /
1220 0 58 0 349 143 2 Nm Ans i k 01220

m kg
𝜔 = [ ]
T I mk2
∴ = 𝛼 = 𝛼 = × . ×
58 m
. = . . ( )
=
= .
Now:
Work-Energy theorem:
Final Kinetic Energy - Initial Kinetic Energy Work done during cutting
1 I 22 - 1 I 12 -F s
=
2 2 𝜔 𝜔 = ×
Work on the cutter is negative since the cutting force is opposite to the direction of displacement
of the cutter
[ ,
1 mk2 22 - 12 -F s
]
2 𝜔 𝜔 = ×
1 mk 2 2 - 2 1 1220 0 58 2 200 2 2 - 180 2 2 𝜋 𝜋
2 60 60
F 2 s1 2
× × . × ×
114015 8925 N 114 015 kN

𝜔 𝜔
=
150 10-3
=
×
= . ≈ .
8. An engine is designed to develop 10 kW of power at a mean speed of 1000 rev/min. Find the moment
of inertia, in kg m2, of a suitable flywheel, assuming a speed variation of 1.5% of the mean speed and an ±
energy fluctuation equal to 0.9 of the work done per revolution. [p-104, f21]
Solution:
Mean speed = 2 1000 104 7 rad s 𝜋×
60 = . /
Max speed = 104 7 1 015 106 3 rad s

Min speed = 104 7 0 985 103 rad s
. × . = . /
. × . = /
The fluctuation of energy = 0 9 the work done per revolution

0 9 workrevdoneminute
minute
. ×
/
= . ×
0 9 10 1000
103 60
/
× ×
= . ×
7
= 540 J
Also,
fluctuation of energy I 1- 2 = 𝜔(𝜔 𝜔 )
∴ 540 I 104 72 106 3-103

= × . ×( . )
∴ I 1 612 kgm Ans

= . [ .]
4. Rolling
7. A solid cylindrical roller starts from rest and rolls a distance of 2.286 m down an incline in 3 seconds.
Calculate the angle of the incline given that k r 2 . [p-104, f20] = /
n
Motio
2 286 m u 0m s
s 0 rad s
. = /
s o
t 3
=
𝜔 = /
v = ? ms
/ h
𝜔 = ? rad s
/
𝛼 = ?
𝛼 = ?
Here,
h = s ⋅ sin(𝛼)
Firstly,
s u v t
+
=
2 ×
v 2 s 2 2 286 1 524 m s
× × .
=
t 3 = = . /
Now:
From Work-Energy Theorem:
Final Kinetic Energy - Initial Kinetic Energy Work done on the mass
1 mv2 1 mk2 2 - 0 mgh
=
2 2 + 𝜔 =
v2 r2 2 2gh k r
2
2
+ 𝜔 = ∵ =
v2 v2 2gh
2
+ = r v [ ∵ 𝜔 = ]
v2 32 2gh
× =
h 3v4g 34 19524
2 2
81 0 1775 m
× .
= = = .
s 0 1775
× .
0 1775 0 0776
× sin 𝛼 = .
.
sin 𝛼 =
2 286
-1 0 0776
= .
4 45
.
𝛼 = sin ( . ) = . °
5. Gear
8
C = Circumference of the gear
N = Number of teeth
r = Radius
p = pitch
C p N= ×
C 2r = 𝜋
N2
N1 N = Number of teeth
n = angular velocity [rev/min]
n2 n1 N1 n1 n2 N2
=
Follower Driver
Example: One gear wheel with 100 teeth of 6 mm pitch running at 250 rev/min drives another which has
50 teeth. If the power transmitted is 0.5 kW, find the driving force on the teeth and the speed of the
driven wheel.
P T
500 T 25060 2
= 𝜔
× 𝜋
= ×
T 250500 60 Nm ×
∴ =
2
We know
× 𝜋
Circumference C pitch No of Teeth

, = × . = 6 100
× = 600 mm = 06m
.
Radius r 2C 02 6 m
, =
𝜋
=
.
Torque Force radius

T Fr
= ×
F Tr
=
500 60
250 2
×
× 𝜋
=
06
2
.
200 N Ans i
𝜋
= ( . )
9
N1 n1 N2 n2 Here
n2 n1 NN12
=
250 100 N Number of teeth

,
⟹ = × = ×
50 = 500 rpm Ans ii
( . )
n rev min
=
=
10
Applied Mechanics
Ch-05 Centripetal Acceleration
Prepared by-
Overview:
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
Balancing of rotating bodies
Governor
Simple Harmonic Motion
1. Centripetal and Centrifugal Force
v The force that is required to keep a body moving in

v a circular path at uniform speed is called Centripetal force
, .
FC
Fc mvr m 2r
r 2
= = 𝜔
Centripetal force always acts toward the center

𝜔
Centrifugal Force is a force that acts on a rotating body in a direction away from the center from the
perspective of the rotating body. Example: the outward force you feel when you are rotating in a merry-go-
round.
FG mv2 m 2r
=
r = 𝜔
1
For understanding the difference between the centripetal and centrifugal force: watch this video
2. Balancing of rotating bodies

1. Example: Two masses are fixed at right angles to each other on a disc which is to rotate, one is 3kg at
a radius of 125 mm from the centre of rotation and the other is 4 kg at 150 mm radius. Find the position
to fix a balance mass of 7 kg to equalise the centrifugal force.
m2 = 4kg
r2 = 150mm
m3 r3
𝜃
r1 125mm
m2 r2
m1 = 3kg
=
𝜃
m1 r1
Vector Diagram
m3
m3 7 kg given
= [ ]
From Pythagorean Theorem

m1 r1 2 m2 r2 2 m3 r3 2
:
( ) +( ) = ( )
(3 125 2 4 150 2 7 r3 2
× ) +( × ) = ( × )
r3 3 125 2 4 150 2 101 0783 mm

( × ) +( × )
=
72 = .
m1r1 3 125 0 625 ×

tan 𝜃
m2r2 4 150
= =
×
= .
∴ 𝜃 = 32 °
The 7kg counter balance should be placed at a radius of 101 mm at 32 90 ( °+ °) = 122 to the 3kg mass
°
( ans .)
HW Three masses, x, y and z, are to rotate in the same plane at the same angular velocity. Their masses
and radii from centre of rotation are, respectively 9 kg at 400 mm radius, 10 kg at 350 mm, and 12 kg at
250 mm. Calculate the angles between them so that they will balance.
2
y = 10kg
0
0 25
.
12 × 𝛼
𝛽
10 0 35
× .
9 04
× .
x = 9kg Vector Diagram

z = 12 kg
From cosine law:
cos a2 b2 -c2
+
𝛼 =
2ab = ...?
From sine law:

...
3. Governor
Objective: Governor acts as speed controller. If the load increases on a engine, the speed drops. To
maintain constant speed, fuel intake should increase. As speed drops, governor lets the throttle valve to open
more so as to increase the fuel intake. Similarly, if load decreases, speed increases, governor lets the throttle
valve to close to reduce the fuel intake so that speed can remain constant.
Watch Video
3.1. Porter Governor
Watch video
FC F h w r W 2r
. × = × +
2 ×
m 2r h mg r Mgr
h mgm Mg g m M
𝜔 × = × +
+ +
=
2 𝜔
=
𝜔
2 m
instantaneous center of rotation
3
2. Example: The links of a porter governor are each 230 mm long. The mass of the central load and
sleeve is 14 kg and the mass of each bob is 2 kg. When the governor rotates at maximum speed the links
make an angle of 60 to the vertical. Calculate (1)the maximum speed and; (2) the change of height when
°
the speed falls to 200 rev/min.
l
h 230 60
=
60
32
= cos °
0
°
mm
h mg Mg g m M
+ +
=
m2 𝜔
2 m =
𝜔
2 gm M+ 9 81 2 14 682 4
. +
𝜔 =
h m 230 10 -3=
60 2 × = .
26 1227
× × cos °
𝜔 = 682 4 26 1227 rad s

. = .
2 60 rpm 249 4534 rpm
/ =
.
𝜋
× = .
When the speed is 200 rpm:

h2 g m M + 9 81
. 2 14 0 1789 m 178 9 mm
+
2 m 2
=
2 =
2 × = . = .
𝜔
200 260
×
𝜋
Change in height = h1 -h2 230 - 178 9 51 1 mm

= . = .
9. The two balls of a Porter governor each have a mass of 2.25 kg. Assuming all links to be the same
length, find the mass of the central load so that the change in height will be 25 mm when the speed
changes from 240 to 270 rev/min.
3.2. Hartnell Governor

Watch video
4
FCF FCF FCF
1S h w w
2
x
3. Example: In a Hartnell governor the mass of each bob is 1.5 kg. From the bell-crank lever fulcrum the
length of the vertical arms to the centre of the bob is 120 mm and the length of the horizontal arms is 60
mm. When running at 300 rev/min the radius of rotation of the bobs is 80 mm, and at 320 rev/min the
radius is 115 mm. Find the stiffness of the spring in newtons per millimetre of compression. Neglect the
effect of angularity of the arms from their respective vertical and horizontal positions.
4. Simple Harmonic Motion

Equilibrium
k
Fapplied T 2 m
= 𝜋
k
x
f T1= =
1 k
2 m𝜋
2f k
𝜔 = 𝜋 =
m
Frestoring kx
=
5
A A
a 2A
v 0
= 𝜔
a 0
v A
=
= 𝜔
a 2A
v 0
= 𝜔
The stiffness of a close-coiled helical spring is such that it deflects 36 mm when an axial force of 10 N is
applied on the end hook. Calculate the mass to be hung on the hook so that, when set vibrating, it will
make one complete oscillation per second. The mass of the spring is 0.6 kg and the effect of this when
vibrating is to be taken as equivalent to a mass on the end hook equal to one-third of the mass of the
spring. Calculate also the maximum velocity and maximum acceleration of the vibrating mass when initially
displaced 12 mm from the equilibrium
Solution:
F kx
k Fx 10
=
=
36 N mm N m ans
= / = ? / ( .)
Now
mtotal m mspring
:
=
3 +
T 2 mtotal k = 𝜋
1 2 totalm
k = 𝜋
mtotal 4 2k
m mspring
⟹ = 𝜋
3 4 k
∴ +
2 = 𝜋
m 4 2k - mspring
3
= 𝜋
ans = ? ( .)
A 12 mm
=
k
𝜔 =
m = ?
vmax A = 𝜔 = ?
amax 2A = 𝜔 = ?
6
4. Example. A machine component of 2.25 kg mass moves with simple harmonic motion, the amplitude
being 380 mm. If it makes 120 oscillations per minute, find (i) the maximum accelerating force, (ii) the
accelerating force when the displacement is 250 mm from mid-travel.
5. Example. A helical spring with a mass of 6 kg has a mass of 10 kg attached to its free end. The mass
is now pulled down 40 mm from the equilibrium position and then released. (i) If the spring stiffness is 532
N/m find the frequency of oscillation. (ii) Determine also the kinetic energy of the mass when it is 30 mm
from the equilibrium position.
6. A push-rod moves with simple harmonic motion driven by an eccentric sheave running at 90 rev/min,
the full travel of the rod being 50 mm. Calculate its velocity and acceleration when it is 6 mm from the
beginning of its travel.
7. The effective force on the piston of a vertical diesel engine when passing top dead centre is 800 KN,
the mass of the reciprocating parts is 1524 kg, the length of the stroke is 1100 mm, and the engine is
running at 120 rev/min. Assuming the motion of the reciprocating parts to be simple harmonic, find the
effective thrust on the crosshead at the beginning of the down stroke.
10. A helical spring has a stiffness of 25 kN/m. If a mass of 100 kg is attached to its free end, pulled
down, and then released, determine the periodic time of its motion. If the maximum deflection was 50
mm, find the velocity and acceleration of the mass when it is 30 mm from the equilibrium position.
11. A cam rotates at 3 rev/s and imparts a vertical lift of 60 mm to a follower of mass 2 kg. The follower
moves with S.H.M. and the lift of the follower is completed in one-third of a revolution of the Cam.
Calculate (a) the maximum acceleration of the follower and (b) the maximum force between cam and
follower..
7
Applied Mechanics
Ch-06 Sliding Friction
Prepared by-
Overview:
Inclined Plane: Force along the inclined plane, Horizontal Force and Minimum Force
Wedge and Cotter
Screw
1. Friction Basics
f f
𝜇 =
N
R N f 𝜙
N
𝜙 tan 𝜙 =
N R
Motion
f
𝜇 = tan 𝜙
Body Body
Surface R f N
= +

Here,
f Frictional Force
=
N Normal Force
R Reaction force Resultant of f and N forces
=
= =
Angle of friction angle N R

Coefficient of Friction Nf
𝜙 = = ( , )
𝜇 = = = tan 𝜙
So, f and N are components of R force.

F force is applied on the body of weight W, Reaction force R acts at an angle of with the 𝜙
normal.
If the forces are balanced, the body will be in uniform motion.
F
At Equilibrium
R F W 0
:
R 𝜙
W + + =
Motion
Body
2. Inclined Plane
W 90 -
𝛼
n
si
° 𝛼
W mg
=
W so
c
𝛼
𝛼
y 𝛼
90 -
° 𝛼
𝛼
x
𝛼
Weight force W can be divided into components.

One is in the direction of incline plane. Wx W = sin 𝛼
Other is in the direction of the normal to the plane. Wy = W cos 𝛼
2.1. Finding acceleration

∑ Fx W -f max
∑ Fy
+← = sin 𝛼 =
n W 𝛼
N-W may
Motio
s + ↑ = cos 𝛼 =
co
f 90 -
y 𝛼
W sin
𝛼
° 𝛼
𝛼
x N
𝛼
∑ Fx F-W -f max
∑ Fy
+ → = sin 𝛼 =
n W 𝛼 N-W may
Motio
s + ↑ = cos 𝛼 =
co
F 90 -
y ° 𝛼
W
𝛼
f
𝛼
sin
𝛼
x N
𝛼
A body of 20 kg mass is held at the top of an incline of 23 degrees, the coefficient of friction between
body and surface of the incline is 0.4. Find the time taken for the body to slide down the incline a distance
of 6 metres after it is released from rest. (p-150 Example)
W n
Motio
s 𝛼
co
f m
W sin
𝛼
s 6 = u = 0m s
/
N
m 20 kg
04
=
𝜇 = .
𝛼 = 23 °
Since the body is not moving in the y direction.

N-W cos 𝛼may 0
= =
N W = cos 𝛼
f f N W
𝜇
N
= ⟹ = 𝜇 = 𝜇 cos 𝛼
Along the x direction:

W - f ma
W - W ma
sin 𝛼 =
sin 𝛼 𝜇 cos 𝛼 =
a W -m W
=
sin 𝛼 mg
𝜇 cos 𝛼
=
sin 𝛼 - mg
m
𝜇
g
cos 𝛼
= sin 𝛼 - g 𝜇 cos 𝛼
a g -
= (sin 𝛼 9 81
𝜇 cos 𝛼) = . × (sin 23 - 0 4 23
° . cos °) = 0 2210 m s2
. /
Now:
s ut 12 at2
= +
6 0 t 12 0 2210 t2
= × + × . ×
t 7 369 s
= .
Define 'Coefficient of Friction'. A piece of machinery of mass 100 kg was pulled up an inclined plane which
rises 62.5 mm per metre up the incline. If the work done to pull it a distance of 15 m up the incline was
2.43 kJ, find the coefficient of friction. [Class-2, 11]
Coefficient of Friction: Coefficient of Friction is the ratio of frictional force to Normal force acting on a body.
f
𝜇 =
N
" rises 62 5 mm per metre up the incline means if we go 1m up the incline we rise 62 5 mm
. " , . .
mg co
s𝛼
F n
Motio m
mg s 15
𝛼
sin
=
f N W = 2 43kJ
.
m 100 kg=
𝜇 = ?
000 mm
𝛼
1 62 5 mm
1m =
62 5 mm . sin 𝛼 =
.
1000 mm
𝛼 = 3 58
. °
Here ,
Balancing the forces along the normal to the incline plane .
N mgcos = 𝛼
∴ f N mgcos = 𝜇 = 𝜇 𝛼
F force is applied up the incline.

