CARTOGRAPHY

AND
MAP READING

By: Endalkachew Sisay

(Assistant professor)

Endalkachew S.
 UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION

Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography

 1.1. Cartography: Concept and
Definition
 Cartography has always been closely associated
with Geography and Surveying.
 Numerous definitions of Cartography have
appeared in the literature.
 Earlier definitions tend to emphasize map
making while more recent definitions also
include map use within the scope of Cartography.

Endalkachew S.
 Cartography is “the conception/the ability imagine or
understand, the designing and the execution of the
map" Robinson
 Map Reading is the way of understanding and
interpreting of maps with a meaningful spatial and non-
spatial data analysis produced by cartographers
 Cartography is the science, art and technology of
studying map making.
 Cartography is
 A Science, because it involves observation, investigation
or surveying and mathematical computation
(mathematical computation means transferring
information from a model of the Earth, which represents
a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two
dimensional medium (paper or a computer screen).

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 An Art, because it depends up on the use of conventional
signs and symbols to represent large amounts of various
natural and cultural phenomena on a map. It uses lines,
dots, triangles, pictograms, colors, shadings, etc. to
represent features of an area covered by the amp.

Endalkachew S.
Selected Definitions of Cartography

 "Science that studies geographical maps and the methods

and processes of their compilation and reproduction“
M. Shokalsky, V.A. Kamenetsky, 1930

 "The science of making any map, embracing all phases of

work from surveying to map printing"
Cartographic Office of the United Nations Organization, 1949

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 The meaning of the term ‘cartography’ has been
changed fundamentally since 1960’s.
 Before this time, cartography was generally defined
as ‘manufacturing maps’ or the study of map
making.
 But from 1960s onwards, the definition is changing
due to the following two factors:
◼ The fact that the subject has moved into the field
of communication science
◼ The advent (introduction) of computers, such as
the Compass and much later Magnetic Storage
devices

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 1.2 History of Cartography
 Maps have been produced and used for several
thousand years.
 The earliest surviving examples from western
civilization come from ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia.
 Egyptian geometers made cadastral maps
showing property boundaries so that these
could be re-established after the annual
flooding of the Nile River.

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Endalkachew S.
 Continued…

 In Mesopotamia, maps were "drawn" on clay

tablets and depicted/portray the Mesopotamian
world at a variety of scales .

 Eastern cartographic traditions also have

ancient roots with Chinese maps dating from
6000 years ago.

 Theories about the shape of the Earth and the

development of coordinate systems by ancient
Greek philosophers paved the way for
systematic
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mapping of the Earth's surface.
 Continued…

 More recent phenomena that contributed for

the development of Cartographic knowledge
include the following:
▪ European exploration
▪ Invention of the compass
▪ Invention of the theodolite
▪ Development of aerial photographs and photogrammetry
▪ developments in computer and communication technologies.
▪ Launching of Earth observation satellites
▪ The use of geographic positioning systems (GPS)
▪ The introduction of GIS
▪ Better internet access and etc.

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History of Cartography, Pictures

r2
r1 r3

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 1.3. The Scope of Cartography
 Cartography is the art, science and technology of map
making and map use, and the study of maps in all its
aspects.
 Cartography focuses on the making of maps which
represent surface features of the earth that can be
surveyed and analyzed. Its scope is focused on
◼ To study various natural (physical) features: geologic
structure, distribution of land and sea, distribution of
vegetation and wild life, distribution of climate, etc. and
◼ To study cultural or man-made features such as
distribution of economic activities, distribution of
settlements, political boundaries, and location of
important places and institutions.
Endalkachew S.
 Processes of Cartography
1. Collecting and selecting the data for mapping
2. Manipulating and generalizing the data, designing
and constructing the map
3. Reading or viewing the map
4. Responding to or interpreting the information

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❖ Geographers are the primary users of maps, but they
aren’t the only ones.
❖ People in the sciences, engineering, and humanities
also see the map as a valuable way to organize and
express ideas.

Endalkachew S.
 1.4.Cartographic
Communication System and
Process
 Cartographic communication is a special form of graphic
communication which differs from verbal
communication.
 Verbal (oral, unwritten, speaking) communication is
sequential.
 Ideas are presented in a sequential fashion (way, manner,
mode), allowing the writer or speaker to control the order in
which information is conveyed (carried, transported).
 The emphasis is on parts linked by logic.
 In contrast, maps are synoptic, presenting information in a
holistic (all inclusive, rounded, universal) fashion.
 The map user receives all of the information at once.
 Thus the map maker is unable to control the order in which
information is received except by using map design to
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emphasize the most important information.
 The separation of map use from map making introduces
the possibility of distortion in cartographic
communication.
 Anything which interferes with the transmission of
information from the map maker to the map user can be
considered as noise
 Noise may enter the process at any point. This is due to:
◼ The cartographer may have a poor conception of the
subject matter that he/she is going to represent
◼ Problems may arise in printing the map
◼ Resulting from poor registration of objects on the
paper, poor line quality or poor color reproduction
◼ The map user may read the map under poor lighting
conditions or may have poor map reading skills.

Endalkachew S.
❑ Any of these sources of noise can influence the
effectiveness which the cartographer’s conception
of reality is transmitted to the map user.
 In order to minimize and avoid distortion and noise
between map users and map makers the
cartographer must have
 A good understanding of the subject matter of the
map as well as a good understanding of how the
map is likely to be used in order to design an
effective map.

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 Stages of Cartographic Communication (map
communication) process
 The four main stages in cartographic process are
1. Data acquisition/collection/ capture, Organization and
manipulation of data
 The source of data
 Topographic and thematic maps: Existing maps
 Aerial photography
 Satellite images
 Field observation (GPS): Field work
 Statistical information
 Documents, e.g. legal descriptions of property boundaries,
historical documents, etc.,
 Questionnaire surveys

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 The data must be organized and manipulated into a form
which is suitable for mapping.
 This may involve aggregating (grouping and combining)
data to some specified set of spatial units, calculating
percentages, densities or other summary measures from
the raw data.

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2. Design and Preparation of Maps, Charts, Plans and
Graphs
 Many decisions go into the design of an effective map.
These include
◼ The selection of the geographic features and thematic
attributes to be represented on the map
◼ Projection type and map scale. A small scale map can
show a large area but little detail while a large scale
map shows a smaller area but with more detail.
◼ Consideration of how the information will be
symbolized (point, line or area symbols).
◼ Use appropriate color for features
◼ Putting basic map elements

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3. Map Production
 In the process of map development after designing the
actual map, cartographers should produce a single map
for checkup.
 Before map is reproduced in the required quantity, the
quality of the map, whether the conventional signs and
symbols are used or not should be checked by producing
a single map.
 This is mainly important for correcting the human errors
done in the design step.
 If maps are reproduced in a required quantity without
checking the errors at this stage, unnecessary costs and
time might be incurred.
4. Map Reproduction
 Determining how many copies of the map would be
produced.

Endalkachew S.
Cartographic Communication
Process
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Endalkachew S.
Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography
 Introduction
➢ Coordinate system is a means for identifying a point on the
earth feature on a spherical or planimetric map.
➢ Coordinate is a set of numbers that designate location in a
given reference system, such as, x, y in a plane coordinate
system or x, y, z in a three dimensional coordinate system.
➢ Coordinate system is used to define location on the earth.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
➢ Coordinates are used to describe positions in two- or three-
dimensional space and specify a particular location.
➢ A two-dimensional system uses a coordinate pair, typically
referred to as X and Y, to describe a horizontal position on the
Earth.
➢ A three-dimensional system uses a coordinate X, Y and Z to
describe horizontal and vertical position on the earth.
 The purpose of coordinate system is to:- uniquely determine
the position of an object in the space.

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Continued…
❖ Some coordinate systems extend over the entire globe, while
others are used exclusively for specific regions of the Earth.
❖ Examples of global coordinate systems include
Latitude/Longitude, Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM),
❖ Examples of local coordinate systems include numerous
national grid systems, as well as Universal Polar
Stereographic, which is used for the polar regions of the
globe.

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 2.1. Types of Coordinate System
❖ There are two major types of coordinate systems in use today:
1. Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) and
2. Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

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 2.1.1Geographic Coordinate System
❖ Is a reference system that uses a three-dimensional spherical
surface to determine locations on the earth.
❖ It is the system of latitude and longitudes
❖ Location measured from curved surface of the earth (globe,
on earth, 3-dimension)
❖ Is in many ways the most comprehensive, and is often called
the geographic system of coordinates
❖ It is also called Earth, Global or Spherical coordinate system

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 Properties of GCS
 Prepared based on the Earth’s rotation about its
centre of mass.
 Geographic coordinates do not form a Cartesian
system.
 Geographic coordinates are defined on a curved
surface
 Lines of constant longitude are called meridians,
and lines of constant latitude are called parallels.

