Gene action and Non-Mendelian

Inheritance
Types of gene action
1. Non-additive
1. limited genes involved
2. affects qualitative traits (descriptive)
3. produces distinct phenotype
2. Additive
1. many genes are involved
2. affects quantitative traits (measurable)
3. gradual differentiation in the phenotype of different
genotypes
Non-Additive Gene Action
1. Dominance and Recessiveness
- Dominant gene hides or prevents the expression of its
recessive allele when gene pair is heterozygous.
- Recessive allele is only expressed in homozygous
recessive pairing.
- 3 possible genotypes; but only 2 phenotypes
Ex: Presence of horn in cattle
P= polled gene, dominant; p= horned, recessive
Genotype Phenotype
PP Polled
Pp Polled
pp Horned
Non-Additive Gene Action…
2. Lack of Dominance
- Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype when the
genotype is heterozygous.
Ex: Coat color in cattle
R = red; r = white
3 genotypes and 3 phenotypes
Genotypes Phenotypes
RR Red
rr White
Rr Roan (both red and white
hairs are present in the coat)
Non-Additive Gene Action…
3. Over Dominance
- The heterozygote is superior to both homozygote
genotypes.
- Effect of hybrid vigor due to heterosis
Ex: Sickle cell anemia
S – normal cell; s – sickle cell
3 genotypes and 3 phenotypes
Genotypes Phenotypes
SS Normal
ss Anemic
Ss Carrier, resistant against malaria
Both SS and ss are susceptible to malaria
Non-Additive Gene Action…
4. Epistasis
- interaction of non-alleles or inter-allelic interaction
- epistatic gene influences the expression of genes
which are not their allelic pair.
Ex: Coat color in horses
B- black, dominant; b- chestnut, recessive
W-epistatic, prevents color; w-neutral, allows color
BBww Black BBWw or BBWW White
Bbww Black BBWw or BBWW White
bbww Chestnut BBWw or BBWW White
Additive Gene Action
- Several genes affecting the same trait
- Involve quantitative traits (measurable)
Ex: Height, controlled by 4 pairs of genes (hypothetical)
Contributory genes: A, B, C & D
Each contributory genes adds 3 cm to the
base height
Neutral genes: a, b, c & d
non-contributory, do not add to
phenotype
If base height is 75 cm the following genotypes and
their corresponding phenotypes are given below:

Tallest: AABBCCDD with 8 contributory genes

75 + (8*3) = 99 cm
Shortest: aabbccdd
75 + 0 = 75 cm
Intermediate height: with 4 contributory genes
AABBccdd, AaBbCcDd, AAbbCCdd, etc
75 + (4*3) = 87 cm
Types of Genetic Crosses

Monohybrid cross - cross involving a

single trait
e.g. coat color in cattle
Dihybrid cross - cross involving two
traits
e.g. coat color and polledness
Punnett Square
Used to help solve
genetics problems
Examples
A A
Parents alleles are:
AA and aa
Aa Aa
a

a Aa Aa
Phenotypic and Genotypic Ratios
• Phenotypic Ratios
• Shows ratio of what is seen
• Example: previous Punnett square: the phenotypic ratio is 4:0
Phenotypic and Genotypic Ratios
• Genotypic Ratios
• Shows what is not seen (Genotype)
• Example: previous Punnett square: the genotype ratio is 0:4:0
 • Angus cattle: coat color

B B B is dominant
b is recessive
b Bb Bb
cross a BB cow with
Bb Bb a bb bull
b
 Cross a BB cow to a Bb
bull. But also, another
Bull - BbPp
allele is considered.
BP Bp bP bp
Polled:
Bp BBPp BBpp BbPp Bbpp
P is dominant
p is recessive
Bp BBPp BBpp BbPp Bbpp Cross the Bb
heterozygous polled
bull with the BB
homozygous recessive
Cow - BBpp horned cow
 Phenotypic Ratio
BBPp – black polled 8:8
Or
BBpp – black horned 1:1

BbPp – black polled

Genotypic Ratio
Bbpp – black horned 4:4:4:4
Or
1:1:1:1
 Dihybrid Cross
PpBb X PpBb
Each parent can produce 4 types of
gametes.
PB, Pb, pB, pb
 X PB Pb pB pb
PB PPBB PPBb PpBB PpBb
Pb PPBb PPbb PpBb Ppbb
pB PpBB PpBb ppBB ppBb
pb PpBb Ppbb ppBb ppbb
 RESULTS
9 Polled, Black
3 Polled, Red
3 Horned, Black
1 Horned , Red
Or: 9:3:3:1
Typical Dihybrid ratio for a single trait

Pea
Rose

Single Walnut

Parents: Pea X Rose

(PPrr) (RRpp)

Walnut (PpRr)
 X PR Pr pR pr
PR PPRR PPRr PpRR PpRr
Pr PPRr PPrr PpRr Pprr
pR PpRR PpRr ppRR ppRr
pr PpRr Pprr ppRr pprr
phenotype Ratio : 9:3:3:1
Where,
9: Walnut
3: Pea
3:Rose
1: Single