Balancing the forces along the incline plane:
F = f mg+ sin 𝛼
Now: Work done by the force F on the body:

W F s
W f mg s
= ×
W mg mg s
= ( + sin 𝛼)
2 43 103 100 9 81 3 58 100 9 81 3 58 15

= (𝜇 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼)
. × = (𝜇 × × . × cos . °+ × . × sin . °) ×
Solving for
0 1028
𝜇 :
𝜇 = .
A body of 25 N weight on an inclined plane is connected by a cord to another of 50 N weight which is in a

higher position on the same inclined plane, and the connecting cord is parallel to the plane. The
coefficients of friction between the bodies and the plane are 0.15 and 0.3 respectively. If the inclination of
the plane is such that the connected system is just on the verge of sliding, find the angle of the incline and
the tension in the cord. (p-159, 12)
W2 50 N =
W 2sin 𝛼
W1 25 N
T T
=
f2
W1sin 2 03 𝜇 = .
f1𝛼
1 0 15
𝜇 = .
When the bodies are on the verge of sliding

f1 f2 W1sin W2sin
:
+ = 𝛼 + 𝛼
𝜇 1 W1 cos 2 W2 cos
𝛼+𝜇 sin W1 W2 𝛼 = 𝛼( + )
cos 1W1 2W2 sin W1 W2

1 W1 2 W2
𝛼(𝜇 +𝜇 ) = 𝛼 ( + )
sin𝛼 (𝜇 +𝜇0 15 25 0 3 50) . × + . ×
cos =
W1 W2 25 50 =
tan -10 25
𝛼 ( + ) +
𝛼 = .
𝛼 = tan 0 25 14 03
( . ) = . °
Forces on the body 1 along the inclined plane when in equilibrium

W1sin -T -f1 0
( ) :
𝛼 =
T W1sin - f1 W1sin - 1W1cos 25 sin14 03 - 0 15 cos14 03

= 𝛼 = 𝛼 𝜇 𝛼 = ( . ° . . °)
2 42 N = .
3. Horizontal Force
FH up
,
y angle of friction angle N R

angle of incline angle W N
𝜙 = = ( , )
W 𝛼 = = ( , )
R x
𝜙
FH up W
𝛼
, = tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
𝜇 = tan 𝜙
𝜙 = tan
-1 (𝜇)
𝛼
FH down
yW FH down W -
,
,
= tan(𝜙 𝛼)
𝛼
R
𝜙 x
4. Minimum Force
Fmin Fmin up W
,
= sin(𝜙 + 𝛼)
W Fmin
𝛼
R 𝜙
𝜙
For minimum applied force R and F must be perpendicular to each other

, .
Fmin
W Fmin down W - , = sin(𝜙 𝛼)
R 𝛼
A load of 224 N rests on a plane inclined at 15 degrees to the horizontal, the coefficient of friction
between load and plane being 0.24. Find (i) the magnitude and direction of the minimum force that will
pull the load up the incline, (ii) the magnitude of the force required to pull the load up if it is applied
horizontally. (p-159, f15)
Solution:
tan 𝜙 = 𝜇
-1 0 24 13 49
Fmin up W 224 13 49 15 106 8491 N ans i
𝜙 = tan ( . ) = . °
= sin(𝜙 + 𝛼) = × sin( . °+ °) = . ( . )
The minimum force is at an angle of 13 49 with the plane

,
. ° .
FH up
,
= W tan(𝜙 + 𝛼) = 224 13 49 15 121 5714 N ans ii
tan( . °+ °) = . ( . )
Wtan Horizontal Up
W - Horizontal Down
(𝜙 + 𝛼) ;
F =
W
tan(𝜙 𝛼) ;
Minimum Up angle with the plane

W - Minimum Down angle with the plane
sin(𝜙 + 𝛼) ; ; 𝜙
sin(𝜙 𝛼) ; ; 𝜙
5. Wedge and Cotter

A steel wedge is tapered equally on both sides. The length is 400 mm, thickness at butt end 55 mm,
thickness at sharp end 5 mm. If it is driven between an engine bedplate and the stools with a driving force
of 4.5 kN, find the lifting effect, taking the coefficient of friction as 0.15. (p-153, example)
400 mm 55 - 5 mm
𝛼 2 2
400 mm
Wtan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
55 - 5
tan 2 2
𝛼
55 mm
𝛼
400
=
2 5 mm
𝛼
F
𝛼 = 3 14 . °
-1
0 15
𝜙 = tan 𝜇
W -1
85
tan(𝜙 + 𝛼) = tan ( . )
= . °
F 2Wtan
W 2tan F
= (𝜙 + 𝛼)
=
(𝜙 + 𝛼)
W 45
.
10 92 kN ans
=
2 8 5 3 14
tan( . ° + . °)
= . ( .)
A cotter is driven into a plug and socket connection by a force of 500 N. The cotter has a taper of 1 in 10
equally divided between the two edges, and the coefficient of friction is 0.18. Find (i) the force holding the
plug and socket together, (ii) the force required to drive the cotter out. (p-159, f16)
1
𝛼
2
W tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
10
1
𝛼
2 1
2
tan 𝛼 =
10 20 =
Cotter -1 1
𝛼
20 2 86
F=500N ∴ 𝛼 = tan = . °
W -1 0 18 10 2
tan 𝜙 = 𝜇
tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
𝜙 = tan
-1 (𝜇) = tan ( . ) = . °
F 2W
500 2 W 10 2 2 86
= tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
W 2 105002 2 86 1077 7187 N ans

= × × tan( . + . )
= = . ( .)
tan( . + . )
W tan(𝜙 - 𝛼)
2𝛼
𝛼
F=?N Fcotter out 2W -

2 1077 7187 10 2 -2 86
= tan(𝜙 𝛼)
277 6475 N
= × . × tan( . ° . °)
W tan(𝜙 - 𝛼)
= .
A propeller wedge is tapered on one side and flat on the other, the taper being 1 in 40. Find the force
driving the propeller off its shaft when the wedge is driven in with a force of 1.5 kN, the coefficient of
friction is to be taken as 0.2. (p-159, f17)
1 1 43
Finclined Wtan
= (𝜙 + 𝛼)
tan 𝛼 =
40 , ∴ 𝛼 = . °
1 11 31
40 F 1 5kN
= .
tan 𝜙 = 𝜇 , ∴ 𝜙 = . °
F Fflat Finclined
Fflat W 1 5kN W W
= +
1 5kN 0 2 W W 11 31 1 43
= 𝜇 . = 𝜇 + tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
W 0 2 111 531 1 43 3 52kN ans

. = . × + tan( . °+ . °)
.
= = . ( .)
. + tan( . °+ . °)
6. Screw
F W = tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
l
F W
𝛼
l 𝜋D
l 𝛼
tan
𝛼 =
D
𝜋
r
Torque, T = F r
× = W tan(𝜙 + 𝛼) × r
F
Here,
l = Lead = Linear travel per one screw revolution
p = Pitch = Spacing from one thread to the next
Single Start Double Start Triple Start Quad Start
p l
=
l l l
p p p
Single Start l p
Double Start l 2p
→ =
Triple Start l 3p
→ =
Quad Start l 4p
→ =
→ =
Fapplied Fhorizontal W
Work input F D W D
= = tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
Work output W l
= × 𝜋 = tan(𝜙 + 𝛼) × 𝜋
Work output W l tan lD

= ×
Efficiency of screw Work input W

= 𝜂 = =
×
D 𝛼 =
Wtan D l tan D
tan(𝜙 + 𝛼) × 𝜋 𝜋
𝛼 ×𝜋 = 𝛼 × 𝜋
=
Wtan D
tan(𝜙 + 𝛼) × 𝜋
𝛼
=
tan (𝜙 + 𝛼)
A single start square thread has a mean diameter of 50 mm and a pitch of 12.5 mm. The coefficient of
friction between the screw and nut is 0.15. Find the efficiency of the thread when lifting a load of 4.5 kN
and the torque required. (p-159, f18)
tan 𝛼
𝜂 =
tan
l 12 5
(𝜙 + 𝛼)
.
tan 𝛼 =
D =
50
4 55
𝜋 𝜋×
∴ 𝛼 = . °
𝜙 = tan
-1 (𝜇) = tan
-1 0 15
( . ) = 8 53
. °
Now:
tan
𝛼 4 55
tan( . °)
0 3425 34 25 ans
𝜂 =
tan(𝜙 + 𝛼)
=
8 53 4 55
tan( . °+ . °)
= . = . % ( .)
Finding Torque:
F Wtan
50 10-3
= (𝛼 + 𝜙)
T Fr Wtan
= = (𝛼 + 𝜙) × r = 4 5 103
. × 4 55 8 53
× tan( . °+ . °) ×
×
2 = 26 14 Nm ans
. ( .)
Applied Mechanics
Ch-07 Moments
Prepared by-
Overview:
Moments and Forces
Center of Gravity
Finding 2nd moment of area: Parallel Axis Theorem
1. Finding Force and Moments
r
Moment about O Mo
, = F r
×
O F
r F cos 𝜃 Moment about O Mo

, = F sin 𝜃 × r
O 𝜃
F sin 𝜃
F
To apply the least force for same amount of torque
F should be perpendicular to the moment arm r 90
,
. → 𝜃 = °
F Taking anticlockwise direction as positive

O Moment about O Mo Fr -mg 2r , = ×
:
mg
When the body is in equilibrium
Sum of moments about a point on the body will be zero
:
M0 0
.
1
O r ⟂
F M0 F r
Where r Perpendicular distance from point O
= × ⟂
on the line of action of force F

, ⟂ =
A connecting rod is 2100 mm long between its top and bottom end centres, its weight is 9.24 kN, and its
centre of gravity is at 1170 mm from the top end. If it hangs freely from the top, find the least force
required at the bottom end to pull it 700 mm out of the vertical. Find also the force required if it is
applied in a horizontal direction. (p-184, 5)
Solution:
For Least Force:
A ABC and ADG are similar triangles
A DG AG
BC AC
1
=
071
DG AG 1170
AC BC 2100 700
012
G
m
D
m
= × = ×
0
390 mm
mm
D G B C
B F
C
700 mm
Moments about A :
MA 0 =
⟹ mg rG -F rF 0
× × =
9 24 390 - F 2100 0
F 1 716 kN
⟹ . × × =
∴ = .
For Horizontal Force:
2
A From2 Pythagorean theorem
1
AC 2 BC2 2 AB2 2
:
0 71
AB AC -BC
012 = +
mm
=
0
AB 21002 -7002
mm
AB 1980 mm
=
G =
B` C`
700 mm FH
Moments about A
MA 0
:
⟹ mg rG -F 1980 0
× × =
⟹ 9 24 390 - F 1980 0
. × × =
∴ F 1 82 kN
= .
A solid hemisphere of mass 25 kg rests with its curved surface on a rough inclined plane. A downward
force of 65 N is exerted on the periphery of the flat surface of the hemisphere to maintain it in equilibrium
with its flat surface horizontal. Find the angle of the incline. [Class-2, 19]
W r 65 N
C W 25 9 81 N
245 2 N
= × .
= .
O A
O r-r
'
r
sin 𝛼
sin 𝛼
𝛼 = ?
Moment about O
W r - F r-r 0
:
× sin 𝛼 ×( sin 𝛼) =
W F 1-
W F-F
⟹ × sin 𝛼 = ( sin 𝛼)
⟹ × sin 𝛼 = sin 𝛼
W F F
F 65
⟹ ( + )sin 𝛼 =
⟹ sin 𝛼
W F =
245 2 65 0 2095
= = .
-1 0 2095 12 6 ans
+ . +
⟹ 𝛼 = sin ( . ) = ° ' ( .)
3
The stroke of the piston of an internal combustion engine is 1040 mm and the length of the connecting
rod is 1960 mm. At the instant the crank is 45° past top dead centre, the total effective force on the
piston is 196 kN. Find the force on the guide in this position and the turning moment on the crank. [Class-
2, 80]
Fp s 1040mm
r 2s 1040
=
FG ∴
2 520 mm
= = =
Fc 𝜙
mm
𝜙
06
Fp 196kN
91
Fc
=
=
l
Fp
= ?
𝛼
r 45 °
cos 𝜙 =
Fc
520
=
Fc FP
mm
FG
=
cos 𝜙
= ?

From Space Diagram:
Sine Rule:
l r
45 =
1960 520
sin ° sin 𝜙
45 =
10 81
sin ° sin 𝜙
180 - 45 - 10 81 124 19
∴ 𝜙 = . °
∴ 𝛼 = ° ° . ° = . °

FG
tan 𝜙
FP
=
FG Fp 196 10 81 37 4244 kN ans i

F
∴ = × tan 𝜙 = × tan . ° = . ( . )
Fc P 196
=
cos 𝜙10 81 199 54 kN
=
cos . °
= .
𝛼
𝛼
Fc = ?
T = Fc r sin 𝛼 = 199 54 520

. × × sin 124 19 85828 7187 Nm
. ° = . = 85 83 kNm
.
4
2. Finding Center of Gravity
A bh
b
=
G h ⏨x =
2
Rectangle h
⏨y =
2
b
A 12 bh =
G h ⏨x b3 ⏨y h3
= ; =
b
Triangle
A 1 bh
=
2
h ⏨y h
G =
3
b
A r2
⏨x 0
= 𝜋
r
⏨y 0
=
Circle G
=
A 𝜋r2
=
24r
Semicircle
G r ⏨y =
3 𝜋
5
A 4r
2 𝜋
=
Quarter Circle G ⏨x ⏨y 34r

= =
r
𝜋
h V r2h
⏨x h2
= 𝜋
Cylinder r
=
Sphere G
r V 43 r3
= 𝜋
V 2 r3
Hemisphere G r =
3𝜋
⏨y 3r
=
8
2.1. Finding centroid of multiple shapes:
⏨x or ⏨y ∑ moments
=
of Masses Volume Areas
total Mass Volume Area /
/
/
/
m1 ⏨x 1 m2 ⏨x 2
⏨x
+
=
m1 m2
V1 ⏨x 1 V2 ⏨x 2 If density is same
+
𝜌 +𝜌
=
V1 V2 [ ]
V1 ⏨x 1 V2 ⏨x 2
𝜌( + )
+
=
V V2
tA11⏨x 1 tA x 2 If thickness is same
2⏨
( + )
+
=
tA A [ ]
A1 ⏨x 1 1 A2 ⏨x2 2
( + )
+
=
A1 A2
( + )
6
⏨x1 m1 ⏨x2 m2
±
m1 m2
±
⏨x ⏨x1 VV11 V⏨x22V2

=
±
±
; When the parts are uniformly densed
⏨x1 A1 ⏨x2 A2
±
When the parts are flat with uniform thickness
A1 A2
±
;
⏨y1 m1 ⏨y2 m2
±
m1 m2
±
⏨y ⏨y1 VV11 V⏨y22V2

=
±
±
; When the parts are uniformly densed
⏨y1 A1 ⏨y2 A2
±
When the parts are flat with uniform thickness
A1 A2
±
;
When there is a hole

, its area is subtracted from the total area Put - minus sign before hole area
. ( ) .
All distances must be measured from a definite reference axis.

Example:
G2 2
G
( )
⏨x 1 10cm
y⏨1 5 cm
=
G1 1 ( ) 10cm A1 = 10 20 200cm2
× =
20cm
Rectangle + ⏨x 2 10 cm
⏨y 2 10 4 3 10
=
Semicircle ×
= +
𝜋
A2 2 102 50 cm2
=
𝜋
× = 𝜋
∴ ⏨x 10 200
=
× 10 50 10 cm
+
200 50 4 10
+
×
𝜋
𝜋
=
5 200 10 3 50 ×
⏨y 9 0665 cm
× + + × 𝜋
𝜋
=
200 50 + 𝜋
= .
7
1
5cm ⏨x 1 10cm
( )
20cm
=
y⏨1 10 cm
2
=
( )
A1 = 20 20 400cm2
× =
20cm
Rectangle + quarter ⏨x 2 = 10 43 5 cm
+
×
circular hole in the

middle ⏨y 2 = 10 - 43 5 cm ×
1 52 25 cm2
𝜋
A2 =
4𝜋×
4 = 𝜋
10 400 - 10 43 5 × 25
4
⏨x 9 8904 cm
× + × 𝜋
𝜋
400- 254
∴ = = .
10 400- 10 - 43 5 × 25
4
⏨y 10 1095cm
× × 𝜋
𝜋
400- 254
= = .
Example. The pin of a fork-joint is 50 mm diameter, the shank is 100 mm long, and the head is a
hemisphere 72 mm diameter. A circular ring-washer 80 mm diameter and 20 mm thick is fitted on the
shank in such a position as to leave 70 mm between head and washer. The whole is of similar material.
Calculate the position of the centre of gravity of the assembly measured from the end of the shank. (p-170)
Solution:
8
V1 2 r13
23 363 97716 1 mm3 head 1
= 𝜋
( )
=
3 𝜋× = .
72mm
V2 r22h2 50mm
70mm
= 𝜋
252 100 196349 5 mm3 Pin 100 mm

Shank 2
= 𝜋× × = .
V3 ro2h3 - ri2h3 ro2 -ri2 h3

( )
= 𝜋 𝜋 = 𝜋
402 -252 20 61261 1 mm3 20mm ring 3

80 mm
( )
= 𝜋 × = .
3r1 100 mm
⏨y 1 10mm
=
8 +
3 36 100 mm 113 5 mm
×
=
8 + = .
⏨y 2 100 mm 50 mm
=
2 =
⏨y 3 20 10 20 mm
=
2 + =
⏨y y1V1 y2V2 y3V3 62 3 mm Ans

+ +
=
V1 V2 V3+ +
= . ( .)
Example. A circular plate of uniform thickness is 180 mm - diameter and has two circular holes cut out of
it. One hole is 30 mm diameter, its centre being at 60 mm from the plate centre, and the other hole is 60
mm diameter, its centre being at 50 mm from the plate centre. The centres of the two holes and the plate
lie - at the corners of a right-angled triangle. Find the position of the centre of gravity. (p-173)
A1 = r12 902
𝜋 = 𝜋
y A2 = r22 152
𝜋 = 𝜋
A3 r32 302
plate 1
= 𝜋 = 𝜋
⏨y 1 90 mm
( )
hole 2 ⏨y 2 90 mm
=
180 mm dia ⏨y 3 40 mm
( )
30 mm60 mm
=
⏨y 90 90 90-2 -15 15290- - 30302 40

50 mm 2
×𝜋
2 𝜋
2 × 𝜋 ×
=
hole 3 ( )
96 4516 mm
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
60 mm = .
⏨x 1 90 mm
=
x ⏨x 2 30 mm
=
⏨x 3 90 mm
=
⏨x 90 90 90-2 -15 15230- - 30302 90

2
×𝜋
2 𝜋
2 × 𝜋 ×
=
91 9354 mm
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= .
9
A steel plate of uniform thickness is in the form of a - trapezium ABCD with a circular hole cut out of it,
and lies flat on a horizontal table. Sides AD and BC are parallel to each other and at right angles to AB.
The dimensions of the plate are, AB = 90 mm, BC= 70 mm, and AD = 40 mm. The hole is 40 mm
diameter and its centre is 30 mm from AB and 40 mm from BC. Find (i) the position of the centre of
gravity of the plate measured from the sides AB and BC, and (ii) the initial force required at the corner C
to tilt the plate about the edge AB if the net weight of the plate is 46.6 N. (p-185, 14)
Solution:
C
D
B A
Centre of gravity about AB :
C 1 90 30 10 40 - 20 2 30
40 90 20 2
⏨y
× × + × × ×( + ) 𝜋 ×
40 90 12 90 30 - 202
=
× + × × 𝜋
D =27 5631 mm
.
70mm 40 mm
40 mm 40 mm Centre of gravity about BC :
30 mm
40 90 45 12 90 30 30 - 202 40
⏨x
× × + × × × 𝜋 ×
B A
90mm 40 90 12 90 30 - 202
=
× + × × 𝜋
=41 2184 mm
.
F mg
C
D
B A
Finding Force at C :
Moments about AB :
FC BC - mg ⏨y 0
FC mgBC ⏨y 46 6 7027 56 18 34 N Ans
× × =
× . × .
∴ = = = . ( .)
10
3. 2nd Moment of Area
Moment of Force F r
Moment of Area A r
= ×
r 2nd Moment of Area I r A r Ar2

= ×
A t m
= = × ( × ) =
Im I t
× ×𝜌 =
I Ar2
= ×𝜌×
= Moment of inertia Im mr2 = =
T Im = 𝛼
Note: Moment of Inertia and 2nd Moment of Area are not same,
Moment of Inertia = Im = mr 2 kgm 2
2nd Moment of Area = I = Ar 2 m 4
Im = 𝜌t × I where, 𝜌 = density, t = thickness
Iy 1 b3h
=
12
b
Rectangle G Ix 121 bh3
=
Iy 1 b3h
=
36
Ix 1 3
G h =
36 bh
b
Triangle
Ix 1 bh3
G h =
36
11
Iy =
64 d
𝜋
4
Circle G Ix 64 d
=
𝜋
4
3.1. Parallel Axis Theorem

b
h
G IG 1 bh3
y 12 =
I IG Ay2
= +
3.2. Polar Moment of Area
Iz = Ix Iy 121 b3h bh3

+ = +
Iy 1 b3h
=
12
h G 1 bh3
Ix =
12
b
12
Iz = Ix Iy 32 d4
+ =
𝜋
Iy =
64 d
𝜋
4
G Ix 64 d
=
𝜋
4
The 2nd moment of area of a triangle about its base is 1 BH 3 . Find the 2nd moment of the triangle
12
about an axis parallel to the base and passing through (i) its centroid, (ii) its apex. (p-185, 15)
A Apex According to 2Parallel Axis theorem