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Properties of GCS, Continued…

➢ The values for the points in a GCS can have the

following units of measurements:
✓ Decimal degrees
✓ Decimal minutes
✓ Decimal seconds
➢ Geographic coordinate systems consist of latitude,
which varies from north to south, and longitude,
which varies from east to west

Endalkachew S.
Properties of GCS, Continued

 Spherical coordinates are most often recorded in

a degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS) notation, for
example N 43o 35’ 20”, signifying 43 degrees, 35
minutes, and 20 seconds of latitude.
 Alternatively, spherical coordinates may be
expressed as decimal degrees (DD). Example: a
point found at 45030’00’’ east and 2030’00’’
north can be expressed as 45.50 east and 2.50
north.

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Parallels

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 Properties of Parallels
❖ Parallels are imaginary lines that run parallel to each other
in an east west direction around the Earth.
❖ All parallels are equally spaced from each other
❖ The equator is the largest circle and divides the earth in
half.
❖ The length of parallels is getting smaller pole wards
❖ Parallels converge meridians at right angles
❖ 10 latitude approximately covers 111 km on the ground
❖ The total number of parallels is 180 and covers 1800 (900
in the Northern and 900 in the Southern hemispheres)
❖ All parallels are concentric circles
❖ By convention, the equator is taken as zero degrees
latitude
❖ Latitudes increase in absolute value to the north and south.

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Meridians

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 Properties of Meridians

 The meridians are imaginary geographic

north/south lines
 Meridians converge at the poles
 Space between meridians decrease pole wards
 All meridians are equal in length
 All meridians divide the earth in two equal parts
 Meridians converge parallels at right angles

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 Properties of Meridians, Continued…

 The total number of meridians is 360 and covers

3600 (1800 in the Eastern and 1800 in the
Western hemispheres)
 An international meeting in 1884 established a
longitudinal origin intersecting the Royal
Greenwich Observatory in England known as the
prime or Greenwich meridian
 this north-to-south line is the origin, or zero
value, for longitudes.
 A degree of longitude spans approximately 111
kilometers at the equator, but 0 kilometers at the
poles.
Endalkachew S.
 Parallels vs Meridians
Latitudes vs Longitudes

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NB:

❖ The latitude and longitude lines can cover the globe

to form a grid, called a graticule.
❖ The point of origin of the graticule is (0, 0), where
the equator and the prime meridian intersect.

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 2.1.2 Projected Coordinate System

❖ A projected coordinate system is a flat, two-

dimensional representation of the Earth.
❖ It is based on a sphere or spheroid geographic
coordinate system,

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Properties of PCS

❖ It uses linear units of measure for

coordinates, so that calculations of
distance and area are easily done in terms
of the same units.
❖ The latitude and longitude coordinates are
converted to x and y coordinates on the flat
projection.
❖ The x coordinate is, usually, the eastward
direction of a point and
❖ the y coordinate is, usually, the northward
direction of a point.

Endalkachew S.
 Properties of PCS
Continued…

❖ The centerline that runs east and west is referred to as the x-axis
and
❖ the centerline that runs north and south is referred to as the y-
axis.
❖ The intersection of the x and y-axis is the origin and, usually, has a
coordinate of (0, 0).
❖ the coordinates of a projection on a flat sheet are often
termed easting and northing.

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The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Systems

❖ The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is a

global map projection that transforms three-
dimensional world into a two-dimensional
system.
❖ The UTM employs an international plane
coordinate system that extends around the world
from 84° north above the equator to 80° south
below.
❖ It is extended an extra 4° in the North to cover
the northern most land on Earth

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 UTM, Continued…
❖ This bounded Coverage is because the UTM projection
distorts near the north and south poles.
❖ The UTM coordinate system is set upon a zoned grid,
which divides the Earth into 60 equal zones that are all
6° wide in longitude (east-west).
❖ The UTM zones are numbered 1 through 60, starting at
the international date line (zone 1 at 180° west
longitude), progressing east past the prime meridian
(zone 30), and back to the international date line (zone
60 at 180° east longitude).
❖ Each zone extends in both the northern and southern
hemispheres and employs the northing-easting
methodology for position identification.

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Continued…
➢ Since the equator separates the hemispheres, it serves as
the zone’s standard parallel.
➢ Each UTM zone refers to its own central meridian located
at each zone’s middle (3°).
➢ Given that the northing-easting method does not allow
for negatives, the equator separates each zone into two
positive sections: a north section and a south section.
➢ Coordinate positions referencing the UTM system must
be indicated with the zone number as well as its northing
and easting values in meters.

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Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ The easting value is always a six-digit value in meters, while
the northing value is nearly always a seven-digit number in
meters.
❖ For example, a typical UTM coordinate for zone 13 would
look like 13 645,000m E 2,870,000m N.
❖ Furthermore, to ensure positive coordinates, each UTM zone
utilizes a false northing value of 0m in the northern
hemisphere and 1,000,000m in the southern hemisphere,
and a false easting value of 500,000m.
❖ The UTM is used worldwide, and in many countries it serves
as a basis for their national grid, particularly the United
States and the United Kingdom.
❖ Still, as mentioned earlier, the UTM projection cannot be
used for the Earth’s polar regions due to amplified distortion

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Grid, Graticule and Grid Reference
A. Grid
➢ Grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines
drawn on the face of a map or printed on the
boarders of a map with a scale of 100 km, 10km and
1km depending on the scale of the map.
➢ The grid represents the lines having constant X or Y
coordinates at a constant interval depending on map
scale.
➢ A grid exists in a Cartesian coordinate system, and
the rows and columns in the grid are parallel to the
axes of the coordinate system.

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 In a grid system each country uses its own grid origin
usually located in SW most corner of the country.
 for example, the grid origin used on Ethiopian map is
located 340E longitude crosses the equator.

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B. Graticule
 Is grid of latitude and longitude lines (parallels and
meridians)on a map or globe
 The graticule represents the projected positions of
selected meridians (lines with constant longitude and
parallels (lines with constant latitude).
 The imaginary network of the lines of meridians and
parallels upon which the map is drawn referred to as
the graticule.
 It is possible to combine grids and graticules to display
multiple coordinate systems on the same map.

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C. Grid Reference
➢ A map grid is a set of imaginary lines that divides
the earth’s surface into regular grids.
➢ In order to understand the relative and absolute
location of the mapped area, two major grid
references are very essential, these are:
• International or geographic grid (Latitude and
Longitude)
• The national grid (Easting and Northing) system

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Time zone and International
date line
➢ The Geographic Coordinate System are Spherical
coordinates which consist Latitude(Parallels) and
Longitudes (Meridians)
➢ Latitudes:- used to determines
- the sun angel
- the length of day and night
- the climate nature of an area
➢ Longitude determine global or local time standard
time
➢ Everyday the earth moves round its axis from west to
east. As a result the sun appears earlier in the places
located in the east

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➢ The earth at the center creates 360°.
➢ The earth requires 1,440 minutes (24 hours × 60 minutes)
to cover this distance of 360° for one time.
➢ So, the earth needs 4 minutes (1,440 ÷ 360) to rotate 1° of
longitude.
➢ Therefore, for 1° difference of longitude, the difference of
time will be 4 minutes

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➢ The standard time was adopted by International
Meridian conference, the earth is sub divided into 24
time zone.
➢ In 24 hours the earth rotates 360° that means it moves
at a rate of 15° longitude per hour so we have 24 time
zone.
➢ The International Date Line is virtually 180° east and
west longitude.
➢ Every 15 when moving eastwards time will increase
by 1hour and decrease by 1hour every 15 when
moving westwards

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Steps in calculating time
 Determine degree difference b/n the given two longitudes
( places)
 Divide the number of degrees by 150 to get the No of
hours.
 Add the no of hours if you move in East direction or
subtract the No of hours if you move in the West direction.
 Earth rotates on its axis, leading to sun rise and sun
set in different parts of the world.
 The part of the earth which receives sunlight,
experience day whereas the part in the darkness
experience night.
 In other words, different parts of the earth receive
daylight at different times.
Endalkachew S.
 UNIT THREE
MAP PROJECTION

Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography

3.1. Map Projection: Concept and
Definition
❖ Map projection tries to Portray (represent, show) the surface
of the earth or a portion of the earth
◼ on a flat piece of paper or
◼ Computer screen.
❖ A map projection (projection) is a mathematical means of
transferring information from a model of the Earth, which
represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two
dimensional medium (paper or a computer screen).
❖ Mathematically speaking, map projections are
transformations of geographic co-ordinates (latitude,
longitude) into the Cartesian (x, y) co-ordinate space of the
map.
❖ It is a drawing of parallels, meridians, and major features of
the earth (globe) on flat surface
❖ There are many different types of projection, each having its
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own advantages and disadvantages. No projection is perfect.
Endalkachew S.
Continued…
 Transforming spherical into flat means that the 2-D
image will never exactly represent what is visible in
3-D.
 All flat maps have some distortion in their
representation of:
 Distance
 Shape
 Area
 Direction

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
➢ Globe: It is the real or an accurate model of the earth than
a map.
➢ It processes the following properties:
➢ It represents the earth and its other features in their true
shapes (conformality).
➢ All features represented on the globe maintain their
proportional sizes on the ground. It, therefore, has the
property of equivalence or equal area.
➢ Distances between any two points are correctly
maintained.
➢ Directions on the globe are truly represented as they are
on the g round.