24
Probabilities in Dihybrid Inheritance
Alleles Alleles
P = polled; p = horned R = red; r = white; Rr = roan

Parents PPRR x pprr

Phenotype Polled-red horned-white
Gametes PR pr
1 1
Zygote PpRr
1
Parents PpRr x PpRr
Allelic combinations
1 PP 1 RR
2 Pp 2 Rr
1 pp 1 rr
4 4 16 zygotic combinations
3 3 9 genotypes

Phenotypes
3 P_ Polled 1 RR Red
1 pp Horned 2 Rr Roan
1 rr White
4 4 16 zygotic combinations
2 3 6 phenotypes
 1 RR 1 PPRR 3 Polled Red
1 PP 2 Rr 2 PPRr
1 rr 1 PPrr 6 Polled Roan
1 RR 2 PpRR
2 Pp 2 Rr 4 PpRr 3 Polled White
1 rr 2 Pprr
1 RR 1 ppRR 1 Horned Red
1 pp 2 Rr 2 ppRr 2 Horned Roan
1 rr 1 pprr 1 Horned White

Zygotic comb'ns 16
Genotypes 9
Genotypic Ratio 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
 1 RR red 3 P_RR Polled Red
3 P_ 2 Rr roan 6 P_Rr Polled Roan
Polled 1 rr white 3 P_rr Polled White
1 RR red 1 ppRR Horned Red
1 pp 2 Rr roan 2 ppRr Horned Roan
Horned 1 rr white 1 pprr Horned White

Zygotic comb'ns 16
Phenotypes 6
Phenotypic Ratio 3:6:3:1:2:1
 Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Inheritance not covered by Mendel’s laws
Linkage- characters or traits carried in the same
chromosome tend to stay together during
gamete formation.
1. Sex-linkage
Happens in the sex chromosomes
Mammals: XY male (heterogametic)
XX female (homogametic)
Birds: ZZ male (homogametic)
ZW female (heterogametic)
Majority of sex-linked traits are carried in the X and Z
chromosomes.
Checking for sex-linkage: Reciprocal Crossing

Parents
Genotype XRY x XDXD
Phenotype Color blind male Normal female
F1
Genotype XDXR, XDY, XDXR, XDY
Phenotype All normal, but females are carriers

Parents
Genotype XDY x XRXR
Phenotype Normal male Color blind female
F1
Genotype XDXR, XRY, XDXR, XRY
Phenotype All females are normal but carriers; All males are colorblind
2.Autosomal Linkage
Linked genes or
genes located in the
same chromosomes
tend to be inherited
together.
However, linked
genes are separated
by crossing over
which happens
during the prophase
stage in meiosis 1.
Following Mendel’s second law,
an AaBb individual will
produce the following
gametes: 1AB:1Ab:1aB,1ab.
If there is linkage the ratio of
the gametes will be different.
Individuals appearing like the
parents are called the
“parentals”.
Those appearing less
frequently are called the
“recombinants” which are
products of crossing over.
Test cross to determine linkage

Alleles: B black (dominant), b red (recessive)

P polled (dominant), p horned (recessive)
Genotype: BBPP x bbpp
Phenotype: Black-polled red-horned
Gametes BP (1) bp (1)
F1 BbPb (1)
Black-polled
Heterozygous for both traits

Test cross involves the mating of the F1 to a recessive

individual bbpp.
Test Cross:
Genotype: BbPp x bbpp
Phenotype: Black-polled red-horned
Gametes: 1BP, 1Bp, 1bP, 1bp 1 bp
22 = 4 possible gametes 20 = 1 possible gamete
F2 (out of 100 possible progenies)
No Linkage/normal with Linkage
BbPp 25 BbPp 45
Bbpp 25 Bbpp 5
bbPp 25 bbPp 5
bbpp 25 bbpp 45
1:1:1:1 ratio BP linked, bp linked
Bp or bP are rare, and will only
occur due to crossing over
In the previous example, if BP and bp are linked the
possible gametes produced by BbPp individual are:
BbPp = BP and bp
Therefore if there is no crossing over the result of the
mating: BbPp x bbpp
BP (1/2) bp (1)
bp (1/2)
BbPp
bbpp
at a ratio of 1:1
Extra-nuclear Inheritance
- Inheritance outside the nucleus
- Cytoplasmic or extra-chromosomal inheritance
Ex: mitochondrial DNA
Ovum is larger containing more cytoplasmic
material
Sperm is purely nuclear material
Therefore:
Females are more vital than males
Clones are not really genetically identical to
the donor or source of nuclear material
Extra-nuclear Inheritance
Maternal Influence
- Not only genes influence the outcome of an individual
- In mammals, the young develops in the womb or
uterus of the mother, and after birth the mother
cares and nurses her young.
- Male farm animals only contribute genetic materials
through the sperm cells
- The eventual phenotype of the progeny is largely
influenced by the dam
- An individual’s height is influenced by the mother’s
health and condition during pregnancy
Maternal Influence