IB IG Ay
:
= +
2H 2
3 IB IG 12 BH H3
= + ×
H 1 BH3 IG BH3
H CG 12 18
= +
3 B Base
IG 12 BH3 - 18 BH3 BH3 121 - 181
1 =
1 =
BH3 ans i
36= ( . )
According to Parallel Axis theorem :
2nd Moment 2of Area about apex

IA IG Ay
:
= +
2
= +
1
IA IG 2 BH 3 ×
2H
BH3 BH3 2
136BH3 ans ii 9
= +
=
4 ( . )
3.3. 2nd Moment of Area of composite body:
13
2nd moments of areas of multiple bodies can be added or subtracted
when they are calculated about the same axis
2
.
( )
I = I1 I2 -I3
+
3
1
( )
( )
The overall depth of an I section girder is 230 mm, the top flange is 120 mm wide and 20 mm thick, the
bottom flange is 160 mm wide and 30 mm thick, and the centre web is 15 mm thick. Given that the 2nd
moment of a rectangular area about an axis passing through its centroid and parallel to the base is
1 BD3 calculate the 2nd moment of the I section (a) about its base, (6) about an axis through the centre
12
of gravity and parallel to the base. (p-186, 16)
I1G 121 203 120 mm4

= ×
120 mm
I2G 121 1803 15 mm4
= ×
20 mm (1)
=
1
I3G 12 303 160 mm4 ×
15 mm
I1 I1G A1y12
= + 180 mm (2)
1 203 120 120 20 30 180 10 2
=
12 × + × ×( + + )
I2 I2G A2y22
= +
1 1803 15 180 15 30 90 2 30 mm (3)

=
12 × + × ×( + )
I3 I3G A3y32
= +
160 mm
1 303 160 30 160 152
=
12 × + × ×
I I1 I2 I3
= + + Ans= ? ( .)
Center of gravity of the I-girder from base

⏨y 120 2020 220 180 15 120 30 160 15
:
× × + × × + × ×
=
120 180 15 30 160
× + × + ×
= ?
Parallel Axis theorem :
I IG A⏨y 2
= +
IG I - A⏨y 2
= = ?
14
Applied Mechanics
Ch-08 Lifting Machines
Prepared by-
Overview:
Velocity Ratio, Mechanical Advantage, Efficiency
Differential Pulley Blocks, Compound Sheave
Hydraulic Jack
Screw Jack
Worm Wheel
Crab Winch
Plotting Effort, Efficiency Vs Load
1. Velocity Ratio, Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency of a Lifting Machine

Pulley
Wheel
D
d
Axle
Effort
P P Load
Load Effort W
W
Pulley
Wheel
D After 1 complete rotation of the pulley
d leffort
VR .
lload
=
D 𝜋
Axle =
d
D
𝜋
d =
Load
M A WP
. =
lload d
= 𝜋
W leffort = 𝜋D
Workoutput W d W d ×𝜋
𝜂 =
Workinput P D P D
= = ×
P MA
×𝜋
Effort VR
=
.
Velocity Ratio V R lleffort

=
load
. = =
distance moved by effort
distance moved by load
Mechanical Advantage M A W Load
= . =
P Effort
=
Efficieny Work output W lload M A

× .
= 𝜂
Work input
= =
P leffort V R
×
=
.
1.1. Ideal Load and Ideal Effort

When there is no friction in the system, the efficiency becomes 100%.
In a 100% efficient system, for a given effort, the amount of load that can be lifted is called the ideal load.
Similarly, in a 100% efficient system, for a given load, the amount of effort that is needed is called the ideal
effort.
In actual systems: Wactual Wideal and Pactual Pideal
< >
Ideal load Load when

= ( 𝜂 = 100%) Ideal effort effort when 100
= ( 𝜂 = %)
W lload
1 WPideal leffortlload 1 Pideal ×
leffort
×
𝜂 = =
𝜂 = =
×
×
Wideal P V R
= × .
Pideal VWR
=
.
Load Loss Wideal -Wactual

= Effort to overcome loss Pactual -Pideal
=
1.2. Effect of Snatch block

If we pull this rope by 10 cm, how much will the weight move?
fixed a) 10 cm
b) Less than 10 cm
c) More than 10 cm
Snatch Block = Moving pulley
l2 - y
fixed fixed
l2
l1 - y
l1
c y
c l1 -y c l2 -y x l1 l2 c
l1 l2 c Length of the rope y
( )+ +( )+ = + +
+ + =
l1 -y c l2-y x l1 l2 c
= ?
( )+ +( )+ = + +
x-2y 0
y 2x
⟹ =
⟹ =
1.3. Effect of Snatch block with both ends moving

x2
l2 l2 - y
x1
l1 l1 - x1 -y
c y
c
l1 l2 c constant l1 -x1 -y l2 -y x2 c l1 l2 c
y
+ + = ( )+( + ) + = + +
2y x2-x1
= ?
y x2 -x
=
2
1
2. Weston Differential Pulley blocks
P
D
𝜋
D 2D
V.R = 1 𝜋
D- d
=
D-d
𝜋 D 2 (𝜋 𝜋 )
d
𝜋
Example. (P.199) The diameters of the large and small pulleys of the compound sheave in a set of
differential pulley blocks are 120 mm and 110 mm respectively. Calculate the velocity ratio, mechanical
advantage and efficiency when lifting a load of 2.4 kN if the effort required is 250 N. Find also how much
effort is expended in friction.
Solution:
V R D-d 2D 2 120 24 ×
. =
120-110 = =
M A WP 2 425010 9 6
3 . ×
. = = = .
M A 9 6 0 4 40
. .
𝜂 =
V R 24 = =
. = %

P
W 2 4 10 3
.
Pideal V R =
24 = 100 N
. ×
=
D
𝜋
Effort lost in friction P-Pideal

.
250 - 100
∴ =
150 N
=
D
𝜋
d
=
𝜋
3. Hydraulic Jack
Since liquid is incompressible A B C
the volume of the liquid will not change
,
Ay ax =
x
x A
y a =
W Effort
V R xy Aa
. = = Plunger
Load
A Piston a
y x
Liquid
Taking leverage into account A B C
AC z
:
Leverage L AB =
x = = Fulcrum x z
Overall V R y x y L Aa
z z
.
x = = × = ×
W Effort
Plunger
Load
A Piston a
y x
Liquid
Example. (P.207) The diameters of the effort plunger and load piston of a hydraulic jack are 25 mm and
70 mm respectively. The plunger is operated by a lever, the distance from the fulcrum to the handle is 625
mm and from fulcrum to plunger is 50 mm. Calculate the velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and
efficiency if it takes a force of 80 N on the handle to lift a load of 5.88 kN.
Solution:
Leverage L Distance between Fulcrum to Handle 625 12 5
, =
Distance between Fulcrum to Plunger 50 = = .
D2
L Aa 12 5 4d2 12 5 Dd2 12 5 70252 98 ans
𝜋
2 2
Overall V R . = × = . ×
𝜋
= . × = . × = ( .)
4
M A WP
. =
5 88 103
. ×
=
80
73 5
MA
= .
.
𝜂 =
VR
.
73 5
.
=
98
= 0 75
.
= 75 %
4. Screw Jack
W L
V R lleffort
.
load
=
2L
p =
𝜋
M A WP
P
. =
Pitch p Workoutput W p × MA
.
Workinput P 2 L VR
=
𝜂 = = =
× 𝜋 .
4.1. Two Toggle Bars:

L2 L1
V R lleffort
.
load
=
2 L1 L2
p =
𝜋( + )
P2 P1 M A P1 P2
.
W =
Pitch = p +
Workoutput W p ×
𝜂
Workinput P1 2 L1 P2 2 L2
= =
× 𝜋 + × 𝜋
Note Here MA .
:
VR , 𝜂 ≠
.
(p-214, 9) Two toggle bars are used in a screw jack to raise a casting of 3 tonne mass. The screw thread
has a pitch of 12 mm. One toggle is 500 mm long and the effort applied to its end is 220 N. The other
toggle is 450 mm long, find the effort required at the end of this toggle if the efficiency when lifting this
load is 35%.
W 3000 9 81 N
L2
= × .
L1 Wout W p
= 450mm 500mm= 𝜂 =
Win 2 L1P1 2 L2P2
=
𝜋
×
+ 𝜋
P2 P1 220N W p
2 L1 P1 2 L2 P2
=
= ? ×
p 12 mm
𝜋 + 𝜋 =
Pitch = =
𝜂
2 L2P2 W p -2 L1P1
𝜋 =
×
𝜂
𝜋
P2 = 112 43 N
.
5. Worm Driven Screw Jack

Load
Pitch = p When effort wheel rotates 1 times

D
Worm rotates 1 times
Effort Wheel
Worm wheel rotates 1 tooth
Worm Wheel Worm Screw
Effort Chain ∴ If worm wheel needs to rotate
1 complete rotation = N teeth
Effort wheel needs to rotate N times

N number of teeth
of worm wheel
=
Screw DN
VR
. =
𝜋
(p-214, 10) Find the number of teeth in the worm-wheel of a worm driven screw jack to give a velocity
ratio of 550 if the worm is single threaded, the screw has a pitch of 16 mm and the effort wheel is 100 mm
diameter. Assuming an efficiency of 30%, find the effort required to lift a load of 50 KN.
V R DN
. =
p
𝜋
550 100 N
𝜋× ×
=
16
N 550 16 ×
=
100
28 0112
𝜋×
28 Since the number of teeth cannot be a fraction ans i

= .
= [ ] ( . )
MA VR
. = . 550 0 3
× 𝜂 = × .
M A WP
. . =
∴ P MWA
=
50 103
.
550 0 3
=
303 N ans ii
× .
= ( . )
6. Crab Winch
6.1. Gear
Follower Driver
2 n1 N2
1 n2 =
N1
N number of teeth
n Angular velocity rpm
=
= ( )
Driver
Follower n1 = n2 NN21
×
6.2. Double Purchase Winch:

'Double Purchase' means speed reduction takes place twice.
D
if nD 1
nC 1 NNDC
: =
B Effort
Load C A
= ×
Drum emaiD nA nB NNBA

ret
= ×
=
D
L nC NNBA
= ×
1 NNDC NNBA
= × ×
1 ND NB 2L
VR
×
NC NA
× × 𝜋
2 L ND NB
𝜋 × ×
. =
𝜋 D =
𝜋D NC NA
× ×
W
(p-214, 12) In a hand driven double purchase winch, the radius of the crank handle is 300 mm, the load
drum is 200 mm diameter and the lifting rope is 25 mm diameter. The driving wheels have 25 and 30
teeth and the followers have 90 and 125 teeth respectively. Find (i) the velocity ratio, and (ii) the
efficiency when lifting a mass of 1000 kg if the effort required is 350 N.
Solution:
Here
L 300 mm
,
D 200 mm
=
d 25 mm
=
D d2 200 252 212 5 mm

=
Deff = + = + = .
NA 25
NB 90
=
NC 30
=
ND 125
=
2 L 90 125 2 300 90 125 42 3529

=
VR
. =
𝜋 × ×
Deff 25 30 212 5 25 30 =
× × ×
= .
W 1000 9 81 28 0285
𝜋 × × . × ×
MA. =
P =
350
× .
= .
M A 28 0285 0 6617 66 17
. .
∴ 𝜂 =
V R 42 3529
.
=
.
= . = . %
7. Plotting
(p-209, Example.) The diameters of the large and small pulleys of the compound sheave of a differential
pulley block are 125 mm, and 112.5 mm respectively. In an experiment on this machine the following
results were taken:
Load [N] 40.00 80.00 120.00 160.00 200.00 240.00
Effort [N] 7.50 11.00 15.00 18.50 22.00 25.50
Plot graphs of effort and percentage efficiency on a base of load, find the linear law of this machine, and
use this to calculate the effort and efficiency when lifting a load of 224 N.
VR 2D 2 125 20 ×
. . =
D-d 125-112 5
=
.
=
Now:
Load [N] 40.00 80.00 120.00 160.00 200.00 240.00

Effort [N] 7.50 11.00 15.00 18.50 22.00 25.50
M.A. 5.33 7.27 8.00 8.65 9.09 9.41
V.R. 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
Efficiency 26.7% 36.4% 40.0% 43.2% 45.5% 47.1%
50 25
40 20
22-13 9 N
=
%
30 15
ycneiciffE
troffE
200-100
20 10 = 100 N
10 5
40 80 120 160 200 240 Load
Linear Law : P a bW = +
Where, a y-intercept 4 N
= =
Between W = 100N and 200N, we can measure the slope of the line.
b change in y 9 0 09
=
change in x 100 = = .
∴ P 4 0 09W ans i
= + . ( . )
Now: for lifting 224 N load:
P 4 0 09 224 24 16 N ans ii
M A WP 2422416 9 27
= + . × = . ( . )
. . = = = .
M A 9 27 46 35 ans iii
.
. . .
∴
V R 20
𝜂 =
. .
= = . % ( . )
(p-214, 15) HW The large and small pulleys of a differential pulley block are 210 and 180 mm diameter
respectively. To lift a load of 750 N the effort required is 170 N, and to lift 1500 N, the effort is 305 N.
Find (i) the linear law of this machine, (ii) the effort required to lift a load of 1250 N, and (iii) the
efficiency when lifting this load.
Here,
VR 2D
. . =
D-d =
Load [N] 750 1500

Effort [N] 170 305
M.A. 4.4117 4.918
V.R.
Efficiency
Applied Mechanics
Ch-09 Stress and Strain
Prepared by-
Overview:
Finding Stress and Strain
Thermal stress
Finding Resilience
Instantaneous/initial Stress, Gradual Loading, Sudden loading without impact
Stress on oblique planes
1. Finding Stress and Strain

Stress can be divided into two types:
1. Normal Stress 𝜎
a. Compressive Stress
b. Tensile Stress
2. Shear Stress 𝜏
5N 5N
F
⏦force
internal
𝜎 =
A
5N 5N
Compression Tension
1
F
𝜏 =
A
5N
5N
Shear
10N 10N
5 5N m2
5N 5N 𝜎 =
1= /
A 1m2 5N
5N
=
5 5N m2
𝜎 =
1 = /
5N 5N
Strain, Change in length 𝛥L

𝜖 =
Original Length =
Lo
Relation between Stress and Strain:
Hooke's Law:
𝜎 =
⏦ E 𝜖
Modulus
of
Elasticity
Young s
/
Modulus
'
2
1. Example. A steel bar of 2580 mm2 cross-sectional area and a brass bar of 3225 mm2 cross-sectional
area, jointly support a compressive load of 420 kN. Calculate the stress in each bar, and also the strain,
taking the moduli of elasticity as: E for steel = 207 GN/m2 E for brass = 92 GN/m2 (p-228, example) [1
GN/m2 = 10 9 N m 2 ]
/
420 kN
Since two bodies are joined together their strains will be same , .
𝜖 s = 𝜖 b
𝜎s 𝜎b
Es =
Eb
𝜎 s 𝜎 b
207 92 =
𝜎
207
s 92 b 2 25 b
= 𝜎 1 = . 𝜎 .... ( )
Fs Fb 420
s As b Ab 420
+ =
2 25 b 2580 b 3225 420

𝜎 + 𝜎 =
b 2 25 2580 3225 420

. 𝜎 × + 𝜎 × =
420
𝜎 ( . × + ) =
2 25 2580 3225 0 0465 kN mm 46 5 N mm2

𝜎 b =
2 = . / = . /
. × +
46 5 -3N 2 46 5 106 mN2

10 m
= . = . ×
46 5 106 N2 m2
46 5 MN m
= . × /
= . /
From 1
s 2 25 b 104 6 MN m 2
( )
𝜎 = . 𝜎 = . /
s E
s 𝜎 104 6 MN m 2 . /
𝜖 =
s 207 103 MN m2
=
× /
= ?
1N
1N mm2 1mm 1N 1N 1 N 106 N m2
/ =
2 =
1 mm 1 mm
×
=
10-3m 10-3m ×
=
10-6 m2 = /
5. Two round bars, each 75 mm diameter, are screwed at their ends and secured together by a cylindrical
coupling screwed internally. The depth of the screw thread is 2.5 mm. Assuming that the coupling and
bars are all of the same material, find the outside diameter of the coupling to give equal strength in
tension. (p-245, 5)
3
Effective diameters of bars:
d 75 - 2 2 5 70 mm
= × . =
Coupling
Abar 4 d2 4 702
=
𝜋
=
𝜋
Bar Area of Coupling :
Acoupling 4 D2 -752
=
𝜋
F
𝜎 =
A
To give equal strength bar coupling
Abar Acoupling
, 𝜎 = 𝜎 .
∴ =
4 270 2 4 D 2-75
⟹
𝜋
2 =
2𝜋
2
702 D2 -752
D 75 70
⟹ =
⟹ = +
∴D = 752 702 102 6 mm

+ = .
6. Three vertical wires, each 4.5 m long, hang in the same vertical plane from a horizontal ceiling and
carry a mass of 203.9 kg between them at their lower ends. The two outside wires are of steel and are each
4 mm diameter, the middle wire is brass 5 mm diameter. Find (i) the stress in each wire, (ii) the load in
newtons carried by each wire, (iii) the stretch, taking the moduli of elasticity as, E for steel = 200 GN/m2,
E for brass = 100 GN/m2. (p-246, f11)
4
Since all wires are of equal length and they are
pulled by the same force their strains will be
the same
,
𝜖 s = 𝜖 b
𝜎s 𝜎
b
Es =
Eb
𝜎 s 𝜎
b
200 100 =
𝜎 s 2 b 1 = 𝜎 .... ( )
Fs Fs Fb 2000
2Fs Fb 2000
+ + =
2 s As bAb 2000
+ =
𝜎 + 𝜎 =
2 2 b 4 42 b 4 52 2000 𝜋 𝜋
203 9 9 8 N
× 𝜎 × + 𝜎 × × =
2000 N 52
. × .
b 42 4 2000
=
𝜎 𝜋 + 𝜋 =
b
2000 28 61 N mm 2
𝜎
42 4 5=
2
𝜋 + 𝜋
= . /
s 2 28 61 57 22 N mm 2
Fs s As
𝜎 = × . = . /
Fb b Ab
= 𝜎 = ?
= 𝜎 = ?
L 𝛥
𝜖
L =
s 57 22 10 6 N m 2
𝜎 . × /
𝜖s Es 200 109N m2
= =
L sL 45m m
× /
𝛥 = 𝜖 = ? × . = ?
2. Thermal Stress
Thermal Expansion :
L Free expansion due to thermal expansion