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Limitations or disadvantages of Globe:
❖ It only displays less than half of the earth’s surface
at a time.
❖ It is cumbersome to handle, and difficult to store
❖ It is expensive to make and reproduce
❖ It is also difficult to draw and measure on it.
❖ It is difficult to update.
❖ It is difficult to store.
❖ It is usually prepared in small scale.
❖ Most globes are less than one meter in diameter
and therefore are too small to provide detailed
information.

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So What Should Be
Done?
❖ For most practical purposes, the globe is
less desirable.
❖ All the drawbacks of globe are eliminated
when a map is prepared on a flat surface.
❖ The spherical surface must be transformed
to a flat (plane) surface.
❖ The transformation of the spherical surface
to a plane surface involves a basic
assumption that the map viewer has an
orthogonal (looking straight down).
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Properties of Map Projection
❖ Completeness: The ability of map projections to show
the entire earth.
❖ No type of map projection is free of distortion. It is
important to recognize that the approximately
spherical geometry of the Earth cannot be represented
on a flat map without introducing distortion.
❖ The task of representing a spherical surface on a plane
surface is complicated.
❖ There is no way to preserve accuracy.
❖ There is no projection type that provides an absolutely
perfect representation of the earth on a flat surface.

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❖ Therefore, transferring the graphics on the surface of a
globe to a flat surface always results in distortion in the
graphics. Distortions in one or more of the following
properties always occur.
 Area
 Shape
 Distance
 Direction (angle)
❖ Some projections minimize distortions in some of these
properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others.
❖ In general, the larger the area being mapped, the greater
the problem of distortion becomes, and the greater care is
required in choosing a suitable map projection.
❑ It is not possible to represent the globe on a flat surface
without losing one or more of its characteristics.

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3.2. Types of Map Projections
❖ Criteria Used to Classify Types of Map Projection

1) With reference to the methods of drawing

2) With reference to the criteria they satisfy, and
3) With reference to developable surface

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1. With Reference to the Methods of Drawing

▪ With reference to the methods of drawing,

there are three types of map projection.

i. Perspective Map Projection

ii. Non-perspective Map Projection

iii. Conventional or Mathematical Map Projection

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➢ It is
i. Perspective Projection
also known as known as geometrical
projections.
➢ A light source is placed inside a transparent globe
and projecting shadows of the meridians, parallels
and other geographic features onto a sheet of paper
placed tangent to the globe.
➢ Perspective Projections have one property in
common.
➢ That is , the direction or bearing from the center of
the map is true.

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Perspective Projection, Continued…

❖ Different perspective projections can be produced by

changing the position of the light source.
A. Gnomonic
B. Stereographic and
C. Orthographic projections

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A. Gnomonic Projection
❖ Gnomonic projections place the light source at the center of the globe,
❖ It refers transferring of the meridians and parallels on to a plane paper from a
point at the center of the globe.
❖ Plane paper could be tangent in any desired position.
❖ When the plane is tangent at either of the two poles, the resulting projection is
referred to as the polar case.
❖ When the plane is tangent at some point on the equator, it is the equatorial case.
❖ When the plane is tangent elsewhere, it is oblique case.

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 B. Stereographic (Orthomorphic) Projection
➢ Stereographic projection is transferring of the meridians and parallels on to a
plane paper from a point at the surface of the generating globe(The opposite
side of the globe from the point of contact is used for a stereographic
projection).
➢ The plane paper will be diametrically opposite to the point of origin of the
projection.
➢ The plane paper could be tangent to the globe in any desire position.

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C. Orthographic Projection
➢ Orthographic projection is transferring of the meridians and parallels into a plane
paper from a point of origin at infinity.
➢ The plane paper could be tangent to the globe in any desired position.
➢ Polar, equatorial and oblique cases are all possible.
➢ The resulting projection seems a photographic view of a distant globe.

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Perspective Projections

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 ii. Non-Perspective Projections

❖ The non-perspective projection are a more advanced version of

the perspective projections.
❖ The Non-Perspective Projections are derived from their perspective
counterparts by suitable modifications.
❖ In such projections, the graticules may be straightened or curved
and the space between parallels and meridians may be reduced or
enlarged to suit particular requirements.
❖ Such modified properties own or acquire any one or more of the
following useful properties.
❖ Equal area, True shape , and general purpose

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 iii. Conventional or Mathematical
Projections
❖ These types of projections have no developable surfaces,
but mathematically derived from other projections.
❖ They have parallels and meridians simply drawn to
conform to some arbitrarily chosen principle.
❖ They are not projected in the usual sense of the word.
❖ Mollweide and Sinsusoidal projections are conventional
types of projection.

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2.With Reference to the Criteria
they Satisfy
✓ The other way of classifying map projections is on the basis
of the criteria they satisfy.
✓ As a result, there are four types of projections based on the
global characteristic they satisfy. These area:
i. Homolographic (Equal area ) Projections
ii. Orthomorphic (Conformal) (True Shape) Projections
iii. Equi-distance Projections
iv. Zenithal (Azimuthal) (True Bearing) Projections

Endalkachew S.
Conformal, Equal-Area, Equidistant and Azimuthal
Projections
 Conformal – local shapes are preserved but other properties
distorted. (It is impossible to have a projection that is both
conformal and equal area).
 Equal-Area – areas are preserved but other properties distorted
 it is projection that preserves the ratio of mapped area to the
corresponding earth area.
 Equidistant – distance from a single location to all other locations
are preserved but other properties distorted
 Azimuthal – directions from a single location to all other locations
are preserved but other properties distorted

Endalkachew S.
Examples of Equal-
Area Projection
❖ Cylindrical equal area
✓ Zenithal equal area
✓ Bonne’s projection
✓ Sinusoidal projection
✓ Molleweide’s projection
✓ Good’s interrupted homolosine projection
✓ Alber’s equal area conic projection

Endalkachew S.
 Examples of Orthomorphic (Conformal) or True Shape
Projections

❖ Mercator

❖ Stereographic

❖ Gnomonic projections

Endalkachew S.
An equi-distant conic projection
of North America.

Endalkachew S.
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area
Projection of the Earth

Endalkachew S.
 Albers equal-area conic
projection.

Endalkachew S.
3. With Reference to the Developable Surfaces
 The other criterion to classify map projection is by considering
the surface at which the map is developed.
❖ A developable surface is one which can be flattened and which can
receive lines projected or drawn directly from an assumed globe.

❖ The projected plane inherits the display characteristics associated

with each projection type and forms what is called a graticule.

❖ There are three types of projection based on developable surface.

Endalkachew S.
Types of Projection Based on Developable
Surface.

i. Cylindrical Projection
ii. Conical Projection
iii. Azimuthal Or Planar Projection

Endalkachew S.
 A. The Cylindrical Projection
 A cylindrical projection is a type of map in which a cylinder is
wrapped (bounded, covered) around a sphere (the globe), and the
details of the globe are projected onto the cylindrical surface.
 Then, the cylinder is unwrapped into a flat surface, yielding a
rectangular shaped map. Cylindrical maps have a lot of distortion
in the Polar Regions (that is, the size of the Polar Regions is
greatly exaggerated on these maps).
 Cylindrical projections are typically used to represent the entire
world.
 Cylindrical projections are usually used for world maps or
regional/national maps of Equatorial areas.

