THE BIG BANG THEORY: A formation of atomic nuclei (formation of

matter)
REVIEW
 Atom Era - Freeing of electrons and
binding into the atomic nuclei, forming
atoms
 Galaxy Era - Formation of stars and
galaxies in the universe

A. Formation of the Subatomic Particles

As we have seen in the video and the eras Big
Bang Theory, the formation of all matter began
during the Elementary Particle Era. The quarks,
the moment that the universe cooled down,
coalesced to form the Protons, Electrons, and
Neutrons, and this key event marked the
beginning of the next stage in elementary
formation.

The Eras of the Big Bang B. Stellar Nucleosynthesis

The creation of everything in the universe is Stellar nucleosynthesis is simply a continuous

detailed much into the BIG BANG THEORY, process of binding and bombardment, as shown
the theory widely and arguably accepted as the in the diagram below. the free-floating protons
theory that is closest in relating how everything become the nuclei of the first atom, Hydrogen.
was formed. It is divided into eras which are the These hydrogen atomic nuclei are then
following: bombarded and bound by another neutron,
forming the first isotope of hydrogen,
 Planck Era - Synthesis of the four Deuterium. Deuterium then is bombarded by
fundamental forces (gravity, another proton, forming the next isotope, which
electromagnetic force, strong force, is Helium-3. Afterward, another bombardment
weak force) of a neutron forms the next element, which is
 Grand Unification Era - Initial Helium.
unification of the fundamental forces,
subsequent differentiation of gravity, C. Thermonuclear Fission and Fusion
and rapid expansion of the universe After the formation of the stars and the first two
 Electroweak force - Differentiation of elements via Stellar Nucleosynthesis, existent
the electromagnetic, strong, and weak nuclei, under the presence of heat, bombarded
forces, and formation of the fundamental each other and split bound protons and neutrons
particles of matter (gluons, photons, to form all elements from Carbon (C) to Iron
quarks) (Fe), and this process is what we refer to as
 Elementary Particle Era - Cooling down Thermonuclear Fission. Afterward, nuclei then
of the universe and the formation of the began to fuse under the presence of the same
subatomic particles (protons, electrons, heat, forming all elements from Cobalt (Co) to
neutrons) Plutonium (Pu), and this process is what we
 Nucleosynthesis and Nuclei Eras - refer to as Thermonuclear Fusion.
binding of protons and electrons and
D. Cosmic Ray Spallation electrons. These ions are classified according to
the following:
In all of the 92 naturally-occurring elements, 3
elements had a unique way of being formed,  Cations - Positively charged ions; they
these being Lithium (Li), Beryllium (Be), and transfer electrons, making them more
Boron (B). The formation of these three positive than negative.
elements is aided by Cosmic Rays.  Anions - Negatively charged ions; they
gain electrons, making them more
Cosmic rays are an essential part of elements
negative than positive.
that are used up as soon as they are synthesized.
Cosmic rays excite the nuclei of an atom, which This kind of bonding involves both a metal and a
sends their protons and neutrons flying out at the non-metal element, as cations are generally
speed of light, and when they collide with other metals, and anions are generally non-metals.
nuclei, the process is repeated, and the
previously excited atomic nuclei decay. This Covalent bonding, on the other hand, involves
process is what we refer to as Cosmic Ray sharing of electrons, and these involve two non-
Spallation. metals. Also, they form Molecules.
B. Metallic Bonding
If covalent bonding involves non-metals,
MATTER Metallic Bonding involves all metallic elements,
Matter and Its Types which form alloys.