Lthermal L
:
𝛥 = 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
𝛥𝜃 =Change in temperature C [° ]
𝛥L L = 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
𝛼 = Co-efficient of thermal expansion 1 [
5
Separate Joined
A B A B
FA Pushing force on A
FB Pulling force on B
=
Both forces will be equal

=
FA FB
.
2L A AA B AB
y
𝜎 = 𝜎
𝛼 𝛥𝜃
FB
𝛥 l2
𝛼 1L
𝛥𝜃
𝛥 l1
FA
1
𝛥 l1
𝜖 =
L
2
𝛥 l2
𝜖 =
L
1 2
𝛥l1 l2 𝛥 1 L -y y- 2 L
𝛼 𝛥𝜃 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
𝜖 +𝜖 =
L L +
L =
L +
𝛼L1 - 2L
𝛥𝜃 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
=
L
1
= 𝛼 𝛥𝜃 - 2 𝛼 𝛥𝜃
𝜖 1 +𝜖 2 = (𝛼 1- 2 𝛼 )𝛥𝜃
2. Example. A solid bar of steel 80 mm diameter is placed inside a brass tube 80 mm inside diameter, 10
mm thick, and of equal length. The two ends of the bar and tube are firmly fixed together and the whole
is heated through 100°C. Find the stress in the steel and brass taking the values: Coeff. of linear exp. for
steel = 11 x 10-6 per °C Coeff. of linear exp. for brass = 19 x 10-6 per °C Modulus of elasticity for steel =
206 GN/m2 Modulus of elasticity for brass = 103 GN/m2 (p-234, example)
Solution:
6
𝜖 1 2+𝜖 = (𝛼 1- 2 𝛼 )𝛥𝜃
1 2
1- 2
𝜎 𝜎
E1 E2 + = (𝛼 𝛼 )𝛥𝜃
b s
206 103 19 10 - 11 10 100 8 10-4 1
𝜎
-6 𝜎
-6
103 × 103 +
×
= × × × = × ... ( )
2 b s 164 8 MN m2 1
𝜎 + 𝜎 = . / ... ( )
Since the pulling forces on each body are equal

Fs Fb
:
s As b Ab
=
𝜎 = 𝜎
s 4 ds2 b 4 Do2 -Di2

𝜋 𝜋
𝜎 = 𝜎
𝜎s 80 2 b 80 10 2 2 -80 2
= 𝜎 ( + × )
s b
1002 -802 0 5625 b 2
𝜎 =
802
𝜎 = . 𝜎 .... ( )
Putting the value of s in eqn 1

2 b 0 5625 b 164 8
𝜎 ( ):
2 5625 b 164 8
𝜎 + . 𝜎 = .
164 8 64 31 MN m2
⟹ . 𝜎 = .
.
⟹ 𝜎 b 2 5625 2
= = . /
64 31 MN m
.
∴ 𝜎 b = . /
𝜎s 0 5625 b 0 5625 64 31 36 17 MN m 2
= . 𝜎 = . × . = . /
HW A bar of steel is covered by a copper sheath over its entire length and the sheath is firmly fixed to the
bar so that one cannot expand more than the other. The cross-sectional area of the copper sheath is half
the cross-sectional area of the steel bar. Find the stresses in the steel and the copper when this compound
bar is heated through 100°C, taking the values:
Coeff. of linear expansion for steel = 12 x 10-6 per °C Coeff. of linear expansion for copper = 17 x 10-8 per
°C E for steel = 206 GN/m2
E for copper = 103 GN/m2 (p-247, f15)
3. Finding Resilience
Resilience = Energy stored
7
W = ∫ Fdx F
x Total compression x
Force F
=
L
Work done 12 Fx
=
Energy stored in the body 12 Fx =
F Resilience 12 Fx 12 A L
= = 𝜎 𝜖
1 V
Compression
𝜎
2E= 𝜎
Resilence 12 E V
2 𝜎
=
8. A bar of hexagonal cross-section measures 50 mm across the hexagonal face from one corner to its
opposite corner. Find the percentage increase in resilience that would result by drilling a hole 30 mm
diameter axially through the centre of the bar from end to end. (p-247, f17)
Regular Hexagon
d 2a
a
d 50
=
=
a 25 mm
s
2 2
di
d
= = =
e
=
thgnel
enr oc
A1 3 2 3 a 2 3 3 252
r
1623 8 mm2
l
htgne
= =
2 = .
8
D 30mm
=
A1 3 2 3 a 2 3 3 252 1623 8 mm2 A2 A1 - 4 D2 916 9 mm2

𝜋
2
= = .
= = = .
Resilience 12 Fx =
1F L
2
= 𝜖
1F L 𝜎
2E
=
1F F L
2 AE
=
1 F2L
2 AE
=
Resiliencebefore Resilienceafter 1 F2L 1 F2L

: =
2 Abefore E 2 Aafter E
:
Resiliencebefore Resilienceafter 1 1
: =
Abefore Aafter
:
Resiliencebefore Resilienceafter Aafter Abefore

R1 A2 1
: = :
R2 A1 = ... ( )
% Change in R R2R-R
1
1 = × 100
%
R2 -1 100
=
R1 × %
A1 -1 100
=
A2 × %
1623 8 -1 100
.
=
916 9 × %
77 09
.
= . %
9
4. Instantaneous Stress
Instantaneous initial Stress with impact

/ ( )
PE mg h x
= ( + )
Total Potential Energy = Energy consumed due to strain
h
mg h x = 1 Fx
(
2+ )
Fimpact F 2mg h x ( + )
=
x
x
F 2mg h x ( + )
𝜎
A=
Ax =
Sudden Loading without impact

Sudden loading without impact occurs when the body
from zero height:
F
Total Potential Energy = Energy consumed due to str
x mgx 12 Fx
=
F 2mg
F 2mg
=
𝜎 =
A A =
10
Gradual Loading Gradual loading occurs when the body is kept stead
Load is measured after the body settles down.
F
x F mg
𝜎 =
A A
=
3. Example. A load of 10 KN falls 6 mm on to the end of a vertical bar 200 mm long and 2500 mm2 cross-
sectional area. Calculate the instantaneous compression and stress, taking the modulus of elasticity of the
material as 195 GN/m2. If the same load had been (b) gradually applied, (c) suddenly applied without
impact, what would be the stress in the bar ? (p-239, example)

/ ( )
PE mg h x
= ( + )
mg 10kN =
6mm
Fimpact
x = ?
200mm A = 2500 mm2

mg h x = 12 Fx
( + )
F 2mg xh x
=
( + )
F
A
𝜎 =
F 2mg h x
𝜎 ( + )
𝜖
E AE
=
AEx = =
x 2mg h x ( + )
L AEx
=
11
AEx2 2mgh 2mgx
L = +
AE x2 - 2mgx -2mgh 0
L =
2500 195 103 x2 - 2 10 103x -2 10 103 6 0

× ×
200 × × × × × =
2500 195 x2 - 2 10x -2 10 6 0

×
200 × × × =
2437 5 x2 - 20 x - 120 0
Solving the quadratic equation
. =
x 0 2261 mm Quadratic Equation :
ax2 bx c 0
:
= .
+ + =
x -b b2 -4ac
F 2mg xh x
±
=
( + )
2a =
F 2mg h x ( + )
𝜎 =
A Ax = = ?
For Gradual
mg loading
𝜎 =
A = ?
For sudden loading without impact

2mg
𝜎 =
A = ?
9. A mass of 102 kg falls through 12 mm directly on to the end of a bar 25 mm diameter and 1.5 m long.
Taking the modulus of elasticity of the material as 207 GN/m2, find the instantaneous initial stress
produced. (p-247, f19)
Solution:

/ ( )
PE mg h x
= ( + )
m 102kg =
12 mm
Fimpact
x = ?
1 5m
. d = 25 mm

mg h x = 1 Fx
( + )
2
12
F 2mg xh x
=
( + )
F
𝜎 =
A
𝜎F 2mg h x ( + )
x E2mg hAE x AEx

𝜖 = = =
( + )
L =
AEx
AEx2 2mgh 2mgx
L = +
AE x2 - 2mgx -2mgh 0
L 2 =
4 25 207 10 x 2 - 2 102 9 81x -2 102 9 81 12 0

𝜋
×
3
× ×
1500 × × . × × . × =
67740 6 x2 - 2001 24 x - 24014 8 0

Solving the quadratic equation
. . . =
x 0 61 mm
:
= .
F 2mg xh x
=
( + )
F 2mg h x ( + ) 2 102 9 81 12 0 61
× × . ×( + . )
84 28 N mm2
𝜎
A=
Ax = =
4 25 0 61
2 𝜋
× .
= . /
Quadratic Equation
ax bx c 0
:
2 + + =
x -b 2ab -4ac
2 ±
=
5. Stress in Oblique Planes
13
1P 2
𝜏𝜃
2 A0
= ( sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)
1P 2
=
2 A0 sin( 𝜃)
P 2
=
2A0 sin( 𝜃)
Maximum shear stress occurs when 45 P P

𝜃 = °, 𝜏 max = 𝜏 45
° =
2A0 2 45 2A0
sin( × °) =
Maximum Normal stress occurs when 0 max 0

P 20 P
𝜃 = °, 𝜎 = 𝜎 ° =
A0 A0
cos ( °) =
4. Example. A bar 25 mm diameter is subjected to a direct tensile · force of 60 KN. Calculate the normal
and shear stresses on a plane at 35° to the flat end of the bar. Calculate also the maximum shear stress in
the material. (p-242, example)
Class 1 and 2:
15. The mass of a pole piece on an alternator is 9.5 kg and its centre of gravity is at 275 mm from the shaft
centre. It is secured by 4 bolts and the alternator runs at 1000 rev/min. Find the minimum diameter of the
bolts if the stress in them is not to exceed 30 MN/m2
14
A beam 6 m long is simply supported at each end and carries a uniformly distributed load of 1.2 kN per
meter run for the first 3 m from the left end. The beam is of symmetrical cross-section, its depth is 300 mm,
and the second moment of the section about its neutral axis is 1.33 x 10-4 m4. Calculate the position and
magnitude of the maximum stress in the beam and sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
A solid steel beam 2 m long and of uniform square section of 150 mm sides is suspended from a crane hook
by a single rope, the point of attachment being at 300 mm from mid-length of the beam, and a downward
force is applied at one end to keep it horizontal. Find (i) the magnitude of the end force, (ii) the tension in
the lifting rope, and (iii) the stress induced in the beam at the point of attachment. Take the density of steel
as 7.86 g/cm3.
15
Applied Mechanics
Ch-11 Bending of Beams
Prepared by-
Overview:
Concentrated and Distributed Loads
Simply Supported Beams
Cantilever Beams
Drawing Shear Force Diagram and Bending Moment Diagram
1. Beam Basics
Axial Load
Transverse load
Axis Axis
Column
Beam
Axial Load
Transverse load
Bending of beam
Buckling of column
2. Types of loads
1
10N Concentrated load
10N m
/
Uniformly distributed load
3. Types of Beams
Simply Supported beam Cantilever Beam
4. Reaction Force and Reaction Moment

4.1. Reaction forces for simply supported beams
25m
.
10 N ∑10MA2 5 -0 R =
5 0
∑10MB2 5 -0 R
1 5 0
=
2
R2 5 N
+ × . × =
R1 5 N
+ × . × =
A B = =
5m Due to symmetry Short-cut

R1 R2 and R1 R2 10 R1 5N and R2 5N
: ( )
R1
= + = → = =
R2
2
4m
10 N ∑10MA4 - R0 =
5 0 R1 R2 10N
R1 10 -8 2N
+ =
2
R2 8N
+ × × =
= =
=
5m
R1 R2
1m 1 5m
.
5N 7N ∑ MA 0
5 1 7 5-1 5 -R
=
5 0
2
R2 5 9N
× + ×( . ) × =
= .
R1 R2 12N
R1 12 -5 9
+ =
5m
6 1N
= .
R1 R2
= .
4 2m
4m 2 =
10 N m
4 10 40N
/
× =
5m 5m
R1 R2 R1 R2
∑ MA 0
40 2 - R 5
=
0
2
R2 16 N
× × =
R1 R2 40
R1 24 N
+ =
4.2. Reaction force and moment for cantilever beam [Not Necessary]
3
10 N ∑ Fy 0
R - 10 0
=
∑10MA5-M0
Mr =
0
R 10 N r
=
⤹ Mr 50 Nm
+ × =
=
A B =
5m
R
4m 10 N ∑ Fy 0
R - 10 0
=
∑10MA4-M0
Mr 0
=
R 10 N r
=
Mr 40 Nm
+ × =
⤹
=
=
R
1m
Mr
2m 10N m/
∑ Fy 0 ∑ MA = 0
R -10 2 0 -Mr 20 2 22
=
R 20 N 0
⤹
× =
+ × + =
=
Mr 60 Nm
=
R
5. Shear force and bending moment
Shear force is the internal force that is developed at each transverse section of the beam due to transverse
loading.
Shear force is responsible for the shear cutting of the beam. The more the shear force at a given section the
more the beam is prone to shear cutting at that section.
Bending moment is the internal resistive moment that is developed at each transverse section of the beam
due to transverse loading.
Bending moment is responsible for the bending of the beam. The more the bending moment at a given
section the more the beam is prone to bending at that section.
1m 1 5m
.
5N 7N
5m
61N
.
59N
.
4
5N 7N V 59N
5N 7N
= .
V 59N
= .
61N
.
59N
. 61N . 59N .
5N 7N V 11N = .
5N 7N
V 11N
61N
= .
.
59N
.
61N . 59N
.
5N 7N V 61N
5N 7N
= .
V 61N
= .
61N
.
59N
.
61N . 59N .
1m 1 5m
.
5N 7N
5m
61N
.
59N .
5
5N 7 N 1m 7 N M 5 9Nm
5N = .
M 5 9 Nm
= .
61N 59N 61N 59N

.
.
. .
2m
5N 7N M 8 3Nm
= .
5N 7N
M 8 3 Nm
= .
61N 59N 61N 59N

.
.
. .
4 5m
.
5N 7N M 3 05Nm
= .
5N 7N
M 3 05 Nm
= .
61N
.
59N
.
61N . 59N .
6. Shear Force Diagram
6
1m 1 5m
.
5N 7N
5m
61N
.
59N
.
59N
.
11N
.
61N.
Steps to draw shear force diagram:

Long Process:
1. Find all unknown reaction forces.
2. Take sections at different locations of the beam
3. Find shear force by applying equilibrium at cut section of the beam. Shear force is postive if the left
shear force is in the upward direction and negative if the left shear force is in the downward direction.
Short-cut Process:
1. Find all unknown reaction forces
2. Start from right to left. Go up if the force is upward. Go down if the force is downward.
Shear force = Upward forces - Downward forces
For concentrated loads, go straight up or down
For distributed loads, go along an inclined straight line
7
10 20 10
Concentrated loads
10
20 10
15m
1m
.
20N m
10N m
/
20N /
Distributed loads
20N
40N
20N
40N
7. Bending Moment Diagram
8
1m 1 5m
.
5N 7N
A C D B
5m MD 5 9 1 5 8 85 Nm
MC 5 9 4-7 2 5
= . × . = .
6 1 Nm
= . × × .
61N.
59N
.
= .
6 1 Nm
8 85 Nm
.
Steps to draw bending moment diagram:

1. Find all unknown reaction forces.
2. Take sections at different locations of the beam
3. Find bending moment by applying equilibrium at cut sections of the beam. Bending Moment is
positive if the left bending moment is Clockwise and negative if the left bending moment is anticlockwise.
Another way to understand the sign of bending moment:
If the moments cause compression in the top fibers and tension in the bottom fibers → Positive Moment
(Sagging Bending)
If the moments cause compression in the bottom fibers and tension in the top fibers → Negative Moment
(Hogging Bending)
For concentrated loads, go straight up or down along an inclined straight line

For distributed loads, go along an parabolic line
9
10 20 10
Concentrated loads
10
10
10 2 5
25Nm
× .
Use Equation Method when drawing BMD for distributed loads :
x Upward force moment positive

Downward force moment negative
=
10N m
/
=
Mx 25x - 10x 2x 25x - 5x2

= × =
Mx 1m 20
Mx 2m 30
=
=
25N 25N Mx 3m 30
=
=
Mx 4m 20
= =
Mx 5m 0
=
Distributed loads =
= =
if Mx ve draw below the base line

if Mx -ve draw above the base line
= + ,
= ,
8. Finding Maximum Bending Moment [X]
10
Drawing Shear force diagram Simply Supported Beam
:
10 N
Step-1 Find Reaction Forces or Moments
A C B
: :
Step-2 Take sections and find shear force V

:
R1 R2 Step-3 Draw Shear force diagram

:
Drawing Bending Moment diagram Simply Supported Beam

:
10 N
Step-1 Find Reaction Forces or Moments
A C B
: :
Step-2 Take sections and find Bending Moment

:
R1 R2 Step-3 Draw Bending Moment diagram

:
M
x
11
1. Example. A beam 8 metres long is simply supported at each end and carries a uniformly distributed
load including the weight of the beam of 30 kN per metre length. Draw the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams. (p-267)
12
30 8 240 kN
× =
30kN m /
A C B Load Diagram
120kN 8m 120kN
V
Shearing force Diagram
x
M MC 120 4- 30 4 42 240 kNm

= × ( × )× =
2. Example. A beam 16 metres long is simply supported at each - end. It carries a uniformly distributed
load of 5 kN per metre, and concentrated loads of 30 and 50 kN at 2 and 10 metres respectively from one
end. Draw the shearing force and bending moment diagrams, state the position of maximum bending
moment and calculate its value. (p-269)
10m
∑ MB 0
R 16-50 10-30 2- 5 16 8 0
50 kN
=
30 kN 2m 1
5kN m R1 75 kN
× × × ( × )× =
/ =
A B Load Diagram
R1 R2 160 kN
R2 160 - 75
+ =
16 m =
85 kN
R1 R2 40 =
40 ⏦
=
distributed
⏦ 45 kN
=
distributed
35 kN ⏦
+
concentrated
⏦
+
concentrated
13
75kN 85kN
V 45kN
5kN
45kN x
75kN
Separation Method:
45 10
- 30 8
×
210kN
×
45 2 Bending Moment due to

M 90kNm
× =
Concentrated load
x
40 2-5 2 1 Bending Moment due to
= 70kNm
× × ×
distributed load
40 10-5 10 5
150kNm
× × ×
Maximum bending occurs at 10 m from B since the shear force diagram intersects with the x axis at
this point.
M 10m 210 150 360 kNm