Endalkachew S.
 Properties of Cylindrical
Projection
 The parallels and meridians are projected on to the surface of a cylinder
which circumscribe the globe
 The cylinder is tangent to the globe at the equator
 when unfolded, will form rectangular surface
 The parallels appear as horizontal straight lines
 Meridians appear as vertical straight lines
 Meridians don’t converge at the poles
 All parallels are equal in length so did all meridians
 It is only the Greenwich meridian that divides the Earth in to two equal
parts
 Equator is the only parallel that divides the earth in to North and South
equal parts

Endalkachew S.
Cylindrical Projection, Properties,
Continued…
 Parallels intersect meridians at right angles.
 The graticule consists of equally spaced meridians but
unequally spaced parallels.
 As the parallels get closer to the poles, the spacing
between each becomes wider.
 With this increase in width, there is an increase in
distortion.
 It is better used to project Equatorial (Areas found
around the Tropics)
 Therefore, the distortion increases as the projection
moves toward the poles.
 The Mercator projection is a good example of the
cylindrical type.
Endalkachew S.
 B. The Conic Projection
❖ Conical projection is a class of map projection in which the parallels
and meridians of the globe are projected on to the surface of a cone
which circumscribes the globe and is tangent to it at the selected
parallels.
❖ The conic projection type is fan shaped, characterized by an upside
down cone over the sphere.

Endalkachew S.
Properties of Conic Projection
➢ The surface of the cone, when unfolded, will form part of a
circle
➢ The parallel appear as concentric arcs of circles
➢ The Meridians appear as straight lines radiating from a point
(either of the poles)

Endalkachew S.
 Conic Projection,
Properties
 A conic projection is a type of map in which a cone is
wrapped around a sphere (the globe), and the details of
the globe are projected onto the cone surface.
 Projection is most accurate where globe and cone meet—
at the standard parallel
 Distortion generally increases north or south of it, so
poles are often not included/ away from the standard
parallel
 Are generally used to represent mid-latitude regions in
either the northern or southern hemispheres.

Endalkachew S.
Conic Projection, Properties,
Continued…

 Shapes are shown correctly, but size is distorted

 The space between all parallels remain the same
 The space between two successive meridians
decrease pole wards
 The angle between any two meridians on the
projection is less than their true difference in
longitude on the sphere
 Example: Lambert Conformal Conic, Albers equal
area, used in small-scale mapping

Endalkachew S.
Conic Projections

Endalkachew S.
 C. The Planar Projection
❖ Planar map projection is that class of map projection in which the
parallels and meridians of a globe are projected onto the surface a plane
sheet which is tangent to the globe at either of the poles.

Endalkachew S.
 Properties of Planar

Projection
Parallels are represented by a system of concentric circles

 Meridians appear as straight lines, radiating from the pole at their true
longitudinal difference.

 The space between all parallels remain uniform.

 The space between meridians decrease to the center of the map and all
meridians intersect at the central point

 The planar projection type is an azimuthal orientation of a projected surface,

which means that it pertains to the angle of an object around the horizon

Endalkachew S.
Planar Projection,
Properties, Continued…

 The planar type protects the integrity of azimuths,

bearings, and directions from a central point to other
more remote points in the plane.

 Therefore, planar projections are true only at their

center point

 The distortions in the planar type tend to be most

prevalent along the edges of the projected plane surface.

 Planar projection is best to map areas around the poles

Endalkachew S.
Planar Projection

Endalkachew S.
 Planar Projection

Endalkachew S.
Projection With Reference to
the Developable Surface, Summary

Endalkachew S.
CARTOGRAPHIC ABSTRACTION: SELECTION
AND GENERALIZATION

Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography

 4.1. Elements and Controls of
Cartographic Generalization
Cartographic Abstraction

❖ Cartographic abstraction is the process of transforming

collected data into a graphical representation of features
and attributes to the purpose of map.

❑ Cartographic Abstraction typically involves:

❖ Selection
❖ Generalization
❖ Classification and
❖ Symbolization

Endalkachew S.
1. Selection
❖ Selection involves the choice of geographic features and
thematic attributes to be represented on the map.

❖ Selection is the intellectual process of deciding which

classes of features will be necessary to serve the map’s
purpose.

❖ Selection of features and attributes to be represented on

the map clearly depends on the purpose of the map and
scale of the map.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ General purpose reference maps display a variety of geographic

features including cultural features such as political boundaries,

cities, towns, buildings and roads, and natural features such as

topography, vegetation, rivers and lakes.

❖ The emphasis of general purpose maps is on the locations of

geographic features.

❖ Conversely, thematic maps usually represent a limited set of geographic

features.

❖ Here the emphasis tends to be less on positional accuracy of the

geographic features and more on the attributes of the features.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…

❖ The larger scale maps including a broader range of

geographic features and representing the selected features
in greater detail with a small areal coverage, and vice versa.

Endalkachew S.
2. Generalization
❖ Generalization refers to: The process of reducing the amount of
detail in a map in a meaningful way.
❖ It is the process of simplifying the geometric representation of
geographic features on a map in order to eliminate unnecessary
detail and maintain the visual clarity.
❖ Feature generalization is not a major concern in the case of thematic
maps where the emphasis is on representation of attribute data
rather than on locational precision.
❖ Map generalization is a more important issue in the case of
reference maps that place greater emphasis on accurate locational
details.

Endalkachew S.
Generalization…

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ Generalization is closely related to map scale.
❖ As we move from larger scale to smaller scale maps, we
cannot show all of the detail that could be represented on the
larger scale map.
❖ In order to maintain map legibility or readability, it becomes
necessary to generalize features on the map.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ Point features can be eliminated if they cause visual confusion
and are of minor importance given the purpose of the map.
❖ Alternatively, proximate points might be grouped together and
be represented by a common symbol if they are important to
the purpose of the map but the scale of the map does not allow
representation of the individual points.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ Generalization of line features relies on selection, simplification, and
displacement operations.
❖ Selection is used if several lines representing different types of features
must be represented in a small area of the map.
❖ To avoid confusion, lines that represent features that are not especially
important to the purpose of the map can be eliminated.
❖ For example, if a road, railway and river are in close proximity, the line
representing the railway might be deleted if the relationship between
the road and the river is of greater importance.

Endalkachew S.
 Continued…
❖ Simplification involves representing a complex shape by a simpler
shape.
❖ This can be an advantage although if the shape becomes too angular, it
may become harder to follow.
❖ Displacement can be used if several line features are in close proximity
and are difficult to tell apart.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ Generalization of polygon features can make use of
all of the generalization and enhancement methods
used for line features as well as additional
techniques that are suitable only for polygon data.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ These include aggregation, dissolution, segmentation and
conversion of polygons to point or line features.
❖ Aggregation involves combining multiple area units (polygons)
into a single entity on the map.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
❖ Dissolution eliminates small polygons by merging
them into an adjacent polygon.
❖ Segmentation eliminates skinny polygons
connecting larger areas having the same attribute
value.

Endalkachew S.
 Continued…
❖ Conversion of polygons to point or line features. Also called
collapsing.
❖ For example, a city that may be represented as an area on a
large scale map might be represented as a point feature on
a smaller scale map.

Endalkachew S.
 Elements of
Generalization
❖ The overall intent of generalization is to enhance
communication.
❖ In many cartographic situations, there are four elements of
generalization:
i. Classification

ii. Simplification

iii. Exaggeration and

iv. Symbolization

Endalkachew S.
A. Classification
❖ The goal of classification is to express the most important
character of a distribution.
❖ Classification is the ordering, scaling, and grouping of features
by their attributes and attribute values. E.g.: relief / terrain -
elevation, slope, vegetation type ; population- number, density
❖ Classification is an intellectual process that groups similar
phenomena in order to gain relative simplicity.

Endalkachew S.
Classification…

Endalkachew S.
B. Simplification
❖ When we practice cartographic simplification, we determine important
characteristics of feature attributes and eliminate unwanted detail.

❖ In doing so we have two main objectives:

➢ We must reduce the amount of information to the maps ability to

portray it legibly at the chosen scale. That is we must decide how much
information to portray.

➢ We must maintain as far as possible the essential geographical

characteristics of the mapped phenomena. We can simplify information
by eliminating some of it and by smoothing

Endalkachew S.
C. Exaggeration

❖ When we use exaggeration, we deliberately enlarge or alter

a feature in order to capture its real-world essence.