Essentially, all matter is classified into either a POLARITY

Pure Substance (matter of only one kind of
In molecules, bonds can show partial charges,
particle) or a Mixture (matter of two or more
the direction of which goes towards the atom
particles). Pure substances can be further
with a greater capacity to accept ele+ctrons.
classified into Elements (simplest form of
These partial charges result in a molecule's
matter) or Compounds (matter with two or more
Polarity, it is defined by the Electronegativity of
elements bound together). Mixtures, on the other
all atoms present in the molecule.
hand, can be further classified as Heterogeneous
Mixtures (Mixtures whose components are  The electronegativity of an atom is
discernible) or Homogeneous Mixtures defined by its capability to accept
(Mixtures whose components appear as one electrons, and in the periodic table, as
substance). you go from left to right and from
bottom to top, electronegativity
CHEMICAL BONDING
Increases.
As we've said earlier, compounds are made up of
Let's take carbon dioxide and water for example.
two elements bound together. The elements that
For carbon dioxide, the direction of partial
make up matter are bound via Chemical
charges goes towards oxygen, as oxygen is more
Bonding, which are of three types:
electronegative than carbon. As the directions go
A. Ionic and Covalent Bonding in opposite directions, their charges cancel out,
thus, making the molecule Non-Polar. In water,
Ionic Bonding involves the Transfer of
Electrons, and these are made possible
by Ions. Ions are elements that are either
positively or negatively charged elements
that result from the loss or gain of
 the direction goes towards oxygen and should A. Van der Waals Forces
also be non-polar; however, there is a presence
Of all the IMFs, this IMF is the weakest, is
of Lone Pairs of Electrons (Pairs of unshared
distance-dependent and does not form a bond.
electrons) in the oxygen atom, and these create
This IMF is common in non-polar molecules,
an additional partial charge going towards the
where molecules coming into a close distance
lone pair, thus, making the molecule Polar.
from one another cause a temporary
redistribution of electrons that causes the
formation of instantaneous dipoles in a
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS molecule.
We generally have two kinds of compounds, B. Dipole-Dipole Moments
which are the following:
This IMF is common in polar compounds, as
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds they exhibit fractional charges that are equal but
opposite, which we refer to as a Dipole. When
 These are compounds  These are compounds
opposite charges of this dipole come close to
that are usually bonded that are bonded ionically.
each other, an attraction results; otherwise, they
covalently.  They contain various
repel each other.
 They contain Carbon metal and non-metal
(C), Hydrogen (H), and atoms. C. Hydrogen Bonding
Oxygen (O).  In living beings, they
 They may be either all form salts that are used Of all the IMFs, this one is the strongest as it is
synthesized and/or in various biological difficult to break by any other IMF except by
consumed by living processes another hydrogen bond. In this IMF, a hydrogen
beings.  Exceptional Exception atom of one molecule is attracted to an
 Exceptions (As they (As it presents unique electronegative atom of another molecule,
are inorganic even characteristics common to usually Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), or Fluorine
though they contain C, both organic and (F). When this occurs, a temporary but strong
H, and O): inorganic compounds but bond form between the molecules.
o Hydrogen is classified as an
Carbonates inorganic compound):
(HCO3-) o Water (H2O)
o Carbonates CHEMICAL REACTIONS
(CO32-)
o Carbon Oxides Synthesis or Combination occurs when two
(CO and CO2) atoms or molecules interact with each other,
forming a new substance.

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

As there are a lot of molecules that can exist in
the same space at the same time, they tend to be
temporarily attracted to each other, causing
interactions between them, and these
interactions are what we refer to as the
Intermolecular Forces, or IMF.
We have three IMFs commonly exhibited by
molecules, and these are the following:
Decomposition, on the other hand, is the
opposite of synthesis, where a compound breaks Single displacement or single replacement is a
down into individual ions, molecules, or reaction where an element is substituted for
elements in the presence of a decomposing agent another in a compound.
or process.

The direct opposite of single displacement is

Double Replacement or Double Displacement,
where two compounds exchange ions to form
new compounds.
 in a reaction, as matter is neither created
nor destroyed.

COLLISION THEORY OF REACTIONS

AND REACTION RATES
Whenever compounds or ions react, they do
not simply happen out of thin air. A physical
action between atoms occurs to make each
element, compound, or ion react with each
other, and one theory describes what
happens between reactants in a reaction.
This theory is what we refer to as Collision
Theory.