@ = + =
3. Example. A beam 20 metres long is simply supported at 4 metres from each end and carries a
uniformly distributed load of 2.5 kN per metre run. Calculate the bending moments at mid-span and at the
reactions, sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams and find the position along the beam
where the bending moment is zero. (p-271)
4. A beam 15 meters long is simply supported at the left end and at 3 metres from the right end. It
carries concentrated loads of 40 and 20 kN at 6 and 9 metres respectively from the left support, and
another concentrated load of 50 kN at the extreme right end. Sketch and dimension the shearing force and
bending moment diagrams. (p-275, 9)
14
5. A beam of uniform section is 10 metres long, its mass is 8 megagrammes, and is simply supported at
each end. Calculate the shearing forces and bending moments in the beam at quarterlength and at mid-
length due to its own weight. Sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams and mark the
calculated values on the diagrams. (p-275, 10)
6. A beam 20 metres long is simply supported at 2.5 metres from each end. It carries a concentrated load
of 20 kN at each extreme end and also a uniformly distributed load over the entire length of 4 kN per
metre run. Sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams. Calculate (i) the bending moment at
midspan, (ii) the bending moment at each support, and (iii) the position along the beam where there is no
bending moment. (p-275, 12)
15
x
20kN 4KN m 20kN
R1 R2
/
R1 R2 20 20 4 20 120kN
=
R1 60 kN
+ = + + × =
R2 60 kN
=
2.5m R 15 m R2 2.5m
1
20 30 30
20
30 30
20 2 5 4 2 5 225 62 5 kNm
× . + × . ×
.
= .
20 10 4 10 102 -60 7 5 -50 kNm

× + × × × . =
Let at x meter from right end the bending moment is zero

, , .
20 x 4 x 2x -60 x-2 5 0
× + × × ×( . ) =
20x2 2x2 - 60x 150 0

2x2 -40x 150 0
+ + =
x - 20x 75 0
+ =
x 5m 15m
+ =
= ,
7. A beam carries a uniformly distributed load over its entire length which, together with the weight of
the beam, amounts to a total of 80 kN. The beam is 10 metres long and is simply supported at each end.
It also carries concentrated loads of 65 and 55 KN at 2 and 6 metres respectively from the left end. Sketch
and dimension the shearing force and bending moment diagrams and find the position and magnitude of
the maximum bending moment. (p-275, 14)
16
Class 1 and 2
11. A cantilever is 7 m long and carries concentrated loads of 20 kN at the free end and 60 kN at 3 m
from the wall. Neglecting the weight of the beam, draw the shearing force and bending moment diagrams
to scale and measure off the diagrams the shearing force and bending moment at the point 2 m from the
fixed end.
A beam is 8 m long and is simply supported at points 2 m from each end. It carries a concentrated load of
5 kN at each end and a distributed load uniformly spread along the beam over the length between the
supports. If the bending moment is zero at mid-span, find the magnitude of the distributed load and
sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
17
Applied Mechanics
Ch-12 Stresses in Beams
Prepared by-
Overview:
Bending Stress
Section Modulus
Deflection due to bending
Combined Stress
1. Bending Equation
My
𝜎 =
I
Where,
M bending moment at a given section
y distance from the neutral axis
=
I 2nd moment of area of the section about the neutral axis

=
1. Example. A cantilever 1.8 metres long, of solid rectangular section 75 mm broad by 150 mm deep,
carries a uniformly distributed load of 22.5 kN per metre over the whole length, a concentrated load of 30
kN at 600 mm from the wall, and another concentrated load of 20 kN at the free end. Calculate the
maximum stress in the beam, and sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
Solution:
1
0 6m
.
30kN 20kN
22 5 kN m
. /
150mm
75 mm
18m .
Maximum bending moment will occur at the wall

M wall 20 1 8 30 0 6 22 5 1 8 128 90 45 kNm
:
@ = × . + × . + .90 45 103 103 Nmm

× . ×
.
= . = . × ×
Maximum stress will develop at the outer most layer of the section y 150 2 mm 75 mm . ∴ = =
2nd moment of area about the neutral axis I 121 BD3 121 75 1503 mm4 , = = × × = ?
My 150mm
𝜎 =
I
90 45 106 75 321 6 N mm2 321 6 MN m2
. × ×
1
12 75 150
3
= = . / = . /
× ×
75 mm
2
0 6m
.
30kN 20kN
22 5 kN m
. /
18m .
x
20kN
20 22 5 1 2
+ . × . = 47 kN
47 30+ = 77 kN
77 22 5 0 6
+ . × . = 90 5 kN
.
M
22 5 1 8 128 36 45kN
. × . ×
.
= .
distributed load
Concentrated Load
20 1 2
× . = 24 kNm
20 1 8 30 0 6
× . + × . = 54 kNm
3
4. A cantilever of hollow rectangular box section is constructed of steel of density 7.86 g/cm3. Its
dimensions are: outside breadth 78 mm, outside depth 104 mm, length 1.2 m, and it is 12 mm thick
throughout. If the maximum stress is not to exceed 35 MN/m2, calculate the maximum concentrated load
that can be carried at the free end of the beam. [p-293, f6]
PN
( )
12mm
w = 292 42N m . /
104mm
78 mm
12m A 10 4 7 8 2- 10 4-2 4 7 8-2 4
37 92 cm
. = . × . ( . . )×( . . )
V AL 120 37 92 4550 4 cm3

= .
Maximum moment will occur at wall

M wall P 1 2 292 42 1 2 122 m V 7 86 4550 4 35766 144 g
: = = × . = .
35 77 kg
. = 𝜌 = . × . = .
= × . + . × . ×
W mg 35 77 9 81 350 903 N
@
= .
1 2P 210 542
= . + .
=
mg 350 903 292 419 N m

= . × . = .
w =
L 12 =
.
.
= . /
My
𝜎 =
I I 121 10 43 7 8 - 121 10 4-2 4 3 7 8-2 4 = × . × . ×( . . ) ×( . . )
35 106 M 5 2 10-2 4
-2 × .
500 6 cm4 500 6 10-2 4 m4
×
500 6 10
× = = . = . ×
y 102 4 5 2 cm 5 2 10-2 m
. ×
M 3369 42 Nm
= .
=
.
= . = . ×
1 2P 210 542 3369 42

P 3369 42-210 542 2633 N
. + . = .
. .
=
12 =
Maximum concentrated load will be 2633 N

.
∴
1 cm4 1 cm -2 1cm 1cm 1cm -2

10 m 4 10 m 10 m 10-2 m
= × × ×
=
-2 × × ×
10-2 m4
=
5. A beam of symmetrical section about its neutral axis is 3 m long and 380 mm deep, it is simply
supported at each end and carries a uniformly distributed load of 12 kN per metre run from the left end to
1.2 m from the other end. Neglecting the weight of the beam, calculate the position and magnitude of the
maximum stress if the second moment of the section about its neutral axis is 7.6 x 103 cm4 [p-293, f7]
Solution:
4
12m
.
12 kN m ∑ MA 0
R2 3-12 1 8 128 0
/ =
.
× × . × =
R2 6 48 kN
= .
A C B
R1 R2 12 1 8
R1 12 1 8 - R2
+ = × .
3m
15 12 kN
= × . =
R1 R2
= .
V x 6 48-12x 0
x 0 54 m
@ = . =
V
6 48kN Shear force will be zero at x 0 54m from C
= .
= . .
.
x
x
15 12 kN
.
Mx @ = R2 x 1 2 -12 x 2x
( + . ) × × = ?
=6 48 0 54 1 2 - 12 0 54 0 254 9 52 kNm
. ( . + . ) × . ×
.
= .
My 9 52 103 103 Nmm 190mm 23 8 N mm2 23 8 MN m2

. × × ×
𝜎 =
I =
7 6 103 104 mm4. × ×
= . / = . /
6. A solid round steel shaft is 76 mm diameter and rests in short bearings at each end which are 1.27 m
apart. Treating it as a simply supported beam and taking the weight of the shaft into consideration, find
the maximum concentrated load it can carry at the centre of length to limit the bending stress to 13.8
MN/m2. Density of steel = 7.86 g/cm3. [p-293, f8]
5
P
w D
A B
1 27 m
A 4 D 4 7 6 cm 3 45 34 cm 3
2 2 2 2
.
𝜋 𝜋
R1 R2
= = ( . ) = .
V AL 45 34 127 cm 5758 38 cm
m V 7 86 5758 38 g 7 86 5 75838 kg
= = . × = .
45 26 kg
= 𝜌 = . × . = . × .
W mg 45 26 9 81 N 444 N
= .
Due to symmetry in loading =
mg 444 N m 349 6 N m
= . × . =
R1 R2 wL 2 P 444 2 P
:
= =
+
=
+
w =
L 1 27 =
.
/ = . /
I =
64 D
𝜋
4 = ?
y D
=
2 = ?
Since the loading is symmetrical maximum bending moment will occur at the center of the beam
, .
M center R2 1 227 - w L2 L4 4442 P 0 64 - 349 6 1 278

.
2 + .
@
= × × = × . . ×
71 6 P 0 32 Nm 1
My
= . + × . [ ] ... ( )
𝜎 =
I 76 10 -3
M 2
13 8 106
× ×
-3 4
64 76 10
. × =
𝜋
× ×
M 594 7 Nm
71 6 0 32P 594 7 from eq 1
⟹ = .
P 1634 69 N
⟹ . + . = . [ ( )]
1 63 kN
⟹ = .
= .
2. Section Modulus
My M M
𝜎 =
I Iy S 3
= =
S Section Modulus m
/
Section Modulus represents the strength of the beam.
2. Example. A rolled steel joist has equal flanges 120 mm broad by 15 mm thick, the centre web is 10 mm
thick and the overall depth of the joist is 180 mm. Find the ratio of the strength when used (a) as an I
section with centre web vertical, (b) as an H section with centre web horizontal, given only that the
Second Moment of a rectangle about its centroid is BD3/12.
Solution:
6
120 mm
15 mm 150 mm
10 mm
180 mm 120 mm 120 mm
10 mm
15 mm 15 mm
IA 121 120 1803 -2 121 1503 55

= × × ×
IB 2 121 1203 15 121 103 150
= × × × + × ×
27382500 mm4
=
=4345000 mm4
yA 90 mm=
yB 60 mm
=
SA yIAA 27382500 SB yIBB 4345000

60 72416 66 mm
3
90 mm 304250 mm
= =
3 3 =
= = = .
SA 304250 4 21
∴
SB 72416 66
=
.
= .
3. Deflection
Ey My
𝜎 =
R I =
Where
R Radius of Curvature at the given section
,
E Modulus of Elasticity
=
Deflection for Circular Bending:

A beam where bending moment is constant between its supports, the beam undergoes circular bending.
Ey My
𝜎 =
R I =
∴ R EIM =
where R radius of curvature

, =
if M is constant R is constant Circular Bending

, →
Maximum deflection, L2
8R 𝛿 =
where, L is the length between supports.
7
W W
a L Ra
R
M Wa=
8
W x W
Mx W a x -FR x
W a x - Wx
= ( + )
Wa
= ( + )
a L a
FR FR
W W
a L FR a
FR
M Wa=
3. Example. A beam of uniform rectangular section is 50 mm broad by 75 mm deep and 4.2 m long. It is
simply supported at 0.6 m from each end and carries a concentrated load of 2-5 kN at each extreme end.
Neglecting the weight of the beam, calculate the radius of curvature between the supports and the
deflection at mid-span, taking the modulus of elasticity of the material as 200 GN/m2.
Solution:
W W
a L FR a
FR
R EI EI 200 109 121 0 050 0 0753 234 38 m

× × × . × .
=
M Wa
= =
2 5 103 0 6. × × .
= .
9
L2 4 2-0 6 2 2 m 4 8 10-3 m 4 8 mm
( . . × )
𝛿 =
8R =
8 234 38
× .
= . × = .
7. A tube 40 mm outside diameter, 5 mm thick and 1.5 m long is simply supported at 125 mm from each
end and carries a concentrated load of 1 kN at each extreme end. Neglecting the weight of the tube,
sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams, and calculate the radius of curvature and the
deflection at mid-span. Take the modulus of elasticity of the material as 208 GN/m2.
4. Combined Stress
W W
direct
F W
𝜎 =
A BT=
⟳ M Wx
My Wx T2
=
×
𝜎 bending =
I 121 BT3 =
6Wx A B
BT2
= ≡
⟲
W
B B
T T
Compressive stress ve
Tensile stress -ve
= +
𝜎A direct - bending
= 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 B = 𝜎 direct + 𝜎 bending
8. A short solid bar 125 mm diameter supports an axial compressive load of 275 kN, the line of action of
this load being 12 mm from the centre of the bar. Calculate the maximum and minimum stresses in the
bar.'
Solution:
10
W 275 103N 22 42 N mm2 ×
W
𝜎 directA 4 1252mm2
= =
𝜋
= . /
bending
My 275 103N 12mm 62 5 mm
× × × .
𝜎
I =
64 125 mm
=
4 4 𝜋
×
17 21 N mm2
Maximum stress will occur at B and Minimum stress
= . /
will occur at A
bending 22 4 17 21 N mm 2 compressive A B
.
𝜎max direct
= 𝜎 + 𝜎 = . + . / ( )
𝜎min direct - bending 22 4 - 17 21 N mm 2 compressive

= 𝜎 𝜎 = . . / ( )
W
D
Class 1 and 2 problems

A tie-bar of rectangular section 150 mm broad by 25 mm thick is subjected to a pull of 300 kN applied at
5 mm off the centre of the thickness of the section. Calculate the maximum and minimum stresses induced
at the outer skin and make a sketch to illustrate the distribution of stress across the section.
A cantilever beam is fabricated by steel plates welded together in the form of a hollow rectangular box
section, uniform over its entire length of 2 m. The overall depth is 160 mm, overall width 120 mm, the
side plates are 10 mm thick and the top and bottom plates 20 mm thick. Calculate the maximum
concentrated mass that can be carried on the free end of the cantilever so that the maximum stress will
not exceed 40 MN/m2. Density of steel = 7.86 g/cm3.
11
Applied Mechanics
Ch-13 Torsion
Prepared by-
Overview:
Shaft
Reciprocating Engine
Steering Gear
Helical Spring
Stress
Normal Shear
Stress Stress
Direct Normal Stress Bending Stress Direct Shear Stress Torsional Stress
F My F Tr
𝜎 =
A 𝜎 =
I 𝜏 =
A 𝜏 =
J
F A
F
A
F
I
M T
J
F
1
Shear stress, Tr
𝜏 =
J
Shear strain, r𝜃
𝜙 =
l
where,
𝜃 = angle of twist
l = length of the shaft
r = radius of the shaft
J = polar moment of area
Polar moment of area for circular cross section:
Jsolid d [compare with I d ]
4 𝜋
4 𝜋
=
32 4 4 =
64
Jhollow 𝜋 D -d
=
32
Relationship between stress and strain:
𝜏 = G 𝜙
Where,
G Modulus of Rigidity
= N m2
/
Tr G r 𝜃
J l =
T G 𝜃
J l =
Tl
GJ
𝜃 =
1. Shaft
3. A solid shaft is to be replaced by a hollow shaft. The hollow shaft is to be made from a higher quality
steel so that the safe working stress allowed can be 20% higher and its outside diameter is to be equal to
the diameter of the solid shaft so that the same bearings can be used. Calculate (i) the diameter of the
bore of the hollow shaft in terms of the outside diameter, (ii) the percentage saving in weight assuming
that the densities of the steels of both shafts are equal. [p-316, 3]
Solution:
Solid Shaft:
2
s
Tr TD 16T
𝜏
J 2 32 D4 D3
= =
𝜋
=
𝜋
Hollow Shaft:
h J
Tr TD 16TD
𝜏 =
2 32 D4 -d4
=
𝜋
=
𝜋 D4 -d4
According to Question:
h 12 s
16TD 1 2 16T
𝜏 = . 𝜏
D4 -d4 D3 = .
𝜋
D 1
𝜋
D4 -d4 1 2 D3 = .
1 2 D4 -d4 D4
. =
1 2 D4 4 -1 2d44 D4 4 4
. . =
1 2d 1 2D -D 0 2D
d4 0 12D2
. = . = .
4 .
=
.
d 4 01 22 D4 0 639D Ans
=
.
.
= . ( .)
D2 l D2 -d2
- l
saving in weight msolidm-m Vsolid - Vhollow Vs -Vh 𝜋
𝜋
hollow 𝜌 𝜌
4 4
%
solid
= =
Vsolid
𝜌 Vs = =
𝜋 D2 l
4
D2 - D2 -d2
=
D2
d 0 639D 2 0 408 100
2 ( . )
40 8 Ans
=
D2 =
D2 = . × % = . % ( .)
4. A solid steel shaft 350 mm diameter has a brass liner shrunk on it over its entire length, the thickness
of the liner being 25 mm. Taking G for steel as 85 GN/m2 and G for brass as 38.5 GN/m2, calculate the
maximum shear stresses in the shaft and the liner when the total torque transmitted between them is 200
kN m. [p-316, 5]
Js =
32 d 32 350 mm
𝜋
4 4 =
4 𝜋
( )
Jb =
32 D -d 32 400 -350 mm
𝜋
4 4 4 4 4 =
𝜋
[D = d + 2t = 350 + 2 25 mm] ×
Since both steel and brass are connected to each other, their angle of twist will be equal.
3
Tr
𝜏 =
J
steel
Brass
Ts l Tb l
𝜃 =
Gs Js Gb Jb =
Ts Tb
Gs Js Gb Jb =
Ts Tb
85 3504 38 5 4004 -3504
×
=
. ×
Ts 3 127 Tb
= .
We know,
Ts Tb 200 kNm
+ =
3 127Tb Tb 200 kNm

Tb 4200
. + =
=
127 48 46 kNm = .
Ts 3 127Tb 151 53 kNm

.
= . = .
Stress in steel:
s
Ts r 16Ts 16 151 53 103 103Nmm 17 99 MN m2
× . × ×
𝜏 =
J d3 =
𝜋
=
3503 mm3
𝜋
= . /
Stress in brass:
Tb r 16TbD 16 48 46 103 103Nmm 400 mm 9 32 MN m2
× . × × ×
b J
𝜏 = =
𝜋 D4 -d4 =
4004 - 3504 mm4
𝜋
= . /
Maximum torsional stress is on the outer periphery of the steel. The value is 17.99 MN/m2
5. An engine develops 4500 kW at 105 rev/min and the ratio of maximum to mean torque is 1.25 to 1.
(a) Calculate the diameter of the main shaft coupled direct to the engine to transmit this power allowing a
stress of 55 MN/m2 and assuming the shaft to be (i) solid, (ii) hollow with a bore equal to half the
outside diameter.
(b) Calculate the percentage saving in weight by fitting the hollow shaft as compared with the solid shaft.
[p-317, 12]
P Tmean
Tmean P 45002 kW
= 𝜔
409 25 kNm
105 60 rad s
= = = .
𝜔 𝜋
× /
Tmax 1 25Tmean 1 25 409 25 511 56 kNm

= . = . × . = .
(i) Solid:
4
Tr 16T 16 511 56 103 103 Nmm × . × ×
𝜏
J D3
= =
𝜋D3 mm3
=
𝜋×
55 N mm2 16 511 56 103 103 Nmm × . × × [ ]