Endalkachew S.
Exaggeration, Population Growth…

Endalkachew S.
D. Symbolization
❖ After cartographers apply classification,
simplification, and exaggeration, symbolization is
required to the features selected for mapping,
❖ It refers to translating features to graphic marks on
the map.

Endalkachew S.
Controls of Generalization
❖ Cartographers don’t have complete control over the
process of generalization.
❖ Generalization is also guided by a number of
external forces.
❖ These include:
❖ Map purpose and condition of use
❖ Reality
❖ Audience
❖ Map Topic
❖ Map scale
❖ Format and Scale
❖ Quality and quantity of data
❖ Graphic limits etc.
Endalkachew S.
Map Purpose and Condition of Use

❖ The purpose of the map determines the emphasis

that should be given to different types of
information.

❖ A general purpose topographic map represents a

variety of physical and cultural features in a way that
gives each feature class relatively equal importance.

❖ Thematic maps have a more specific purpose and

are designed to represent a particular spatial
distribution or single variable.
Endalkachew S.
Audience
❖ Audience refers to the person/people who reads the map
prepared.

❖ A more experienced audience will be able to interpret more

complex symbolization and more complex spatial
distributions.

❖ The conditions under which the map will be used can also
affect the map reader's ability to interpret the map.

❖ In particular, poor lighting conditions make it more difficult

to read fine detail and may require use of larger text fonts.

Endalkachew S.
Map Topic
❖ The map topic includes consideration of the information
content of the map and the geographic region to be
represented.

❖ These determine the selection of features and

attributes to be represented, the choice of an
appropriate map projection and selection of an
appropriate map scale.

Endalkachew S.
Format and Scale

❖ Maps often must be designed to fit the page size and

shape requirements of the publications in which they are

to appear.

❖ This acts as a constraint on map design

➢ that can affect the layout of the map and may influence
choice of map scale and amount of detail that can be
shown.

Endalkachew S.
Format,
Continued…

Russia, Landscape
Chile, Portrait

Endalkachew S.
 Quality and Quantity
of Data
❖ Quality and quantity of data available also greatly affect

the generalization processes.

❖ The more reliable and precise the data, the more detail
is available for presentation.

Endalkachew S.
Graphic Limits

 We can divide these factors into two groups:

➢ Technical limits set by the cartographer’s tools and

➢ Perceptual limits of the human eye

❖ We create map symbols by combining the basic graphic

elements: point, line, and area or polygon.

❖ Our ability to form symbols from these elements is subject to

three types of limitations: physical, physiological and
psychological.

 Physical limits are imposed on the graphic elements by the

equipment, materials and skills available to the map maker.
Endalkachew S.
Continued…
 Physiological and psychological limits are imposed by the map user’s
perceptions and reactions to the primary visual variables.

❖ The visual variables are shape, size, orientation, hue, value and texture.

❖ Limitations on the visual variables include

➢ maximum format size,

➢ available line width sizes,

➢ lettering style and size,

➢ color screens,

➢ preprinted symbols,

➢ specialized symbol templates,

➢ the cartographer’s or machines abilities to work within these limits to create

symbolization etc.
Endalkachew S.
Visual Contrast
❖ The clarity of the map derives in part from clear visual contrast
between symbols used to represent different features.
❖ Visual contrast is needed to give the eye a focal point and to make
the map more interesting.
❖ A map that contains only lines of the same color and weight is
unlikely to attract the map reader's attention.
❖ Variations in the weight of lines, the intensity of colors or shading
patterns make the map more interesting and make it easier for the
map reader to correctly distinguish between different symbols.
❖ Visual contrast can be based on any of the graphic variables:
❖ shape
❖ Size
❖ Color
❖ value (intensity)
❖ pattern or texture

Endalkachew S.
 4.2 Mapping Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography

4.2.1 Qualitative Maps
 Are maps which show the areal spread of elements
without taking in to consideration about their quantity.
 Thus, these maps are only qualitative i.e. they are purely
descriptive maps containing no measurable facts.
 Qualitative maps show the spatial distribution of
geographic information by using color tints, shading,
picture symbols, names, index letters, abbreviations etc.

Endalkachew S.
A. Chorochromatic Maps
 Show the spatial distribution of geographic elements,
using color tint, shading, dots or line symbols, without
attaching any numerical values.
 They are purely qualitative in nature; hence they are used
to show only the areal (spatial) spread and pattern of real
features without any indication of values statistically.
 It is also called tint or color method.

Endalkachew S.
Chorochromatic Maps,
Application
 Political division of countries, continents or the whole
world.
 Geographical features, rocks, minerals
 Soils of various types
 Vegetation types
 Climate phenomena
 Urban or rural land use
 Drainage features like rivers, lakes
 Cultural features – religion, language etc.

Endalkachew S.
Chorochromatic Map, Example, Agro-Climatic Zones

Endalkachew S.
Chorochromatic Map, Example, Regional States of Ethiopia

Endalkachew S.
Chorochromatic Map, Example, Awash Basin

Endalkachew S.
B. Choroschematic Maps
 Non-quantitative areal distributions are also shown by
symbols or index letters.
 Since these symbols are not drawn to scale, these maps are
termed as non-quantitative.
 For example, the spatial distribution of crops, minerals, and
vegetations can be shown on maps by their initial letters such
as C for coffee or cotton, W for wheat, F, for forest, I, for iron
 The pictures often symbolized are pictures of the real element.
 They are relatively simple to understand.

Endalkachew S.
Choroschematic Maps,
Application
 Spatial distribution of crops
 Spatial distribution of minerals
 Spatial distribution of animals
 Spatial distribution of vegetation etc.

Endalkachew S.
Choroschematic Map, Example, Wild Animals Distribution

Endalkachew S.
Choroschematic Map, Example, Animal Distribution

Endalkachew S.
4.2.2 Quantitative Maps
 Quantitative areal maps are those maps,
which show the variation in the
distribution of the value
of an element by symbols, such as dots,
shads, isopleths, squares, circles, and
spheres.
 There are five ways of representing
statistical data on the map.

Endalkachew S.
A. Dot Maps
 Dot Maps are used to represent absolute or
actual value (quantities) on maps with the
help of dots.
 All dots on the map have equal size having a
specific fixed quantity/ value.
 it is the simplest and most commonly used
method of representing data on quantitative
areal distribution maps.
 Such maps are commonly used to show the
distribution of such phenomena as population,
livestock, economic products or commodities.

Endalkachew S.
Dot Map, Example, Cattle
Distribution

Endalkachew S.
B. Choropleth Maps or Shaded Maps
 Choropleth maps are used to represent the variation in
the distribution of average values per unit area by using
graded or proportional shading.
 Used to show the distribution of average values such as
population density, cropping intensity, etc. through
varied shadings.
 The type or intensity of the shading reflects variation in
quantity.
 Lighter shades give lower density, while dark shades
suggest higher density.

Endalkachew S.
Choropleth Maps, Example, Population
Density

Endalkachew S.
 C. Isopleth Maps
 Isopleths are lines of equal value or magnitude.
 Isopleths are also called, isolines or isometric lines.
 The lines pass through points at which the value of a particular
phenomenon is equal.
 Isopleth maps are quantitative distribution maps that use lines
that pass through points of equal value.
 Isopleth maps are more suitable for mapping the distribution of
continuous statistical data like temperature, precipitation,
height/elevation, etc.

Endalkachew S.
The following are among the most common types of isopleth
maps:
 Isotherm: a line joining points with equal atmospheric
temperature
 Isobar: a line joining points with equal atmospheric
pressure
 Isohyet: a line joining points with equal rainfall.
 Isoneph: a line joining points with equal cloudiness
 Isotach: a line joining points with equal wind speed.
 Isohaline: a line joining points with equal salinity.
 Isobath: a line joining points with equal ocean depth.
 Isohypes: a line joining points with equal heights above sea
level.

Endalkachew S.
Isopleth Map, Example, Temperature Distribution

Endalkachew S.
 D. Diagrammatic or Graphic
Maps

 Diagrammatic maps are those distribution maps on

which the regional variations in the distribution of an
element or quantity are shown by diagrams.

 The choice of symbols used for depicting the regional

variation of an element or quantity depends largely on
the range of the data used.

Endalkachew S.
i. Bar Diagram Maps
 This category of maps are used to show changes and
variations in certain geographic issues such as climatic,
population and economic data using bar or column
graphs.

Bar Graph Maps,

Example, Population

Endalkachew S.
 ii. Graduated Symbol Maps or Proportional Circle Maps
 Uses symbols (typically a circle or dot) of different size.