And finally, when a compound reacts with

According to this theory, for a reaction to
oxygen and releases energy in the form of heat
occur, the following must be satisfied:
and flame, a Combustion of the substance has
taken place.  Particles must collide for a reaction to
occur - This is the most fundamental
rule in any reaction, which satisfies the
kinetics of any element or compound.
When particles of compounds collide,
bonds bend and distort by stretching,
making them ready to be cleaved and be
made ready to react with another
element, ion, or compound.
 Energy must be sufficient enough for a
reaction to occur in a collision - It is not
enough that particles collide with each
other to cause a reaction; the energy to
be expended must be strong enough to
bend and distort bonds for a reaction to
be possible.
Reactants and Products. Reactants are on the  Reacting molecules must be oriented in
left side of a reaction equation and are the a specific manner for a reaction to be
starting materials in a reaction, whereas, possible - As a final requirement,
products are on the right side and are the ones reacting compounds must be spatially
formed from the reactants. And finally, an arrow oriented in a specific way so they can
is written going from the reactants to the collide at specific targets in another
products to show that a reaction had taken place. compound; otherwise, even if they
collide with sufficient energy, no
 The reason why we balance reactions is
reaction would occur.
that any reaction follows the Law of
Conservation of Matter, which
postulates that matter remains constant
REACTION CATALYSTS  Moles (unit: M) - the atomic,
molecular, or formula weight of any
Theoretically, reaction rates during a collision
are uniform, but in reality, this does not happen
at all. More often than not, when reactants
collide under a specified orientation with enough
energy to cause a reaction, they do not react as
fast as we seem to think. In such instances,
catalysts become present to speed up reactions.

 Catalysis directly affects the potential

energy of a reaction. The potential
energy of a reaction sets the energy
threshold, or that point that must be met
for the reaction rate to increase substance expressed in grams.
exponentially. When a reaction is
uncatalyzed, potential energy is high and o Example:
therefore, the threshold is set high as An experiment called for 55g of
well, causing the reaction rate to slow CuSO4. How many moles of
down. On the other hand, under the CuSO4 are needed in the
presence of a catalyst, potential energy experiment?
is lowered and so is the energy
threshold, causing the reaction rate to Computation:
speed up.
 A catalyst can be any process or
substance. In organisms, bodily
reactions are sped up by enzymes to
effectively process substances we take
in. In a larger system, for BIOMOLECULES
ammonification in the nitrogen fixation
Structure of Carbohydrates
process to occur, iron must be
introduced via the Haber Process to Regardless of what kind of sugar they might be,
make more ammonia free for use by carbohydrates are made up strictly of Carbon
plants for conversion to nitrates. (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O). Their
Regardless, we must remember that usability is dependent on the number of
catalysts just speed up reactions, but hydroxyl groups (R-OH) present in the
they do not affect net energy change in molecule, as it makes sugars readily dissolvable
the whole reaction. in water. However, solubility becomes less and
less as sugars become more complex, as they
LIMITING REAGENTS exhibit additional functions that are important to
key organisms that contain them.
 Molar Mass and Formula Mass
(unit: g/mol) - Molar mass is the A. Monosaccharides
mass of all atoms of one element,
while formula mass is the sum of all Monosaccharides are the simplest of all sugars.
of the molar masses in a given Because of their simplicity, it has been difficult
chemical formula. to distinguish them. However, one key
difference is the number of carbons they have,
and they are identified as follows:
 Triose Tetrose Pentose Hexose

Glyceraldehyd
e Erythrose Fructose Glucose

3-Carbon 4-Carbon 5-Carbon 6-Carbon In the Fischer Projection, a molecule is written

sugar sugar sugar sugar in an open-chain form, making it possible for
observers to accurately pinpoint key groups that
might be reversed in another molecule. On the
In some sugars, Carbonyls are present (R=O). other hand, a Haworth Projection is written in a
These functional groups distinguish cyclic form and shows the entire molecule in its
monosaccharides as Aldoses and Ketoses. 3-dimensional form and demonstrates where
Aldoses have their carbonyls at the end of the exactly in the molecule the reversals and key
molecule, while Ketoses have their carbonyls at groups are placed as they would in real life.
the middle of the molecule:

B. Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides, and

Polysaccharides
A key feature present in complex sugars is the
presence of Glycosidic Linkages, which are
hydrogen bonds that link monosaccharide units
together. Depending on orientation, they may be
alpha-linked (linkage is below the sugar ring) or
beta-linked (linkage is above the sugar ring).
Moreover, for Disaccharides (double sugars) and
Ketoses and Aldoses serve as redox sugars in Oligosaccharides (3-10 sugars), the functions of
glucose metabolism, as the presence of their each sugar molecule depend more on what kind
carbonyls makes them either oxidizers (Aldose) of monosaccharides are linked together than how
or reducers (Ketose). sugar units are linked together.
So given all of these key characteristics in As for Polysaccharides (11 or more sugars), the
monosaccharide structure, how do we identify structure is dependent on what function it might
differences in monosaccharides to distinguish serve. Continuous chains or branched chains are
each molecule from one another? To do so, we common in storage polysaccharides, designed to
use two ways, which are the following: store energy.
Continuous chains make the polysaccharide
fully digestible, while a branched-chain is only
partially digestible, leaving its branches to be
either disposed of or used by other organisms
living inside of the body.
On the other hand, Structural Polysaccharides Structure of Proteins
are made of long chains of sugar units bound
The functionality of proteins is fully attained
side by side by hydrogen bonds, and this makes
once it has undergone protein folding, and each
this polysaccharide so strong that it becomes
stage of this process presents a form unique to it.
important for cell rigidity, especially in plants.