/
D3 mm3
=
𝜋×
D 3 16 511
=
55
56 106 mm
× . ×
361 83 mm ans
×𝜋
= . ( .)
(ii) Hollow:
Tr 16TD 16TD 16TD 16TD 256T
𝜏
J D -d
=
4 4
=
D4 - D2
𝜋
4 =
𝜋
=
𝜋 D4 - D164
=
𝜋
15 D 4 15 D 3
16
=
𝜋
55 256 15511 56D3 10

6 × . ×
=
𝜋×
D 3 256 15511 5655 10 mm

6 × . ×
=
369 69 mm ans
×𝜋×
= . ( .)
Ds2 l Dh2 -dh2

- l
saving in weight msolidm-m Vsolid - Vhollow Vs -Vh
𝜋
𝜋
hollow 𝜌 𝜌
4 4
%
solid
=
Vsolid Vs=
𝜌
= =
𝜋D s
2
4 l
Ds2 - Dh2 -dh2
=
Ds2 2
361 832 - 369 692 - 3692 69
. .
.
=
361 832 .
0 21706 21 706 Ans = . = . % ( .)
2. Reciprocating Engine Mechanism
5
Fp
cos 𝜙 =
Fc
Fc =
Fp
cos 𝜙
where,
Fp Piston force
=
FG Guide force =
Fc Connecting rod force

=
𝜙 angle between connecting rod and vertical line

=
Finding : 𝜙
From sine law:

r =
l
sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃
Here,
r ⟂
= r sin(𝜙 + 𝜃)
where,
r = Perpendicular distance from crank shaft to the line of action
r radius of the crank
⟂
crank angle
=
𝜃 =
6
Therefore,
T = Fc r ⟂
=
Fp r sin(𝜙 + 𝜃)
cos 𝜙
Where,
T = Turning moment at crank shaft
1. Example. The effective pressure on the piston of a diesel engine is 17.25 bar 17 25 105 N m2 = . × /
when the crank is 60 degrees past top dead centre. The diameter of the piston is 500 mm, stroke 900 mm,
and connecting rod length 1575 mm. Find the turning moment on the crank at this position. [p-308]
Solution:
Piston force, Fp PA 17 25 105 0 52 3 387 105N
.
= = . × ×𝜋×
4 = . ×
Finding : 𝜙
From sine law:

r =
l
r 450 60
sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 × sin °
sin 𝜙 =
l =
1575 = ?
𝜙 = sin
-1 (? ) = 14 325
. °
[Stroke = L = 2r = 2 crank radius]

FP
3 387 105
×
Fc =
14 325 N =
. ×
= ?
r r 0 45 14 325 60 m
cos 𝜙 cos( . °)
= sin(𝜙 + 𝜃) = . sin( . °+ °) = ?
T Fcr 1 514 105 Nm

⟂
= ⟂ = . ×
3. Steering Gear
T = Fresultant r × ⟂
7
Here, Fresultant =
F
L
cos 𝛼
r ⟂
=
cos 𝛼
Here,
L distance from centre of rudder stock to center line
=
𝛼 angle of helm angle of tiller arm with the vertical

= =
T cosFL2
=
𝛼
For four ram steering gear:

Tfour ram = 2 Ttwo ram cos2FL2
=
𝛼
Torsion in rudder stock:

Tr
𝜏 =
J
Bending in tiller arm:
My
𝜎 =
I
2. Example. In a four-ram electric-hydraulic steering gear, the relief by-pass valves are set to lift when the
oil pressure is 75 bar. The diameter of the rams is 300 mm, distance from centre of rudder stock to centre-
line of each pair of rams is 760 mm and the maximum angle of helm is 35 degrees from mid-position. The
tiller arms are parallel round section from the end to 560 mm from the rudder stock centre and the
maximum bending stress in them may be taken as occurring at this section. Calculate (i)the diameter of
the rudder stock to limit the maximum torsional stress in it to 75 MN/m2, and (ii) the diameter of the
tiller arms to limit the maximum bending stress in them to 105 MN/m2. [p-314]
Solution:
PA 75 105 0 43 530143 76 N
2
Ram force , F = = × ×𝜋
.
= .
Turning moment at the rudder stock center: T 2FL 2 530143 76 760 1200903756 405 Nmm
× . ×
2 cos2 35 =
cos 𝛼
=
( °)
= .
Torsion at rudder stock:

let, diameter of rudder stock = d
8
Tr 16T
𝜏
J =
d3 =
d3 16T 16 1200903756 405 Nmm

𝜋
=
𝜋𝜏 75 N mm2
=
×
𝜋× /
.
= 81548701 44.
d 3 81548701 44 433 65 mm
= . = .
Bending at tiller arm:

let the diameter of tiller arm = dt
Bending Moment at the given section:
M F distance F L -560 530143 76. 760 - 560
=
cos 𝛼
×
cos =
𝛼
×
cos
𝛼
=
cos 35 °
×
cos35
°
= ?
My M d2t 32M
𝜎 =
I 64 dt4 dt3
=
𝜋
=
𝜋
dt = 3 32M 284 76 mm ans

= . ( .)
𝜋𝜎
8. In a two-ram hydraulic steering gear the diameter of the rams is 280 mm, diameter of rudder stock 350
mm, distance from rudder stock centre to centre-line of rams 860 mm and the maximum angle of helm is
35 degrees. Find the pressure at which the by-pass relief valves should be set to lift in order to limit the
maximum shear stress in the rudder stock to 77 MN/m2. [p-318, 18]
4. Helical Spring
9
Torque, T WR
Tl
=
Angle of twist, 𝜃 =
GJ
For circular cross section of wire, Polar moment of area, J =
32 d
𝜋
4
length of the wire, l 2 RN
= 𝜋
where, N number of turns

=
Work done due to twisting = T

Work done due to deflection = W deflection
𝜃
𝛿 [𝛿 = ]
Since both work are equal:

T𝜃 = W 𝛿
T
𝜃
𝛿 =
W
10
6. In a close coiled helical spring there are 27 coils of solid round wire 3 mm diameter, the mean diameter
of the coils being 30 mm. If the modulus of rigidity of the material is 93 kN/mm2 find the deflection when
carrying an axial load of 50 N. [p-317, 15]
Solution:
R D2 30mm
=
2 15 mm= =
T WR 50 15 Nmm
l 2 R N 2 15 27 mm
= = × = ?
= 𝜋 = 𝜋 × × = ?
J 32 d4 32 3 4 mm4 mm4
=
𝜋
=
𝜋
( ) = ?
Angle of twist:
Tl 50 15 2 15 27
× × 𝜋× ×
2 58 rad
𝜃 =
GJ =
93 103 32 3 4 × ×
𝜋
( )
= .
Now:
W T
T 50 15 2 58 38 71 mm ans
𝛿 = 𝜃
𝜃 × × .
𝛿 =
W 50= = . ( .)
7. A close coiled helical spring consists of 24 coils of tubular steel, the mean diameter of the coils is 75
mm, the outside diameter of the tube is 12.5 mm and its thickness is 2.5 mm. If the stress in the material
is not to exceed 70 N/mm2 find the maximum axial load the spring can carry and the deflection under this
load. Take G= 90 kN/mm2. [p-318, 16]
Solution:
Here,
Tr
𝜏 =
J 12 5
70 T ×
2
.
32 do -di4
=
𝜋4
T 122 5 .
70
×
32 12 5 -74 5 4
=
4 4
𝜋
. .
T 70 32 1212 55 -7 5
𝜋
× . .
=
2
.
T 23365 59 Nmm
= .
Now :
T WR
W TR 2336575 59 623 08 N ans
=
.
= = = . ( .)
Tl 23365 59 2 752 24
90 103 32 12 54 -7 54 0 7037 rad
. × 𝜋× ×
𝜃 =
GJ =
× ×
𝜋
. .
= .
T𝜃 23365 59 0 0187 26 38 mm ans

. × .
𝛿 =
W =
623 08 .
= . ( .)
11
alternatively:
T WR R
𝜃 𝜃 75 0 7037 26 38 mm ans
𝛿 =
W W = = 𝜃 =
2 × . = . ( .)
Class 1 and 2:
7. A hollow shaft rotating at 180 rev/min is found to twist 1.5 degrees over a length of 800 mm when
the torque is 1.52 kN m. The outside diameter of the shaft is 50 mm and inside diameter 30 mm.
Calculate (i) the shear stress induced in the shaft, (ii) the modulus of rigidity, and (iii) the power
transmitted.
8. A four-ram electric-hydraulic steering gear has fams 300 mm diameter, and the rudder stock is 450
mm diameter. The centre lines of the cylinders are 750 mm on either side of the rudder stock. The rudder
was struck by a heavy sea when in mid position and the relief valves lifted at a pressure of 75 bar (= 75 X
105 N/m2). Calculate the stress set up in the rudder stock.
10. A motor transmits 2500 kW to a solid shaft through flanges which has 6 coupling bolts of 50 mm
diameter on a pitch circle diameter of 350 mm. The diameter of the shaft is 250 mm, length 3 m,
rotational speed 120 rev/min, and the modulus of rigidity is 83 GN/m2. Calculate (i) the maximum shear
stress in the shaft, (ii) the angle of twist in the shaft, (iii) the shear stress in the coupling bolts.
The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is 1.6 times the inside diameter. When transmitting 420 kW of
power at 180 rev/ min the angle of twist is one degree over a length of 40 times the inside diameter.
Taking G for the material as 85 GN/m2, calculate (i) the outside and inside diameters, (ii) the maximum
shear stress, and (iii) the shear strain at the inner fibers.
A close coiled helical spring of mean coil diameter 40 mm is made of wire 5 mm diameter, the modulus of
rigidity of the wire material being 88 kN/mm2. If the stress in the wire is not to exceed 250 N/mm2 when
the spring is at its maximum deflection of 20 mm, find (i) the number of coils, (ii) the maximum load, and
(iii) the energy stored in the spring at maximum deflection.
A hydraulic steering gear has 4 rams each 300 mm diameter, the distance between centre-line of rams and
centre of rudder stock is 750 mm, the maximum rudder angle is 35, and the by-pass valves lift when the
pressure in the cylinders is 75 bar (= 75 X 105 N/m2). (i) If the stress in the rudder stock is not to exceed
70 MN/m2, find the diameter of the rudder stock. (ii) If the stress in the tiller arms at 600 mm from the
centre of the rudder stock is not to exceed 100 MN/m2, find the diameter of the tiller arms at this section.
12
A tube 5 m long, 13 mm outside diameter and 1.5 mm thick, is coiled into a helical spring of mean coil
diameter 150 mm. The spring is placed in a cylinder to oppose the motion of a piston in the cylinder. The
diameter of the piston is 200 mm and the effective pressure on the piston is 0.105 bar (= 0.105 x 105
N/m2). Calculate (i) the twisting moment applied to the spring, (ii) the maximum stress in the spring, and
(iii) the energy stored in the spring. The modulus of rigidity of the spring material is 103 GN/m2.
2. A specimen 22 mm diameter and 200 mm between gauge points was tested in a torsion machine and
found to twist 2 degrees when subjected to a torque of 343 N m and at this loading was just within the
elastic limit. Calculate the modulus of elasticity of the : material. Calculate also the maximum power that
can be transmitted by a shaft of identical material 175 mm diameter running at 300 rev / min allowing a
maximum shear stress of 50% of the stress at the elastic limit.
13
Applied Mechanics
Ch-14 Hydraulics
Prepared by-
Overview:
Buoyancy
Load on Immersed Body
Continuity and Bernoulli's Equation
Venturi Meter and Manometer
Jet
Flow through an orifice
1. Density and Relative Density
m
m 𝜌 density mkg3
=
V 𝜌 =
V m mass kg 3
V Volume m
= [ ]
Object of mass m occupying a Volume of V, has a density of m

𝜌 =
V
1.1. Relative Density / Specific Gravity
Relative Density Specific Gravity d water
/ , =
𝜌
𝜌
= density of object kg3 or g 3

𝜌 [
m cm
] [ ]
kg g
water = density of pure water at 4 C = 1000 3 = 1 3
𝜌 °
m cm
d = Relative density of object - (unitless)
Since water 1 3 , the value of Relative density is numerially equal to the density of the object in g 3
g [ ]
𝜌 =
cm cm
kg g
For example, density of aluminium is 2560 3 2 56 3 , Relative density of aluminium is 2 56
m cm = . ∴ .
2. Pressure in liquid
1
free surface
V Ah F mg P F
h
=
Vg
=
A
=
F =
Ahg
𝜌
Ah g 𝜌
A
= 𝜌
=
hg= 𝜌
A
P hg= 𝜌
3. Buoyant Force
h1 h2
P1 = 𝜌gh1 Fb
Fb P2 -P1 A
f g h2 -h1 A
= ( )
≡
f gVd
= 𝜌 ( )
= 𝜌
P2 = 𝜌 gh2
3.1. Apparent weight and Actual Weight:
Fb
W Wapp W-Fb
=
A body apparently 'loses' some weight when it is submerged in a fluid. This is due to the buoyant force
acting on the body in the upward direction which opposes the actual weight force of the body.
∴ Actual Weight W - Buoyant Force FB
( ) Apparent Weight Wapp
( ) = ( )
3.2. Floating Bodies
2
mg Vd = displaced volume
Buoyant Force, Fb f Vd g
mfd g
= 𝜌
Fb Wfd
=
Weight of the displaced fluid

=
Vd = Volume of fluid displaced by the body

mfd = Mass of fluid displaced by the body
A piece of cast iron registers a weight of 56N in air and 48.23 N when suspended in fresh water. Find the
relative density of the cast iron (p-323, example)
Solution:
Here,
Actual Weight W - Buoyant Force FB
( ) Apparent Weight Wapp ( ) = ( )
W-FB Wapp =
FB W-Wapp
=
FB 56-48 23N 7 77N

= . = .
We know,
FB w Vd g
Vd FwBg
= 𝜌
⟹ =
𝜌
⟹ Vd 0 000792m3
= .
As the cast iron is fully submerged in the liquid, the displaced volume Vd = V , volume of the cast iron.
Here
m 56 9 81 7207 65kg m3 W mg
,
m Wg 56 9 81 kg
/ . =
∴ 𝜌 =
V 0 000792
=
.
= . /
∴ = = ( / . )
Therefore, the relative density, d =

𝜌
= 7 20765 (Ans.)
.
𝜌 w
Alternative Method: (Shortcut)
W mg Vg
FB wgVd wVg w d Relative density
𝜌 𝜌
= = = = =
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌
∴ d FWB W-W
=
W =
56
app 56-48 23
7 20765 (Ans.) =
.
= .
Note: Please, be careful when using this formula blindly, this is true when the body is fully submerged
V Vd and the fluid is water f w .
( = ) (𝜌 = 𝜌 )
3
A block of Aluminium of 11.5 kg mass is suspended from a wire 1.5 mm diameter and lowered until
submerged into a tank containing oil of relative density 0.9. Taking the relative density of aluminium as
2.56. Find (i) the tension in the wire in N, (ii) the stress in the wire. (p- 323, ex)
Solution:
D = 1 5 mm
.
T = tension in the wire

T
Fb
W 11 5 kg .
W
For the block to be at rest,
Upward forces = Downward forces
Fb T W
+ =
T W-Fb
T mg- ogVd mg- ogV mg- og m
=
= 𝜌 = 𝜌 = 𝜌
11 5 9 81-0 9 103 9 81 2 5611 5103

𝜌
.
= . × . . × × . ×
73 153 N (Ans.)
. ×
= .
Now:
F T 73 153
D 4 3 1416 1 52 4 41 396N mm
Stress, 2
.
(Ans.)
𝜎 =
A =
𝜋
2 /
=
. × . /
= . /
A rectangular block of wood 375 mm long by 250 mm broad by 100 mm deep, floats in fresh water. If the
density of the wood is 0.75 g/cm 3 . find the draught at which it floats.
Solution:
100 mm
d = draught
m
375mm
m
Vd
2 05
V = 0 375 0 250 0 1 m3
( . × . × . ) 0 375 0 250 d m3
( . × . × )
4
For the object to float:
W Fb
mg wVdg Here
=
0 75g3 cm33 0 75 103kg m3

,
Vg wVdg
= 𝜌
w 10 kg m
𝜌 = . / = . × /
0 75 103 0 375 0 250 0 1 103 0 375 0 250 d

⟹ 𝜌 = 𝜌
d 0 075m Ans
⟹ . × × . × . × . = × . × . × 𝜌 = /
⟹ = . ( .)
The mass of a cork life-buoy is 12.25 kg. Find the maximum masss of cast iron it can support in sea water
if the iron suspended below the buoy. Take the relative density of cork, cast iron, and sea water as 0.288,
7.21 and 1.025 respectively. [p325, Example]
Solution:
Consider extreme case When the lifebuoy is fully submerged . (Full volume of the lifebuoy is submerged)
:
Life buoy 1
Iron
2
Life buoy
Upward forces Downward Forces
Fb1 Fb2 W1 W2
=
w V1 g w V2 g m1 g m2 g
+ = +
w V1 w V2 m1 m2
𝜌 + 𝜌 = +
1025 V1 1025 V2 12 25 m2
𝜌 + 𝜌 =
Here +
V1 m11
,
m
× + × = . +
12 25 2
1025 288 1025 7210 12 25 m2
.
=
V2 m22
𝜌
× + × = . +
Solving for m2
=
𝜌
m2 36 55 kg ans
,
= . ( .)
A circular cork life-buoy, outside diameter 800 mm, inside diameter 500 mm, has an elliptical section of
major axis 150 mm, minor axis 100 mm, and is required to support 14.5 kg mass of cast-iron suspended
below the buoy when floating in fresh water. Find the maximum permissible mass of water absorption into
the cork, taking the densities of cork and cast iron as 0·24 g/cm 3 and 7.21 g/cm 3 respectively. [p-592, 43]
Solution:
5
Area of Elliptical section Across ,
= 𝜋ab 4 Major Axis Minor Axis

=
𝜋
× ×
Pappus-Guldinas Theorem
Vbuoy Across 2 rm Elliptical Cross-section
800 500
= × 𝜋
4 2a𝜋
2b 2
+
2b minor axis
= ( )( )×𝜋
4 0 153 0 100 0 650

=
𝜋
= × . × . ×𝜋× .
= 0 024 m
.
2a = major axis
Consider extreme case When the lifebuoy is fully submerged

:
Life buoy 1
Upward forces Downward Forces
Fb1 Fb2 W1 W2 Wwater
=
w V1 g w V2 g 1 V1 g 2 V2 g mwater g
+ = + +
mwater V1 w - 1 V2 w - 2
𝜌 + 𝜌 = 𝜌 + 𝜌 +
mw V1 w - 1 m22 w - 2
⟹ = (𝜌 𝜌 ) + (𝜌 𝜌 )
Iron
2 = (𝜌 𝜌 ) + (𝜌 𝜌 )
14 5 1000-7210
𝜌
0 024 1000-240 7210