 The difference in the size of the dots show the difference in

quantity.

 The larger the dot or circle, the higher the quantity it represents
and Vice versa.

Endalkachew S.
Graduated Symbol Maps or Proportional
Circle Maps, Example, Population Size

Endalkachew S.
iii. Proportional Square Maps
 They are drawn on maps in such a way their area is made
proportional to the quantities they represent.
 The larger the squares, the higher the data it represents.

Proportional Square
Map, Example

Endalkachew S.
E. Flow Maps
 Flow maps are represented by proportional
arrows.

 Proportional arrows are lines of different

thickness, used to represent movement or
flow of various items from one place to
another.

 Are used to show the degree or volume of

movements of goods, traffic flow, migration of
people, direction of exports and imports, etc.

Endalkachew S.
 Flow Maps, Example,
Economic flow

Endalkachew S.
Flow Map…

Endalkachew S.
Flow Maps, Example,
Migration

Endalkachew S.
 UNIT FIVE
MAPS

Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography

 5.1 Map Definition and Concepts

 A map is a simplified, diminished, abstract, 2-D plane

representation of all or part of the earth’s surface as viewed
from vertically above.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
 Simplified: Every thing found on the Earth’s surface can’t
be represented at a single map at a time.
▪ Map is selective!
 Diminished: Things are found on the map is smaller in size
than they are actually found on the surface.
▪ All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
However, maps retain their relative proportions as they
do in reality.
▪ Maps are drawn to scale.
▪ Maps are reduced representations of the Earth’s surface.
Example:
▪ Earth’s diameter around the Equator is about 12,756 km
but maps can represent the entire Earth in a palm sized
paper.
Endalkachew S.
Continued…
 Abstract: Some features of the Earth’s surface are
represented by symbols on a map.
 only selected features (layers) are displayed, can’t show
every feature in the real world
▪ Most maps use generally accepted symbols to represent
natural, artificial or cultural features of the area they
represent.
▪ Maps are symbolized.
▪ Map is representation of the 3-D features of the Earth on
2D flat paper.
 Nevertheless, this does not mean that maps couldn’t show
the third dimension i.e. breadth or height at all. Maps use
lines or colors to do so.

Endalkachew S.
2D vs 3D vs 4D

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
 Plane representation: The Earth has a relatively nearly
spherical nature (Curvature) but Map is a flat piece of
paper or similar material.
 All or part of the earth’s surface: Maps are used to show
the entire world at a time or part of it.
 Viewed from the vertically above (from the bird’s eye
view): Maps are prepared with the assumption that the
map reader is looking at the surface from vertically
above not from an oblique direction.

Endalkachew S.
 5.2. The Use of Maps
 Primitive people draw simple maps on sands.
 Those earlier maps were sketches covering very small areas
without scales.
 The main purpose of the map drawn by primitive people
was to show the location of a water hole, a river or an
excellent hunting ground.
 Most people still use maps for similar purposes.
 But, nowadays maps have several uses. The following are
basic ones.
Location:
▪ With the help of a map it is possible to locate a place in
reference to another place or in reference to parallels and
meridians.

Distance:
▪ It is possible to calculate the distance between two or more
places on a Endalkachew
map. This S.
is done by using the scale of the map.
Continued…
Area:
▪ The area of a place, a country, a region, a
continent, a sub-continent or the whole world can
be calculated from a map.

▪ This is done by measuring the length and the

width of the given place on the map and by
converting them to ground distances with the help
of the scale of the map.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
Direction:
▪ A map can enable us to identify the direction and bearing
of any place on the map.

▪ To discover relationship between different phenomena by

analyzing map information.
▪ Compare changes through time

Endalkachew S.
 5.3. Advantages of a Map Over a Globe
 Globes are expensive to reproduce and update, but maps
are not.
 Globes are not easy to fold and handle, but maps are.
 Globes must be rotated to show the entire surface of the
earth however in a map, you can immediately see the
whole of any area at a time.
 Most globes are less than one meter in diameter and
therefore are too small to provide detailed information
 Globes are prepared in small and single scales but maps
can be prepared with any scale size and even with multiple
scales in a single piece of paper.
 Globes are prepared to show only the entire world but
maps are prepared to show all or part of the world.

Endalkachew S.
 5.4. Map and their Limitation

 One or more of the major map properties i.e. Shape, Area,

Distance, Direction is/are distorted.

 Maps didn’t show the real shape of Earth because maps are
plane representations.

Endalkachew S.
 5.5. Classification of maps

 Although most maps have similar characteristics, they

can differ from one another in many ways.

 Example:
▪ we can classify maps based on scale, information they
convey and purpose.

Endalkachew S.
5.5.1 Classification of Maps Based on Scale

i. Large Scale Maps:

▪ When little reduction is involved and features

such as roads are large, the map is termed as
large scale map.
▪ Large scale maps present/cover a relatively
small area and show its features in
considerable detail.
▪ Usually maps with a scale of ≥1:50,000 are
considered as large scale maps.

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Continued…
ii. Medium Scale Maps:

▪ Here medium reduction of features is occurred.

▪ Maps with a scale ranging from 1:50,001 to 1:249,999 are
considered as medium scale maps.
▪ Medium-scale maps cover wider areas than large scale
maps but are less detailed than large-scale maps.
▪ They are also able to present more detailed information
than small-scale maps but are less detailed than large-
scale ones.

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Continued…

iii. Small Scale Maps:

▪ Large reduction of features is involved.

▪ Small scale maps have a scale of

≤1:250,000.

▪ These type of maps cover wider areas than

large and medium scale maps but lesser
detail than their counterparts.
Endalkachew S.
Continued..

Endalkachew S.
5.5.2 Classification of Maps Based on Function
or Information they convey
▪ Based on their function maps are classified as General purpose maps
and Thematic maps
i. General Reference Maps or General Purpose Maps:
▪ Are maps that shows the features of a place in a relatively general
way.
▪ It provides a wide range of information about the place it represents.
▪ Example :
▪ Topographic Map.
 General-purpose maps are containing a little information of each
kind about the area they represent.
 Their ability to provide different information is their advantage,
whereas their weakness is to show limited detailed information.
 General-purpose maps are not topical. Instead, they tend to contain
a little of many kinds of information at a relatively low level of
detail.
 It can illustrate both physical
Endalkachew S. and human-made features of the earth.
 Topographic Maps
 Topography is a Greek word made up of “topos” and
“graphy.” “Topos” means places, and “graphy” means
writing or description.

 Therefore, topography means the description or

explanation of places.

 Unlike other distribution maps, topographic maps,

portray one or more natural and cultural features of an
area.

Endalkachew S.
Continued…
 Topographic maps are maps that show both human made
(Houses, Roads, Railways etc.) and natural features (Relief,
Natural Vegetation, Water bodies etc.)

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Nature of Topographic Maps
 A map that portrays rivers, streams, drainage, vegetation,
roads, buildings, land uses, etc.

 A detailed map that shows multiple natural and

anthropogenic features;

 A large scale map drawn to show a relatively small area;

therefore, called a scenery map, too;

 A map that uses definite symbols, known as conventional

symbols.

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ii. Specific Purpose Maps
 Specific Purpose Maps (SPM) are also called Thematic
maps or topical maps or distribution maps
 SPM emphasize on a single topic.
 SPM are usually created for specialists in particular
subjects.
 These maps show detailed information about their
subjects.
 Example:
▪ Precipitation map of Amhara Region
▪ Temperature map of Farta Wereda
▪ Population map of Debre Tabor Town etc.

Endalkachew S.
 Types of SPM
SPM

Qualitative Quantitative

Choropleth Isopleth Diagrammatic

Chorochromatic Choroschematic Dot Maps Maps
Maps Maps

Bar Proportional Proportional

Square Flow Maps
Diagram circle

Endalkachew S.
 5.5.3 Types of Maps Based on purpose
 Based on their purpose maps are classified in to
two.
A. Physical maps
 are those maps, which give information about the physical
world.
 Physical maps are those maps, which are specially
prepared for the natural product or God gifted things
such as heavenly body, soil, vegetation, relief etc.
 In other words, such maps are produced for the purpose of
showing physical features of the earth.
 There are varieties of physical maps & they are generally
divided into the following sub-groups.