Structure of Nucleic Acid

Structure of Lipids
Nucleic Acids exist either as Deoxyribonucleic
A. Fats and Oils
acids (DNA) or as Ribonucleic acids (RNA).
Fats and oils are distinguishable by their Mainly, DNA exists as two strands of
saturation. Fats, which often come from animals, nucleotides coiled in a double-helical structure
have a continuous chain of uninterrupted carbon, while RNA exists as a single strand. Regardless,
making the fat molecule pack tightly together each molecule is made up of nucleotides that are
and become solid at room temperature. On the made up of the following:
other hand, Oils that come often from plants
have chains of carbon interrupted by double-  The sugar-phosphate backbone of a
bonded carbon (C=C), making tight packing nucleotide creates an impervious barrier
impossible, and making them appear liquid at against water, as the nitrogenous bases
room temperature. are hydrophilic. When the DNA coils
into a double helix, it becomes a strong
B. Waxes molecule that is nearly indestructible for
years even after the death of an
Waxes are impervious to water due to the
organism. This is also the reason why
bonding of an alcohol molecule and a fatty acid
RNA is weaker as it is single-stranded
through the process of Esterization (Bonding of
and its sugar-phosphate backbone
alcohol and fatty acid to form an ester), making
cannot fully protect the nucleotides from
it suitable to prevent water loss in many
reacting with water.
organisms.
 Depending on the structure, the
C. Terpenes and Steroids nitrogenous bases can be classified into
purines and pyrimidines. Purines are
In Terpenes and Steroids, almost the entire two-ringed bases while Pyrimidines are
molecule is made up of Isoprenes, a molecule single-ringed bases. By rule, a purine
important for pigmentation, nutrition, can only pair with a pyrimidine, as this
fragrances, and as building blocks of sex kind of pairing maximizes the number of
hormones. possible hydrogen bonds that can form
D. Phospholipids between nitrogenous bases and the rule
that states this pairing is called
Phospholipids are the important building blocks Chargaff's Rule named after the scientist
of the cell membrane responsible for the who postulated it.
facilitation of entry and exit of substances in and  The pairing you see above is only true
out of the cell. This is made possible because of for DNA. For RNA, instead of Thymine,
the hydrophilic heads containing phosphates and Adenine is paired with Uracil. The
hydrophobic tails made of one saturated and one reason behind this change in base
unsaturated fatty acid. pairing for Adenine is that it costs the
RNA more energy to keep its structure
intact with Thymine than with Uracil,
 thus, the change in base pairing was Extends the
necessitated. product's
 Going back to the DNA, we will notice shelf life and
that the strands go in opposite Preservatives (i.e. prevents
directions. This is what we refer to as Glycerol) contaminatio
n and growth
antiparallelism. The reason behind this
of harmful
phenomenon in DNA is that it needs to bacteria
keep the hydrogen bonds parallel to each
Aids in
other so that the energy between bonds attracting
would not leave the other, and so water into the
destroy the molecule. Propylene Glycol
skin;
moisturizing
agent

HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL Makes

skincare
PRODUCTS products
opaque by
Household Key Useful Purpose / turning them
Product Ingredients Function Titanium Oxide into a solid
Sodium white color;
Bicarbonate Polishes teeth scatters light
(Baking Soda) to protect the
skin from UV
Prevents the rays
Sodium Fluoride formation of
tooth cavities Sodium Laureth Aids in
Sulfate lathering of
Calcium the soap
Carbonate (bubble
Dehydrated Silica Ammonium formation) to
Gels Laureth Sulfate help cleanse
Removes
Hydrated the hair and
unwanted
Toothpaste Aluminum Oxides tooth debris skin

Magnesium and residual Soap Antimicrobial

Carbonate surface stains and antiseptic
Triclocarban
agents in
Phosphate Salts soaps