= . ( ) +
.
( )
=5 75 kg ans. ( .)
4. Load on Immersed body
Free Surface
head
bulk
Center of Pressure
hcp
F
≡
6
⏨h hcp
G F g ⏨hA
= 𝜌
A F hcp h⏨ ⏨hIGA
= +
hcp A h⏨
G
IG
F
F = Hydrostatic Load on the bulkhead

A Area of the bulkhead on which load is being applied
⏨
=
h = Vertical Distance between the free surface and the centroid of the bulkhead area .
IG = 2nd Moment of Area about the centroidal axis .
hcp = Center of pressure Vertical Distance between the free surface and the center of the pressure forces
=
A rectangular plate, 3 meters wide and 2 meters high is fitted in the vertical side of a tank. The tank
contains fresh water to a height of 7 meters above the top edge of the plate. Calculate (a) the load on the
plate and (b) the position of the center of pressure. (Density of F.W. =1000 kg/m 3 )
Solution:
(a) Load on the plate:
h⏨ = ( 7 1m
+ )
1000 kg m3 7m
3m
𝜌 = /
1m
2m 2m
Cross section
7
F gh⏨A Given
Area of rectangular plate A 3m 2m 6m2
,
1000 9 81 8 6
= 𝜌
⏨h 7m 22 m 8m
, = × =
=
470880N
× . × ×

470 880kN Ans
= = + =
= . ( .)
𝜌 = 1000 kg m3 /
(b) Position of the center of pressure

Here
For Rectangular plate the 2nd moment of area
,
1 3 23
hcp h h⏨IGA 8
⏨ 12
8 6 8 0417m with respect to the centroidal axis G is
,
× ×
IG 121 b d3 121 3 23 m4
= + = + = . ,
×
= × × = × ×
b 3m =
Centroidal Axis d 2m IG 1 bd3

12
=
=
Cross section
A vertical sluice gate 1.8 m square covers an outlet to the sea. The gate is hinged along its top edge and
opens into the sea. When the level of sea water is 0.9 m above the hinge and dry on the other side of the
gate, calculate (i) the total water thrust on the gate, (ii) the horizontal force to apply at the bottom edge
to open the gate. Take the density of sea water as 1024 kg/m3. [p- 507, 29]
Fhydrostatic g⏨
hA = 𝜌
= 1024 9 81 1 8 1 82
× . × . × . = 58585N 58 585 kN ans i
= . ( . )
1 1 84
hcp = ⏨ I G
+
12
h Ah⏨ 1 8 1 82 1 8 = . +
× .
= 1 95 m
.
. × .
h⏨ = 09 09 m 18m
( . + . ) = .
𝜌 = 1024 kg m3 /
0 9m
. 1 8m
.
1 8m . 1 8m
0 9m
.
Cross section
Moment about hinge :
Fhydrostatic 1 95-0 9 Fapplied 1 8

×( . . ) = × .
58 585 1 95-0 9 Fapplied 1 8

Fapplied 58 585 11895-0 9 34 1745 kN ans ii
. ×( . . ) = × .
. ×( . . )
= = . ( . )
.
8
hcp 09m
hinge
.
Fhydrostatic
Fapplied
4.1. For Inclined Plates

𝜃
⏨h
⏨y =
h⏨
𝜃
si
n
𝜃
⏨
h ⏨y
hcp
ycp
ycp
F ⏨y
𝜃
F A g ⏨y sin A gh⏨
= 𝜌 𝜃 = 𝜌
ycp ⏨y AIG⏨y
= + hcp
ycp
hcp
hcp h⏨ IG
=
si
n
A h⏨
= + 𝜃
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃
hcp h⏨ IG A⏨
2 sin 𝜃
=
h +
Solving Strategy:
- First find the area on which the load is being applied. A
- Locate the centroid of that area. Find the distance of the centroid from the free surface. ⏨
h or ⏨y
- Find the force F h⏨A g or F ⏨
= 𝜌y Ag = sin 𝜃 𝜌
- Now, for the location of Center of Pressure:

- Find the second moment of area with respect to the centroidal axis IG
- Apply the formula h AIG⏨
hcp ⏨ =
h Or ycp ⏨
+ y IG
A⏨y = +
9
A circular door 1.5 m diameter lies at 35° below the horizontal and its upper edge is 1 meter below the
surface of the water (density 1000 kg/m 3 ). Calculate the hydrostatic load on the door and the position of
the center of pressure.
Solution:
(a) Load on the plate:
35 °
35 °
1000 kg m3 1m
⏨y 0 75 35 0 75m
𝜌 = /
. sin ° .
0 75 35 . sin °
⏨
h 1 0 75 35 0 75
= + . sin ° .
m
1 5 m dia
. ( )
Cross section
F gh⏨A Given
Area of circular door A r2 d 2 2 d2 4 1 77m2
,
1000 9 81 1 43 1 77
= 𝜌
h⏨ 1m 125 35 1 43m
, = 𝜋 = 𝜋( / ) = 𝜋 / = .
=
24830 091 N
× . × . × .
.
24 83 kN Ans
= . = + × sin ° = .
= . ( .)
𝜌 =1000 kg m3 /
(b) Position of the center of pressure
35 35 °
1m
°
h⏨ ycp h⏨ ⏨y
⏨y
⏨y h⏨
=
sin 35 °
Cross section
ycp ⏨y ⏨yIGA
= +
10
⏨
h IG
=
sin 𝜃
+
h⏨ A
1 1 54 2 55m Ans
sin 𝜃
1 43
. 64 ×𝜋× .
=
sin35 °
+
1 43 1 77
.
= . ( .)
sin 35°
× .
Centroidal Axis IG =
64 d
𝜋
4
5. Continuity and Bernoulli's Equation

5.1. Continuity Equation
m␒ mass flow rate Q Volume flow rate
Q
= =
v A =
= Av
𝜌 ×
𝜌 ×
v Velocity of flow
=
m␒ 1 m␒2
=
A1 v1 A2 v2
𝜌 = 𝜌
A1 v1 A2 v2
=
5.2. Lift
Valve
L=Lift
Continuity Equation
A1 v1 A2 v2
:
Area of Escape
if v1 v2
=
(2)
A1 A2
=
d 𝜋 d2 dL
Pipe 4 = 𝜋
1
( ) ∴ L d4
=
m␒ Av
= 𝜌
A valve is 60 mm diameter, its lift is 4 mm, and water flows through it at a velocity of 2 m/s. allowing one-
ninth of the circumference to be taken up by the wings of the valve, find the mass flow of water through
the valve per hour. Take the density of the water as 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m 3 . [p-510. 23]
11
Solution:
d 60 mm
L 4mm
=
v 2m s
Aflow dL 89
= /
= 𝜋 ×
m␒ Aflowv 1000 dL 89 2 1000

= 𝜌 = ×𝜋 × × = ×𝜋× 60 10-3 4 10-3 89 2 1 3404 kg s ans
× × × × × = . / ( .)
5.3. Bernoulli's Equation

Total Energy = Pressure Energy + Gravitational Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy
E PV mgz 12 mv2
= + +
E P V gz 1 v2
m m=
2 + +
E P gz 1 v2
m =
22
+ +
E P z v
𝜌
mg g 2g
=
𝜌
+ +
P AF , V = LA,
=
W = FL = F LA PV
A × =
P2
v2
z2
P1
v1
z1
Total head z P v2 [Head Form]
=
⏦ head
Elevation
+
𝜌 g⏢
⏠⏣⏣
⏡⏣⏣
+
2g⏡⏣⏣
⏠⏣⏣ ⏢
Pressure head Velocity head
E1 E2
=
z1 Pg1 2gv1 z2 Pg2 2gv2

2 2
+ + = + +
𝜌 𝜌
Considering frictional loss:

E1 E2 loss
= +
P+
1 v 2
1 P 2
+
v 2
2
z1 g 2g z2 g 2g hf = + + + [Head form]
𝜌 𝜌
12
gz1 P1 12 v12 P2 12 v22 gz2 ghf
𝜌 + + 𝜌 = + 𝜌 +𝜌 +𝜌 [Pressure form]
Fresh water, density 1000 kg/m 3 flows upward through a tapered pipe 6.1m long 102 mm diameter at the
bottom and 204 mm diameter at the top. The pressure at the bottom is 311 kN/m 2 , while the velocity at
the top is 9.15 m/s. Determine the velocity at the bottom and the pressure at the top, if the energy loss
due to friction is equivalent to 32 meters head of water.
Solution:
z
2 P22
v2
61m .
z
1 P11 Datum
v1
Continuity Equation:
A1 v1 A2 v2
Here
=
d12 v d22 v
d1 102mm
,
𝜋
4 1 24 2 2 = 𝜋
d2 204mm
=
v1 dd21 v2 204 v2 9 15m s

=
=
102 9 15 36 6m s Ans
= × . = . / ( .)
= . /
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation at point (1) and (2)
z1 P1 v12 z2 P2 v22 hf
+
g 2g +
g 2g = + + +
Here
1 v12 P2 1 v22 gz2 ghf
𝜌 𝜌
P1 311kN m2
,
P1 +
2 𝜌
2 = + 𝜌 +𝜌 +𝜌
v2 9 15m s
= /
P2 1
P1 2 v12 -v22 - g z2 hf z1 0m
= . /
z2 6 1m
=
= + 𝜌( ) 𝜌 ( + )
311 103 12 103 36 62 -9 152 -103 9 81 6 1 32 hf 32m of Water

= .
P2 = × + ( . . ) × . ( . + ) = ( )
P2 = 565 16kN m2 Ans

. / ( .)
13
The pressure in a sea water main is 7 bar (= 7 x 105 N/m2) and this is connected to a hose 50 mm
diameter and 12 m long with a nozzle at the end which is 20 mm diameter and 6 m high above the main.
Find the velocity of the water at discharge from the nozzle, neglecting effects of bends in the hose. Take
the density of sea water as 1025 kg/m 3 , and the friction in the hose as equivalent to a loss of head of:
4fl v2
d 2g
×
where f= 0.01
l= length in metres
v= velocity through hose in m/s
d= diameter in metres [p-584,5]
Solution:
Nozzle
hose vhose v P2 0 bar atmospheric
v2 ms
= ( )
=
z2 6 m
= ? /
6m =
Continuity between hose and Nozzle

Ahosevhose A2v2
:
P1 7 bar gauge =
v1 0 m s
= ( )
4 dhosevhose 2 4 d2 v2 2
𝜋
2 2𝜋
z1 0 m
= / =
Sea
vhose dd2 2 v2 2050 v2 0 16 v2
=
= = = .
hose
Bernoulli2 s Equation between
' Sea and Nozzle :
v
P1 1 z1 P2 2 z2 hf v 2
g 2g2
+ +
g 2g2
= + + +
P1 1 z1 P2 v2 z2 4fl vhose
v
𝜌 𝜌
2
g 2g
+ +
g 22g
= +
d 2g + +
P1 v22 z 4fl vhose

𝜌 𝜌
g 2g 2 d2 2g
= + +
v2 6 4 0 01 12
𝜌
7 105
× × . × 0 16v2 2
( . )
1025 9 81 2 9 81
× .
=
× 50 10-3
.
+ +
×
×
2 9 81
× .
v22 2 19 81 4 500 0110-312 20 169 81 7 105 -6

× .
2 × ( . ) ×
× .
+
×
×
× .
=
1025 9 81 × .
v22 06306349
=
615
.
63 615 31 65 m s
.
v2 =
0 06349
.
.
= . /
6. Measuring Devices
6.1. Manometer
14
Open to air Open to air
Open to air
Gas Gas Patm Gas Patm

at P1
Patm at P1 h at P1
h
𝜌 𝜌
Manometric Fluid
(Mercury)
P1 Patm P1 Patm P1 Patm
P1 Patm h g P1 Patm -h g
> <
=
= + 𝜌 = 𝜌
P1 Patm h g+ 𝜌 When gas is at higher pressure

=
Patm -h g 𝜌 When gas is at lower pressure
Gauge Pressure Vs Absolute Pressure:

Gauge Pressure Absolute Pressure - Atmospheric Pressure
=
PG Pabs -Patm
=
Atmospheric Pressure at ground = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar = 1 atm
6.2. Venturi Meter

Venturi Meter
d2ThroatP2
d1 P1 v2
v1
Converging Diverging
cone cone
hm
Qact CD Qtheo
= ×
15
Where, CD = Meter Coefficient Or discharge coefficient of venturi meter
Typically values of CD for venturi meter is between 0.95 and 0.98
CD takes care of the frictional losses associated with the venturi meter.
Water flows through a smooth bore horizontal venturi meter which is 375 mm diameter at entrance and
125 mm diameter at throat. If the difference in pressure between these two points is equivalent to 457 mm
head of water, calculate the mass flow rate in kg/s.
Solution:
Now,
A21v1 = A22v2
d1 v1 d2 v2 Here
d1 375mm
= ,
v2 d12 v d1 2v 375 2v 9v d2 125mm

=
d22 1 d2 1 125 1 1
= = = = =
P1 -P2 457mm H2O 457mm wg

P1 -P2 457 10-3m
= = ×𝜌
wg
∴ = ×
𝜌
Since, the venturi meter is horizontal, z1 z2 =
m␒ = ?
Bernoulli’s Equation:
z1 Pg1 v12 z P2 v22
+
𝜌
+
2g 2 g 2g
= +
𝜌
+
P1 - P2 v22 - v12
𝜌 g g 𝜌
=
2g 2g
P1 -P2 v22 -v12
g 𝜌
=
2g
457 10 -3 81v 2 -v 2 40v 2
1 1 1
× =
2g g =
v12 = 457 10-3 40g

× ×
v1 = 0 11207 0 3348m s
. = . /
m␒ A1 v1 d12 v 103 0 32 0 3348 23 67kg s

.
= 𝜌 = 𝜌×𝜋
4 1 4
= ×𝜋 × . = . /
6.3. U-tube gauge / differential manometer containing water and mercury:
16
P2
P1
hw -hm 𝜌 m = 13 6 103 mkg3
. ×
hw
hm 𝜌 w = 103 mkg3
P1 + 𝜌 w ghw P2 + 𝜌 w g hw -hm
( ) + 𝜌 m ghm
P1 wghw P2 wg hw -hm
+ 𝜌 = + 𝜌 ( ) + 𝜌 m ghm
P1 -P2 m - w ghm
= (𝜌 𝜌 )
A pipe 300mm diameter contains a venturi meter with a throat diameter of 100mm. The difference in
pressure head between inlet and throat is 250 mm of mercury, measured on a U-tube gauge containing
water and mercury. The meter coefficient is 0.95. Calculate the discharge rate through the pipe, in m 3 /s.
(Density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 , Relative density of mercury = 13.6 )
Solution:
A21v1 A22v2
=
d1 v1 d2 v2
=
Here
2 d1 300mm
d
,
v2 d2 v1
=
1
d2 100mm
=
v2 9v1
=
P1 -P2 250mm g m - w
= × × (𝜌 𝜌 )
= 250 10-3 29 81 13 6-1 103

× × . ×( . )×
30901 5N m 2
30 9015kN m
= . /
= . /
Meter Coefficient, CD 0 95 = .
Bernoulli’s Equation
P 1 v 2
1
z1 g 2g z2 g 2g
+ +
P 2 v 2
2
= + +
𝜌 𝜌
P1 - P2 v22 - v12
𝜌 g g 2g 2g
𝜌
=
P1 -P2 v22 -v12

g 2g 2 2
=
30901 5 81v1 -v1 40v12

𝜌
103 9 81
× . 2g =
g =
17
v12 30 409015 0 7725
=
.
= .
v1 0 7725 0 8789m s
= . = . /
Q CD A1 v1
= ×
d 2
1
CD 4 v1
= 𝜋
(Ans.)
0 95 03 0621m s
3
0 059m s
= . × . /
= . /
HW Fresh water flows through a horizontal venturi meter which has diameters at entrance and throat of
150 mm and 50 mm respectively. The difference in pressure between these two points is measured by a
submerged U-tube containing mercury and water. Taking the specific gravity of mercury as 13.6 and the
discharge coefficient for the meter as 0.9, calculate the mass flow of water per hour through the meter
when the recording on the U-tube is 50 mm of mercury. [p-592, 47]
7. Jet
nozzle
pipe v
Plate
Jet
F ma For Control Mass Solid

= → →
F m␒ vin -vout For Control Volume Fluid

= ( ) → →
In x-direction :
Fx m␒ vin x -vout x m␒ v-0 m␒ v Av v Av2

= ( , , ) = ( ) = = 𝜌 × = 𝜌
Normal Force applied on the stationary plate Fjet stat Av2 , ,

= 𝜌
7.1. Moving Plate
18
u
v
( v-u )
Normal Force applied on the moving plate with velocity u Fjet moving plate ( ), , = A v-u 2
𝜌 ( )
7.2. Inclined Plate

F
v u
𝜃
v n
is
𝜃
𝜃
so
c
v
09 °
Fjet inclined stat Av vcos Av2cos

= 𝜌 ⋅ 𝜃 = 𝜌 𝜃
Fjet inclined moving A v-u 2cos

, ,
, , = 𝜌 ( ) 𝜃
A horizontal jet of fresh water 25 mm diameter with a velocity of 15 m/s strikes a flat plate which is
inclined at 45° to the direction of the jet. Assuming no splash back of the water, calculate the normal force
exerted on the plate when the plate is (i) stationary, (ii) moving at 10 m/s in the direction of the jet. [p-
588, 27]
Solution:
A 4 d3
=
𝜋
2 =
10 kg m3
v 15 m s
𝜌 = /
= /
45
u 10m s
𝜃 = °
= /
Fjet stat
, .
= 𝜌 Av2 cos 𝜃 = 103 4 0 025 2 152
×
𝜋
( . ) × × cos 45 °
Fjet inclined moving

, ,
= A v-u 2cos
𝜌 ( ) 𝜃 =
8. Flow through an orifice
19
E1 E2 mgh 1 mv2
= =
2
v = 2gh
E1 = mgh
vjet Cv v Cv 2gh
= =
h A 𝜋 d2
=
4
d E2 1 mv2
=
2 Ajet CA A CA d4
= =
2
𝜋
QJet Ajet vjet CACv Av

= × = = CA Cv A 2gh
QJet = CACv Av CDAv CDQtheo
= =
In x direction
ux v
=
x ux t vt
ax 0
= =
v =
g
y In y direction
uy 0
=
y uy t 12 gt2 12 gt2
ay g
= + =
=
In an experiment the water level in a tank was kept constant at 1.25 m above a hole 12 mm diameter in
the side of a tank. The jet of water from the hole passed through a ring which was 2.17 m horizontally
from the side of the tank and 1 m vertically below the hole. The water discharged into a tank and
measured to be at the rate of 20.84 liters per minute. From these results calculate the coefficients of
velocity, reduction of area and discharge.
Solution:
Now,
We know,
20
Here
h 1 25m
,
y 12 gt2 d 12mm
= .
x 2 17m
= =
1 12 9 81 t2 y 1m
= .
Q 20 84L min-3 3
= × . × =
1
t 2 9 81 0 45s 20 84 10 m 0 0003473m3 s
= .
.
/
60s
∴ = × = .
= = . /
.
1L 10-3m3 [ = ]
Now,
x vjett
vjet xt 20 17
=
45 4 81m s
.
= = = . /
.
Now,
vjet Cv v Cv 2gh
Cv vjet 44 81
= =
0 97 (Ans.) .
2gh 95
= = = .
.
Now,
Q Ajetvjet
Ajet vQjet 0 0003473
=
4 81 0 00007220374m
= =
2
.
= .
.
Now,
Ajet CAA CA d2 4
CA dA2jet 4 00 00007220374
= = 𝜋 /
00011309733 0 638 (Ans.)