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 Orographic maps: this map also called Relief or
physiographic maps.
 They show the surface features, the coastlines, rivers,
lakes and heights of contours, etc.
 Geological or soil maps: they show the distribution
of rocks or soils covering them.
 Climatic maps: they represent the distribution of
atmospheric or climatic elements such as temperature
and precipitation.
 It is prepared to show the average weather condition
of a long period for example 30 years.
 Weather map: It is produced by meteorological
offices.
 Weather map is prepared to show the average
condition of temperature, pressure, wind and
precipitation over a short period of time.
Endalkachew S.
 Vegetation maps: show the distributional pattern
of various plant (vegetation) species.
 Bathometric maps: are to show the depth of sea
bottom at various points.
 Astronomical maps: Astronomical maps are
prepared to show the heavenly bodies and it may
be shown on large or small scale.

Endalkachew S.
 Physical Map
 Physical maps show what the surface of the Earth looks
like.

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B. Cultural maps
 Cultural maps are maps which reflect man made features
which come in to existence due to the interaction of
activities of human beings with nature.

 Cultural maps contrary to the physical maps group

emphasize on the spatial aspect of non-physical elements
of the earth. Thus their main goal is to show the
distribution of socio-culturally related human phenomena.

 The most important cultural maps include:

Endalkachew S.
 Ethnographic maps: show the distribution of various ethnic
groups.
 Linguistic maps: show the distribution of languages.
 Economic maps: show the production, and movement of
various commodities, etc.
 Demographic maps: show the spatial distribution and
structure of population.
 Urban maps: show the distribution of urban population,
structure and function, etc.
 Political maps: show boundary lines, political units, states,
countries and regions.
 Historical map: This type of map is prepared to show the past
events.

Endalkachew S.
 Unit 6: Map Scale

Copyright, 1998-2001 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography

6.1. Scale: Concept and Definition

 Map scale is proportional relationship between

distance/area on maps and the corresponding actual
distance/area on the ground.
 scale is simply a ratio/proportional relationship between
graphic size and real size of geographic features.
 Map scale specifies the amount of reduction between the
real world and its graphic representation (usually a paper
map).
 It is usually expressed as a ratio (e.g. 1:20,000), or
equivalence (e.g. 1 mm : 20 m).
 Since a paper map is always the same size, its scale is
fixed when it is printed, and cannot change.

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 Figure 6.1: Distance between two points

➢ As shown in the above figure, the actual distance along the line from A to B is 50
km. What is the distance of A to B on the map?

➢ Apart from the verbal definition given above, scale could be mathematically
defined as:
Scale of map = Distance on map (MD)/ Distance on the ground (GD)
S = MD/GD
Where:
S is scale of map, MD is Distance on map, and GD is Distance on the ground

➢ If you consider the example given above. Distance on the map= 5cm Distance on
the ground = 50Km. Scale of the map=? How do you know MD?
S = MD/GD
= 5cm/50 Km or 5cm to 50 Km
Correctly written as
=5cm/5000000 cm
= 1/1000000 or 1: 1000000

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 Unit of measurement
 So far there are two types of unit of measurements in the world. These are: The
metric system and the imperial system (British system).
 Each of them has developed its own units of measurements of distance and weight.
 The metric system uses the following units for measuring distances: Millimeter,
Centimeter, Meters and Kilometers.
 The first two are used to measure distances on maps. But centimeter used
more frequently. While the latter two are used to measure distances on the ground.
The Rate of Change/ Relationship among the units:
1km = 1000m, 1m = 100cm, 1cm = 10mm, and 1km = 1000m x 100cm = 100,000
cm
Latitudinal and longitudinal distance

 Latitudinal distance
1-degree latitude = 111kms around the equator

 Longitudinal distance
360 degrees long = 24 hrs
15 degree long = 1hr = 360/24 = 60 minutes
1 degree long= 60/15 = 4 minutes

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6.2. Methods of Scale Representation
➢ There are direct and indirect ways of showing/expressing
scale on the map.
(i). Direct ways of representing scale on the map
➢ scale is expressed in the following three different ways such as
Representative Fraction (RF), Verbal or Statement Scale (S.S),
and Graphic scale (L.S).
a). Representative fraction (RF)
➢ Representative fraction (RF) - is a ratio expressing the
relationship of the number of units on the map to the number
of the same units on the real earth.
➢ It can be shown either as 1: 50 000 (using ratio) or 1/50 000
(using fraction).
➢ The ratio is more preferred than the fraction.
➢ In this scale, it means that one-unit length on the map
represents 50 000 units of length on the earth’s surface.
➢ The unit of distance in both the numerator and denominator
of the fraction must be the same.
➢ The value of the numerator is always 1.
Endalkachew S.
b). Verbal or word statement (In words)scale
➢ Verbal (Statement) scale - is expression of map distance in
relation to the same earth distance in words. For example: a
scale of “2cm to 1km” or “2cm represents 1km”.
➢ It means that for every 2 cm on the map you would travel 1 km
on the ground.
➢ NB: You cannot say, one centimetre equals one kilometre. This is
incorrect and logically inconsistent.
➢ Because one centimetre is not equal to one kilo-meter

Endalkachew S.
c). Graphic or Bar Scale
➢ Graphic or Bar Scale - is a line or a bar subdivided to
show map distance, and the same distance on the
earth’s surface.
➢ The left end of the bar is sub-divided into smaller units
to provide more precise estimation of ground
distances.
Can you draw a graphic scale for 1: 50 000?
➢ You can divide 50 000 centimeters by 100 000
and change it to 0.5 kilometer.
➢ Now the scale becomes one centimeter to 0.5
kilometer.
➢ It is not common to write decimal number on graphic
scale. You multiply both by two. Then the scale
becomes 2 centimeters to one kilometer

Endalkachew S.
Activity
➢ Draw a graphic scale for the RF scale 1: 400,
000.
➢ Draw a graphic scale from the RF, 1: 50, 000

Endalkachew S.
(ii). Indirect ways of representing scale on the map
➢ Sometimes scale may not be given on a map formally.
➢ This happens especially in the case of maps designed for
examination purpose.
➢ There are 3 ways of showing scales indirectly on the map.
a). When ground distance is given or known between two
points
➢ E.g. If the ground distance between A and B is 7km., what is its
scale?

Steps:
➢ Find the map distance between A and B. by measuring with ruler (e.g 7cm.)
➢ Change the unit of ground distance in to Cm i.e 7.x100, 000 = 100,000 or 700,000cm
➢ Determine the scale using the formula (Scale = MD/GD)

Endalkachew S.
b). When latitude marking is given
Procedures:
 Find the map distance let it be 10cm.(as measured from the map
from the bottom to the top)
 Determine the ground distance between two places using the
latitudinal distance. (10 lat. =111km.)
 Determine the map distance by measuring the distance
between two latitudes
 Determine the proportion between the map and ground
distances using the formula for the scale

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 GD = 100 30’-100 = 30’ (0.50) = 55.5km.
 That means
10 = 60’
x = 30’
60’*x = 10*30’
60’ 60’
= 10*30
60
= 300 = 30 = 0.5o
60 6
0
1 = 111km
0.50 = x
10*x = 111km*0.50
10 10
= 55.5km

Endalkachew S.
iii). When the map is provided with national grid
reference
Steps:
➢ Take two successive Easting or Northing drawn on
the face of the map marked on the border of the map
➢ Determine the difference between the two successive
Easting or Northing in kms. By subtracting from each
other.
➢ Determine the distance between the two successive
Easting or Northing on the map using ruler.
➢ Determine the proportion between map distance and
ground distance using the formula.

Endalkachew S.
GD =13-12 or 24-23 =1km.
MD = let it be 5cm. (as measured from one end to another
end of the map)
S = 5cm./1 Km (but 1km = 100,000cm)
= 5cm/100, 000cm = 1/20000 or 1; 20000

Endalkachew S.
6.4. Types of Scale expression
➢ Basically map makers use the following two types of scale. Namely
➢ Linear scale
➢ Areal scale
Linear Scale
➢ Is a kind of scale, which gives us the proportional relationship between lines or
distance on maps and lines or distance on the ground
➢ Linear scale = distance on the maps/distance on the grounds.
➢ Example 1cm to 1km.
Areal scale
➢ Areal scale shows the relationship between map area and ground area.
➢ It refers to the proportional relationship between areas on the map and actual area
on the ground. Example 1cm2 to 4km2.
➢ it is possible to convert the linear scale into areal scale and vice-versa.
➢ The area scale of any map equals to the square of the linear scale i.e. assuming that
‘X’ is the linear scale, the corresponding areas scale would be X2. For example, if
the linear scale of a given map is 1: 10 then its areal scale equals 1/102 or 1/100.
➢ On the other extreme, the linear scale of a map equals the square root of the areal
scale.