Silicates Aids in the

removal of
Freshens Surfactants dirt and oil on
breath and the hair and
makes the skin
Sorbitol
mouthfeel of Cleaning Abrasives (i.e. Mechanically
toothpaste Products Calcium wear off dirt
pleasant Carbonate) on surfaces
Skincare Parabens Prevents the Acids (i.e. Acetic Generally
Products growth of Acid, Oxalic Acid) removes hard
fungi, water
bacteria, and deposits on
yeast on the surfaces and
product itself 
 reduces ENERGY GENERATION
discoloration
in metals BATTERIES AND HOW THEY WORK
Removes dirt  Batteries are self-contained power
on surfaces
supplies that most gadgets use. It
Alkalies (i.e. without
Sodium excessive employs the use of an anode (negative
Bicarbonate, rubbing that electrode metal) and a cathode (positive
Ammonia, Sodium often makes electrode metal) which produces
Carbonate) surfaces dull electricity through an electrolyte
and wears medium.
over time  In simple terms, the anode of a battery
Disinfectants releases electrons to the external circuit
in most connected to it and generates outflowing
Bleaches (i.e.
household
Chlorine) electricity through an electrochemical
cleaning
products
reaction. On the other hand, the cathode
of a battery accepts electrons that take in
Loosens and
incoming electricity from the same
eliminates
Detergents most of the external circuit, and the conduction of
dirt found on electricity is made possible through an
surfaces  electrolyte medium, which may be either
solid or liquid, depending on the type of
battery.
Parts Typography and Use

Found on top of a back

GENERATORS AND ENERGY SOURCES
label and indicates all
Ingredients
ingredients that went into  For the appliances of our home, the
the making of the product 
electricity they use is taken from
Written oftentimes in generators from power plants that
multiple languages, generate electricity from a raw source.
especially for international
Usage Instructions Generally, power plants use either
products; gives details on
the proper use of a alternating current or direct current
product generators.
Often written in bold; To differentiate, Alternating Current or AC
Cautionary contains instructions on Generators create a flow of electricity that
Instructions what to do for first aid and
periodically reverses direction, whereas, a
warnings
Direct Current or DC Generator creates a
Oftentimes included as flow of electricity in only one direction.
part of the cautionary
instructions and is also in Regardless of the type of generator, all of
Storage and Disposal bold; gives details on how them generate electricity from a variety of
Instructions to properly store and
sources, which are listed below:
dispose of the product
and/or the product's A. Renewable or Clean Energies -
container Energies that can be constantly and
periodically replenished and have
minimal to zero carbon emissions.
 o Solar Power
 A power source that
harnesses sunlight and
converts it to energy
through solar cells
o Wind Power
 A power source that
utilizes the sheer
strength of the winds
through a wind turbine
o Hydroelectric Power
 A power source that
utilizes the sheer
strength of the winds
through a wind turbine
o Geothermal Energy
 A power source that
harnesses the heat from
deep within the earth
o Biogas
 A power source that
harnesses the heat from
deep within the earth
B. Non-Renewable Energies - Energy
sources that have a finite amount and
generate a significant amount of carbon
o Fossil Fuels
 An energy source that
utilizes the combustion
of coal and natural gas
o Nuclear Power
 An energy source that
gets its electricity from
steam generated from
the heating up of water
by nuclear reactions of
radioactive elements

CARBON FOOTPRINTING
ANCIENT VIEWS ABOUT THE
UNIVERSE

THE PSUEDOSCIENCE OF ASTROLOGY

In the records of history, the earliest known
records of humans trying to understand the
heavens and the heavenly bodies are during the
time when Astrology was widespread. Astrology
is a pseudoscience of making connections
between "portents" that people see in the sky
with mundane occurrences (i.e. planting and
harvesting cycles, birth and death, predicting
weather). People had created "maps" that form
constellations, as we see below:

 The West often used twelve key

zodiac constellations to mark time
and find conjunctions with everyday
life, while the East often used the
lunar mansions, a set of twenty-eight
constellations governed by a "deity"
that guards the four directions, from
which the eastern zodiac comes from
and is used in a similar but broader
way than the western zodiac, as the
eastern zodiac is connected into
every level of a person's spirituality
from the birth until death.
THE PERSONIFICATION OF THE A. Pythagoras of Samos
UNIVERSE  Pythagoras - Mathematician
Biography, Contributions and
Before the dawn of rational thought, people
Facts At the dawn of
across cultures had a shift in the
rational thought in ancient
understanding of the heavens as such that
history, the first to have had a
they "personified" the heavens, forming the
model of how the universe
earliest known religions. The people best
looked like was Pythagoras, at
known for this personification are the
around 570-496 BCE. Although
Greeks, as they were known for the
all he had was common
pantheon of deities they worship, some key
knowledge about the pantheon
icons of which are listed below:
and his own observations, he
combined philosophy and
mathematics to propose the
DEITY DESIGNATION oldest known model of the
Zeus God of gods and of the sky universe.
 In this model, the universe is said to
Poseidon God of the seas be made from elements, then known
Hades God of the underworld to be water, earth, wind, fire, and
aether. These elements were known
Queen of the gods and the
Hera as the causal beings, the entities said
goddess of marriage and birth
to have formed and segregated the
Demeter Goddess of the harvest universe into the following:
Hestia Goddess of the hearth (Home)  Earth - The center of the universe
 Ouranos - Realm of the sky
Ares God of war  Cosmos - Realm of the sun and the
Pallas Athena Goddess of wisdom and war planets
 Olympos - Realm of the stars and the
Aphrodite Goddess of love and beauty
causal beings
Phoebus  Surrounding the entire universe is an
God of truth
Apollo unseen central fire and the realm of
Goddess of all wild animals, infinity, which is the home of the
vegetation, chastity, and universe itself.
Artemis
childbirth; divine huntress of B. Plato, Aristotle, Eudoxus, and
the heavens Ptolemy
God of all artisans;  Years after Pythagoras (around 427-
Hephaestus divine blacksmith of the 347 BCE), a new school of thought
heavens about the universe was forming.
Plato, with his philosophy, put forth
the thought of having the sphere as
THE EARLIEST MODELS OF THE the shape of the heavenly bodies,
UNIVERSE following the notion that, as the
universe is the home of the gods, and
 the gods are the personification of common knowledge of the Earth
perfection, all other entities that as the universe's center. Instead
reside in their home (heaven) must be of the Earth, it is the Sun that
perfectly shaped. With this thought, resides at the center, and this
the earliest concept of the orbit was was put forth around 310-230
formed, being that all heavenly BCE by none other than
bodies moved in concentric pathways Aristarchus of Samos. He was
around the center (Earth). able to deduce this through the
 Aristotle and his student, Eudoxus, at use of one of the most
around 384-322 BCE, put forth the fundamental observational tools
earliest concept of an orbit, following available to astronomers, which
the notions of Plato. As all objects in is the use of parallaxes.
the realm of the gods are spherical,
their movement around the center of
the universe must be circular, and So what is a stellar parallax? Let's say
this was believed for countless we are looking at a particular star in the
millennia up until the dawn of the sky. If we look at it with our right eye, it
modern age. would appear in a certain position in the
 Claudius Ptolemy - Perth sky, but if we look at the same star with
Observatory Finally, from around our left eye, the star would appear at a
AD 90 to AD 168, Claudius slightly different position. Applying this
Ptolemaeus, better known as to our planet, if we view a particular star
Ptolemy, summed up the knowledge at the start of the year, it would appear at
put forth by Plato, Aristotle, and a certain position, and if we view the
Eudoxus, which formality introduced same star in the middle of the year, the
Geocentricity to the world. His star would appear at a slightly different
introduction of such a school of position. Now, if we draw a line from
thought was through the devising of a where the planet is at the start of the
new model known to astronomers as year toward the star's location, and if we
the System of Diverse Spheres draw the same line from where the
o Up until the modern age, this planet is at the middle of the year
model was thought of as the towards the same star's location, the
most accurate model of the lines would meet at a specified point,
universe. One reason is that all hence, the star did not move at all, but
celestial objects in this model the difference in position is instead
were designated a common caused by the observer's position at a
shape which is the sphere certain period of time. This is what
(Plato's notion) and the apparent astronomers refer to as the parallax.
planetary motion was Going back to Aristarchus, he applied
demonstrated (Aristotle's and this way of observation to our own sun
Eudoxus' notions). and found the exact phenomena of the
parallax, enabling him to formally
C. Aristarchus of Samos introduce Heliocentricity to the world.
 Right before Geocentricity was
formally introduced to the
world, another school of thought The Loss of Knowledge in the Burning of
was beginning to challenge the Alexandria
 When Ptolemy and Aristarchus introduced entitled De Revolutionibus Orbium
geocentricity and heliocentricity to the Coelestium. This particular book used
world, respectively, a clash of philosophies the works of Cicero and Plutarch, two
ensued, and the judgment between these well-known scholars of the Roman Age
schools of thought came to a head when the who translated a lot of the works that
most famous ancient library in the world survived the burning of the Library of
burned. Alexandria. Citing much of the
 The ancient Library of Alexandria housed translated text in works that survived the
works of all scholars from all walks of burning of the Library of Alexandria,
knowledge, and the librarians in this library particularly the work of Aristarchus, he
created copies of the original to make then worked out and created a new
scholarly knowledge available to everyone. model of the universe which illustrates a
However, when Julius Caesar besieged the heliocentric system.
City of Alexandria in AD 48, he burned the
This model of the universe presented the
library down in order to purge the city of
following key knowledge about the universe:
scholars. Among the works that were
burned were the works of Ptolemy and
Aristarchus. Although both original works
were lost, a lot of copies survived; however, The movements of the celestial objects are
as Ptolemy's notions were more accepted by uniform and circular
the general public than Aristarchus, not a lot The Center of the universe is near the sun
of copies of Aristarchus' work were
available, thus making Ptolemy's geocentric Around the sun lies Mercury, Venus, Earth and
model more accepted model until the its Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed
rediscovery of heliocentrism centuries later. stars in that specific order
Our planet has 3 motions: axis spin, annual
revolution, and axis tilt
CLASSICAL VIEWS ABOUT THE
Retrograde motion is also exhibited by our
UNIVERSE planet
Centuries after the burning of the Library of The distance of each heavenly body is different
Alexandria, the understanding of the universe as from one another
being geocentric (Earth as the center) has gone
uncontested. However, in the 16th century, the When this rediscovery was presented to the
idea of heliocentrism (sun as the center) put public, it was met with criticism by known
forth by Aristarchus was rediscovered, and it scientists as to its Physics, but it was later
launched one of the most dangerous Scientific accepted after much debate. The Roman
revolutions in history, as scientists clashing with Catholic Church, too, did not contest it but
the Roman Catholic Church as to what lies at the rather accepted it. However, a rising Protestant
center of the universe, and these clashes most movement in 1616 condemned the Copernican
often end up with costly repercussions. model as a heretic, going against established
beliefs. The Church then, for some obscured
reason, shifted its stance and banned it in the
Nicolaus Copernicus same year. Despite the ban on Copernicus' book
and condemnation of Copernican beliefs, the
 In 1539, Copernicus, then a well-known revolution did not stop until the ban was lifted in
Canon of the church, wrote a book 1815.
 placed under house arrest for the
rest of his life.
Galileo Galilei