.
= = = .
𝜋 / .
Now,
CD CA Cv 0 97 0 638 0 61886 (Ans.)
= × = . × . = .
Water flows through a 10 mm diameter orifice in the side of a tank which rests on a horizontal ground.
The hole is 0.6m above ground level and the head of water above the hole is 1.5 m. The jet strikes the
ground at a horizontal distance of 1.84 m from the side of the tank and the rate of discharge is 15.85 liters
per minute, Find the coefficients of velocity, reduction of area, and discharge.
Solution:
Now,
We know,
y 1 gt2
=
2
1 1 9 81 t2
=
2 × . ×
∴ t 2 90816 0 35s
= ×
.
.
= .
Here,
h 1 5m v 2gh2 5 43m s
10mm A 4d 0 00007853981m2
= . ∴ = = . /
d = ∴ =
𝜋
= .
x 1 84m
y 0 6m
= .
= .
21
Q 15 85L min 15 85 60s10 m 0 000264167m3 s
-3 3
= . / =
. ×
= . / 1L 10-3m3
[ = ]
Now,
x vjett
vjet xt 10 84
=
35 5 26m s
.
= = = . /
.
Now,
vjet Cv v Cv 2gh
Cv vjet 55 26
= =
0 97 (Ans.)
.
2gh 43
= = = .
.
Now,
Q Ajetvjet
Ajet vQjet 0 000264167
=
=
5 26
=
.
0 00005022186m2
.
= .
Now,
Ajet CAA CA d2 4
CA dA2jet 4 00 00005022186
= = 𝜋 /
00007853981 0 639 (Ans.)

.
= = = .
𝜋 / .
Now,
CD CA Cv 0 97 0 639 0 61983
= × = . × . = . (Ans.)
A cylindrical tank 1.5 m diameter contains liquid and stands with its longitudinal axis vertical. The liquid
flows into the top of the tank at the volume flow rate of 1.2 m3/min and flows out of the bottom of the
tank through an orifice 65 mm diameter. Taking the coefficient of discharge as 0.7, calculate (i) the depth
in the tank for steady liquid-level conditions, and (ii) the time to empty the tank from that level after the
supply at the top is shut off, taking the mean volume flow rate through the orifice to be one-third of the
maximum. [p-520, 87]
Solution:
22
Qactual CD Qtheo CD Aorifice v CD 4 d2
= × = × × = ×
𝜋
× 2gh
12 07
4 0 065 2 9 81 h
.
2 𝜋
60 = . × ×( . ) × × . ×
h 3 7786 m ans i
= . ( . )
Volume of tank Vtank 4 D2 h 4 1 52 3 7786 6 6773 m3

, =
𝜋
=
𝜋
. × . = .
Mean flow rate Qmean 13 Qmax 13 1602 0 0066 m3 s

, = = ×
.
= . /
Qmean Vtank t=
V
t Qmean 60 6773
tank 1011 7121
.
s 1011 7121 16 6 min ans ii .
=
0066=
. 60 = . = = . ( . )
23
Applied Mechanics + Applied Heat
Ch-14 Hydraulics + Ch-13 Turbine
(Centrifugal Pump + Turbine)
Prepared by-
Overview:
Centrifugal Pump
Turbine
1. Centrifugal Pump
https://grabcad.com/library/centrifugal-pump-103
Refreshing the concept of absolute and relative velocity
vab va -vb
=
vab vb va
+ =
va
vab
vb
va vab vb
= +
Absolute Velocity of A = Relative Velocity of A Absolute veclocity of B

+
1.1. Velocity diagram of fluid in centrifugal pump:

v vr S
= +
Absolute Velocity of fluid v

( ) = Relative Velocity of fluid vr + Rotational velocity of the vane
( ) S
( )
vr is the velocity of the fluid when the observer is rotating at the same rotational speed of the vane
v is the velocity of the fluid when observer is stationary
S is the rotational velocity of the vane.
S r 2 60rN 60dN
= 𝜔 =
𝜋
=
𝜋
where N = revolution per minute

Absolute Velocity has 2 components
v vf vw
= +
Velocity of whirl vw = the component of absolute velocity in the direction of the rotation of the vane
( )
Velocity of flow vf = the component of absolute velocity in the radial direction.

( )
1
Relative Velocity, vr
Fluid Velocity, v Whirl velocity, vw
Absolute Velocity, v
Velocity Velocity of Flow, vf
Blade Velocity, S
1.2. Velocity diagram
vf v
v
vr
S = 𝜔 r vw
r
𝜔
2
S2
vw2 S2 -vw2
2
vf2 v1
𝜃
v2
=
v r2
𝜃 2
S1 v r1
𝜃 1 r2
1
v1
𝜃
𝜔 r1
Inlet
Outlet
S2
S1 vw2 S2 -vw2
v r1
𝜃 1 2
vf2
𝜃
v1 1 v2
v r2
𝜃
𝜃 2
1.3. General Assumptions for a centrifugal pump:

- The inlet velocity of the fluid is radial, hence v1 = vf1 and vw1 0 =
3
- The velocity of flow at entrance vf1 = the velocity of flow at exit vf2
( ) ( )
- Vane angle at entrance 1 and vane angle at exit 2 Vane angle = Angle of vane with the tangential
= 𝜃 = 𝜃
direction
- For no shock at entry and exit, relative velocity of fluid at entry and exit should be tangent to the vane.
-
v f1 v 1
tan 𝜃 1 =
S1 S1 =
-
v f2 v1
tan 𝜃 2 =
S2 -vw2 S2 -vw2 =
- Flow rate
Q A 1 v f1 A 2 v f2
= =
⟹ 2 r 1 b 1 v f1 2 r 2 b 2 v f2
𝜋 = 𝜋
⟹ 𝜋 d 1 b 1 v f1 d 2 b 2 v f2
= 𝜋
- Since, vf1 vf2 d1 b1 d2 b2

= , =
- b1 b2 width of the impeller at entrance and exit.

, =
The outer and inner diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 600 and 300 mm respectively, and
the width at the impeller entrance is 120 mm. Calculate the width of the impeller at exit and mid-radius so
that the radial velocity of the water through the impeller is constant. Calculate also the angle of the vanes
at entrance so that the water enters without shock when the pump is running at 420 rev/min and the
radial velocity is 1.65 m/s.
Solution:
Given,
d1 300mm
=
d2 600mm
=
b1 120mm
=
b2= ?
We know, d1 b1 d2 b2 [when vf1 vf2 ]

b2 dd1b2 1 300600120 60 mm (ans. i)
= =
×
= = =
bmid dd1midb1 d2d1 1bd12 2 300300 600120 80 mm (ans. ii)

= =
+
=
×
+
×
=
N 420rpm
S1 r 260N r Nd
=
𝜋 1 420 300 10-3 6 597m s

𝜋 𝜋× × ×
= 𝜔 =
60 × =
60 = = . /
4
Inlet
S1
v r1
𝜃 1
1
vf1 v1
𝜃
vf1 v1 1 65 0 25 .
tan 𝜃 1 =
S1 S1 6 597
= =
.
= .
𝜃 1 = tan
-1 0 25 14 04 (Ans.)
( . ) = . °
1.4. Pump Work

=
v
hm zS zD 2g hf
2
2 + + +
hm manometric head = head supplied by the centrifugal pump

=
W␒ out m␒ ghm
=
W␒ out
𝜂 =
W␒ in
5
A pump draws sea water from 3 m below its own level and discharges to a height of 76 m above its level.
m3
The flow rate is 108 and the diameter of the discharge pipe is 130mm. If the friction head loss in the
h
pipes is 13.7 m and the pump efficiency is 65%, calculate the power required to drive the pump. (Density
of sea water = 1025 kg/m 3 .)
Solution:
Here,
zS = 3m
zD 76m
m3 0 03m3 s
=
Q =108m3 h 108 3600s / = = . /
d 130mm
hf 13 7m
=
= .
𝜂 = 65 %
Now,
Q A2v2 4d2 v2
2 𝜋
= =
v2 2 26m s
= . /
Now,
hm zS zD 2gv2 hf
2
= + + +
3 76 22 269 81 13 7
2 .
= + + + .
92 96m
× .
= .
Now,
W␒ out m␒ ghm Qghm 1025 0 03 9 81 92 96 28042 0812W 28 042kW
= = 𝜌 = × . × . × . = . = .
Now,
W␒ out
𝜂 =
W␒ in
W␒ in Wout 280 042
␒
65 43 14kW
.
= = = .
𝜂 .
A ballast pump discharges sea water through a pipe 125 mm diameter at a velocity of 1.2 m/s to a height
of 5.8 m, the efficiency of the pump being 62%. Taking the density of sea water as 1.025 g/ml, find the
output and input power of the pump. [p-513, 42]
The outer and inner diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 750 mm and 375 mm respectively,
and the width at the impeller entrance is 150 mm. When the pump is running at · 100 rev/min the radial
velocity of the water through the impeller is 1.5 m/s and this is constant at all radii. Calculate (i) the
width of the impeller at exit, (ii) the angle of the impeller vanes at entrance so that the water enters
without shock when running at the above speed. [p-586, 15]
6
A pump is to draw water from a depth of 3 m and in order to prevent the water breaking up a pressure not
less than an equivalent head of 2 m is to be maintained in the pipe line. Taking the atmospheric pressure
as 760 mm Hg find the minimum diameter of the suction pipe to deal with 300 m3/h. Specific gravity of
mercury = 13.6. [p-590, 34]
2. Velocity diagram of impulse and Reaction turbine and force on blade

2.1. Types of velocity associated with the velocity diagram
https://grabcad.com/library/rotor-and-stator-of-230-mw-lp-steam-turbine-1
7
Relative Velocity, vr
Fluid Velocity, v Whirl velocity, vw
Absolute Velocity, v
Velocity Axial velocity, va
Blade Velocity, u
v1 v vw va
v vr u
= +
= +
vr1
When friction occurs u1 When no friction
vr1 vr2
vr1 vr2
:
=
KE1 KE2 Frictional Loss

>
Frictional Loss KE1 -KE2

= +
vr2 When friction available
vr 2 kvr 1
,
1 mvr 12 - 1 mk2vr 12 1-k2 1 mvr 12

=
v2 k velocity coefficient
,
= ,
=
2 2 2 = u2 =
Inlet Outlet
v r1 v1 v r2 v a2
v a1 v2
𝛽 1 𝛼 1 𝛽 2 𝛼 2
x vw1 -u
=
u u v w2
y u vw2
v w1
= +
Inlet Outlet
v r1 v1 v r2 v a2
v a1 v2
𝛽 1 𝛽 2 𝛼 2
u 1 v w2
x vw1 -u
=
𝛼
v w1
2.1.1. Force on blade
8
Force of fluid on an object
mvin
mvout
Change in Momentum mvin -mvout

=
Momentum mvin -mvout F m␒ vin - vout

Force Change intime
= =
t = =
9
Force on blade due to whirl velocity
mvw1
F P F u m␒ vwu
u
= × =
mvw2
F m␒ vw1 - -vw2
= ( ( )) = m␒ vw1 vw2
( + ) = m␒ vw
Force on blade due to axial velocity = Axial thrust

mva1
Fa
mva2
Fa m␒ va1 -va2
= ( )
Blade Efficiency :
Pout m␒ vwu 2vwu 2 vw1 vw2 u ( + )

𝜂 =
Pin 12 m␒ v12 v12
= =
v12 =
2. (p-252) Example. Steam leaves the nozzles of a single stage impulse turbine at a velocity of 670 m/s at
19° to the plane of the wheel, and the steam consumption is 0.34 kg/s. The mean diameter of the blade
ring is 1070 mm. Find (i) the inlet angle of the blades to suit a rotor speed of 83.3 rev/s. If the velocity
coefficient of the steam across the blades is 0.9 and the blade exit angle is 32° find (ii) the force on the
blades, (iii) the power given to the wheel, and (iv) the diagram efficiency.
Solution:
u = 𝜔 r = 2 N D2
𝜋 2 83 3 rps 1 070
=
2 m
𝜋 × . ×
.
= 280 m s /
Velocity Coefficient, k 0 9 : = .
10
vr2 kvr1 =
v1 670 m s
= /
𝛼 19= °

Inlet
v1 1 vw1 670 19
x vw1 - u 670 19 - 280 353 5 m s
cos 𝛼 = = cos °
v1 va1 v1 1 670 19
= = cos ° = . /
v a1 v r1 va1 670 19 0 617

= sin 𝛼 =
sin
sin
°
°
1
tan 𝛽
x 353 5
= = = .
1 -1 0 617 31 67
.
1
𝛼
𝛽 𝛽1 = tan ( . ) = . °
u
x vw1 -u
=
v w1
Outlet vr1 va 12 x2 415 38 m s

= + = . /
vr2 kvr1 0 9 415 38 373 842 m s

2 32
= = . × . = . /
v r2 v a2 vr2 2 u vw2
𝛽 = °
v2 vw2 vr2 2 -u
cos 𝛽 = +
vw2 37 035 m s
= cos 𝛽
𝛽 2 𝛼 2 ∴ = . /
u v w2
F m␒ vw m␒ vw1 vw2 0 34 670 19 37 035 228 N Ans
= = ( + ) = . ×( cos ° + . ) = ( .)
P m␒ vw u 228 280 63840 W 63 84kW

2vwu 2 670 19 37 035 280 0 836 83 6
= = × = = .
×( cos ° + . )×
𝜂 =
v12 =
6702 = . = . %

4. (p-261, f11) In an impulse turbine the theoretical enthalpy drop of the steam through the nozzles is
312.5 kJ/kg and 10% of this is lost friction in the nozzles. The nozzle angle is 20°, the inlet angle of the
blades is 35°, and the absolute velocity of the steam leaving the blades is 204 m/s in the direction of the
axis of the turbine. Calculate on the basis of one kg of steam supplied per second:
(i) blade velocity so that there is no shock at steam entry,
(ii) blade angle at exit,
(iii) energy lost due to friction of the steam across the blades,
(iv) axial thrust,
(v) power supplied,
(vi) efficiency of the blading.
Solution:
11
For Nozzle We know:
v1 = 2 h 𝛥 = 2 htheoretical 1-loss
𝛥 ×( ) = 2 312 5 103 1-0 1
× . × ×( . ) = 750 m s/
𝛼 1 = 20 °
𝛽 1 = 35 °
Inlet Outlet
v1 v r2
v a1 v r1 v2 va2 204m s
= = /
1 1 2 90
𝛼
𝛽
𝛽 2 𝛼 = °
u u
x vw1 -u
=
v w1
va1 v1 1
1
sin 𝛼
tan 𝛽
x =
x =
v
x 1 11 750 20 366 3415 m s
sin 𝛼 sin °
=
tan 𝛽35 =
tan °
= . /
v1 1 u xcos 𝛼 = +
u v1 1 -x 750 20 -366 3415 338 4279 m s ans

= cos 𝛼 = cos ° . = . / ( .)
2 u
tan 𝛽
v2 =
-1 204
𝛽2 =
338 4279 31 08 ans
tan
.
= . ° ( .)
vr1 = va 12 x2+ = ?
vr2 = v22 u2 + = ?
Energy lost due to friction across the blade

= Change in kinetic energy of relative velocity = 1 m␒ vr12 - 1 m␒ vr 22 ans
2 2 = ? ( .)
va1 v1 1 = sin 𝛼
va2 v2 =
Fa m␒ va1 -va2
= ( ) = ?

P m␒ vwu m␒ vw1 u
= = ( ) = ?
2vwu
𝜂 =
v12 = ?
12

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Applied Mechanics

Ch-01 Vector and Vector Diagrams

1.2. Component Division

1 knot 1 nautical mile per hour 1852m

The ship is travelling at an angle of 12 11 East of North . ° .

resultant speed and direction of the ship.

S Space Diagram Vector Diagram

u 130 3 130sin ° × sin °

The ship is travelling at an angle of 6 57 North of East

r sin 175 110 0 2349

Using Sine Rule :

Distance of the piston that has moved down its stroke

A'O = l + r = 700 + 175 = 875 mm

Using Sine Law: Here,

Distance of the piston that has moved down its stroke

4. Chain and Rope

105 = 650 25 - 51x .

51x 650 25 - 105

0 748 Right forces Left forces

Applying Sine Rule:

Now drawing vector diagram:

Space Diagram Vector Diagram

Alternative way to find T1 and T2 without drawing vector diagram

Left Forces Right Forces=

From 1 and 2 Solve for T1 and T2

Now putting the value of T1 in (1)

∴ T2 0 454 425021 17 78 38 8 kN ans

Assumption: Frictionless pulley

Crane Head Tie Crane Head

suspended from the crane head.

Tie Crane Head

From Sine law:

Upward Forces Downward Forces

75 811 40 Ftcos75 811 Fjcos40 T T 50 1

Left Forces Right Forces

Constant Velocity Motion Constant Acceleration Motion

⟹ 70t - 12 9 81 t2 100 t-2 - 12 9 81 t-2 2

1min 2min 1 min t

2. Relative Velocity (Ship Related Problems)

vA Absolute velocity of A Velocity of A with respect to observer O

vB Absolute velocity of B Velocity of B with respect to observer O

vBA Velocity of B with respect to A vB -vA

vAB Velocity of A with respect to B vA -vB

vAB = 222 142 -2 22 14 45 15 6340 knots ans

Applying Sine Rule:

-1 0 9950 84 27 First Quadrant

Separation of two ships after 5hrs

nearest together and the time for them to get there.

Nearest Approach AB1 AB 16 84

16 84 se o Time to get there BB 1 5 cos16 84

Space Diagram Vector Diagram

B1 Nearest Approach AB1 AB 14 42

App vBA 13 1417

T 2tH 2v0 g 0 sin 𝜃

Constant Velocity Motion Constant Acceleration Motion

𝜔 shaft = 𝜔 wheel Load

𝛼 shaft wheel 0 8rad s 2

Newton s First Law No Force No change in motion

1.1. Pulley Related Problems

Free body diagram of m2 :