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 (𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒑 𝟐
 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 = (𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆)𝟐 = 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
…………………………………
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 = ………………………
𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
 To calculate linear scale from areal scale, you put the areal scale into a square root. For
instance, if the areal scale of a map is 1 cm2 to 36 km2, then the linear scale of the map is
the square root of the given areal scale, as shown below.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
1𝑐𝑚2
 = = 1cm to 6km
36𝑘𝑚2

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6.5. Method of Enlargement and Reduction of maps
 Why do we enlarge a map?
 We enlarge and reduce maps for different reasons.
 Enlargement: We enlarge a map when we need to show more details
(features) about the area it shows. Often, enlarged maps are produced in
order to support detailed study of the area that the map presents.
 We enlarge a map by enlarging its scale. The size of the paper on which the
new map is printed increases in proportion to the new scale.
 Why do we reduce a map?
 We reduce maps when we need to be selective and to generalize the
information that the map presents.
 When the scale of the map decreases, the size of the map also decreases
accordingly.
 When you enlarge or reduce a map, consider these principles: if a map is to
be enlarged x times, the new map will be x times the scale of the old map.
If you reduce a map by 1/x, the scale of the new map will be 1/x times the
scale of the old map.

Endalkachew S.
MAP SCALE ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION
 Methods employed for enlarging or reducing maps are broadly divided
into the following two groups.
 Namely, mechanical (instrumental) method, and graphic (grid square)
method.
i. Mechanical Method:
 mechanical method uses various instruments or tools to change map scales.
 This method is far more accurate than when done by square method. But,
its main drawback is that it is not available everywhere adequately.
 Pantograph: The pantograph is a simple apparatus for copying drawings,
maps, designs, etc., on a reduced or enlarged scale, or to the same size as
the original.
 photographic cameras are specially designed cameras used for enlarging
and reducing maps.
 The use of episcope brings a very easy, quick and accurate method of
reducing and enlarging maps.
 Episcope has a lens which can be adjustable.
 Under the lens there is a carrier plate on which the map to be reduced or
enlarged is placed.

Endalkachew S.
ii). The graphic method:
 is purely manual technique to enlarging or reducing maps.
 It is a simple but less accurate method of changing the scale of maps.
Unlike the mechanical method it is highly time taking.

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 UNIT 7: Graphical representation and Interpretation of
Geographical Data
7.1. MARGINAL AND BORDER INFORMATION
 The marginal information includes all information and graphics placed in
the margin;
 marginal information is added to identify the map (title, legend, north
arrow, scale, sheet number etc.), to specify the nature of conventions used.
Title:
 A map's title provides important clues about the cartographer's intentions
and goals.
Date of compilation: t
 The date of compilation of the map helps to know the age of the map.
Especially it is very important because Geography is a dynamic subject
dealing with a changing world. Latest possible editions of a map are more
reliable than the old. Because things can be changed with time after the
edition of some old maps.

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Legend or Key:
 A good map will have a legend or key which will show the user what
different symbols mean. These symbols and colors are described in the
form of small boxes @ the bottom right part of the map.
 It communicates the meanings of the symbols and colors used on a map.
Without legend it is difficult to understand the information on the map.
Grid reference:
 in order to understand the relative and absolute location of the mapped
area, two major grid references are very essential, these are:-
 international or geographical grid (latitude and longitude in degrees)
 the national grid (easting’s and northing’s in meters)
Direction:
 each map should have a north arrow pointing towards north. Without a
north arrow, it is difficult to determine the orientation of a map.
Neat line:
 A neat line is the border of a map. It helps to define the edge of the map
area and obviously keeps things looking "neat."

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7.2. Determining Distance and Area from a Map
 The ground distance which can be calculated by using the scale of the map
and by measuring straight-line distance is known as map distance.
 Map distance is the “crow fly distance” which doesn’t consider the ups and
downs of the earth’s surface whereas; field distance considers the ups and
downs of the earth.
 Example 1. If the map distance b/n two pts A and B is 10cm within a given
scale of 1:500, 000, the ground distance will be calculated as follows:
Solution: Ground distance = Scale X Map Distance
100,000
= 500,000 X 10
100,000
= 50kms
 Question 1. What is the distance of 15cm measurements from A to B at a
scale of 1:50,000?
 Question 2. If the distance b/n two pts is 4cm on a map and its scale is
1:500,000, what is the ground distance b/n these two pts?

Endalkachew S.
➢ Question 1. What is the distance of 15cm measurements from A to B at a scale of
1:50,000?
➢ Question 2. If the distance b/n two pts is 4cm on a map and its scale is 1:500,000,
what is the ground distance b/n these two pts?
➢ Example 2. If the map distance from X to Y is 12cm, and where places A and B are
located at an altitude of 5,000 and 2,000 masl respectively, then what is the field
distance at a scale of 1:50,000?
Solution: Ground distance = Scale X Map Distance
100,000
= 50,000 X 12
100,000
= 6km
Altitude difference (AD) = 5,000 – 2,000 = 3000m
And we have to convert it into km, i.e 3000/1000 = 3km
Therefore, FD2 = AD2 + GD2
FD2= (3km)2 + (6km)2
FD2 = 9km2 + 36km2
FD = √45km2
FD = 6.7km
 Question 1. What is the field distance b/n two pts, if the distance b/n the two pts is
10cm and the scale is at 1:400,000?

Endalkachew S.
 Question 2. Suppose two points A and B have map distance of 40 cm and
elevation of point A is 100m and that of point B is 130m. Calculate the
field distance, if the scale of the map is 1:100?
Then map distance=40cm
Scale 1cm=1m
Thus, Ground Distance = 40 x 1= 40meter
Now Height difference between A and B is 130m-100m = 30m
The field or surface distance is given by
FD2 = (40)2 + (30)2
FD2 = (1600 + 900)
FD = 2500
FD = 50m

Endalkachew S.
AREA DETERMINATION
 The areal scale of a map is sometimes used to describe the relationship
between the area of a feature plotted on a map and the area of the same
feature on the earth’s surface.
 The ratio between area of a region on a map and the area of the same
region on the earth is the square of map’s linear scale. That is, Areal scale
= (Linear scale)2.
 Area of Square = (Side) 2
 Area of circle = Πr2
 Area of Rectangle = Length x Width
 Area of Triangle = ½ x base x height
 Area of Trapezoid = ½ (side1 + side2) x height etc…

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 Areas of Irregular shapes
 To calculate for irregular areas of a given map, we can count
the full grids, half grids and quarter grids as necessary to get
more accurate areas that cover by the polygon. But, in this
case, we have to count the full and half grid cells for
simplicity.
 Area = [Full Cells + (half cells)/2 + (Quarter cells)/4]

* * * x * * * *
* * x x x x * * * * * x *
* x x x x x x x x x x x *
* x x x x x x x x x x *
* * x x x x x x *
* * x * * * *

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7.3. Locating Places on a Map
 The position of places on the surface of the earth, and upon the maps
can be given in a number of different ways.
1. Place Names
 The most commonly used method to reference the position of an
object or location is by using place names.
 On a map of Ethiopia, the regional town of Amhara, Bahir dar will
be represented a dot marking to the precise position on the country.
 Different styles of printing and often different colors of printing are
used according to the importance of the place, area or features
named to whether it is natural or man-made. The rivers, swamps and
lakes are often named in Blue, towns in Capital letters and sloping
in italic print. Moreover, it is common to use italic types for natural
features and upright type for man-made features.
2. Bearings and distances from another place or point
 For indicating the bearings and distances from another place or
point, it is important to use compass and dividing the circle into four
quadrants and sixteen points of the compass with the corresponding
angular bearing.
Endalkachew S.
3. Longitudes and latitudes
 Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude are the most geographical
ways of giving positions.
 To point out the location of a place or an object, N and S must always be
added to latitude and E and W to longitude.
 Latitudes should always be given first, and then the longitudes. It is usual
to write the degrees (°), the minute (') and the seconds (") in two figure
groups for minutes and seconds.
Example: 3°03'05" N rather than 3°3'5" N
33°09'08" E rather than 33°9'8" E
4. The use of grid reference
 Using national grid some maps are over printed with grid of kilometer
squares that form an excellent reference system to any place on the map.
 The numbers running west to east along the top and bottom of the sheet is
called EASTINGS and those running from north to south along the right
and left margins are called NORTHINGS.
 When any reference point is given on the map, always take first the
Eastings and then the Northings.

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