 Of all the scientists known to support

Copernicus and his beliefs, none perhaps Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler
is the staunchest than Galileo, who is
 The argument between heliocentrism
famous as the Father of Modern
and geocentrism was brought to a head
Astronomy because of inventing a
when Johannes Kepler, with an
working patent of the astronomical
improved design of Galileo's telescope,
telescope, which became the prototype
settled one of the longest-fought
of all other telescopes that came after it.
revolutions in Scientific history.
Using his invention, he affirmed what
Together with astronomer Tycho Brahe,
has been confirmed by Copernicus and
in a period of 30 years (1600 to 1630),
Aristarchus before him, and professed it
analyzed all available knowledge on
in public, gaining the interest of the
both heliocentrism and geocentrism,
public and eventually, the Roman
which eventually led both scientists to
Catholic Church. Because of his staunch
discover that all planets revolved around
support of heliocentrism, Tommaso
a stationary sun in an elliptical manner,
Caccini, an Italian Dominican friar, filed
which then became the foundation of
a complaint against Galileo in 1615,
one of the cornerstone laws of
which marked what is infamously
Astronomy, the Laws of Planetary
known as the first of the many Galilean
Motion.
Trials.
 The complaint put forth by Friar Caccini
caused Galileo to be brought to a Roman 1st Law of 2nd Law of 3rd Law of
Inquisition headed by Cardinal Robert Planetary Planetary Planetary
Bellarmine. This first inquisition of Motion Motion Motion 
Galileo resulted in the censure and
prohibition of Copernicus' book, to
which Galileo complied by keeping his
silence. However, in 1623, Pope Urban
VIII assumed the papacy, who by then is
an admirer of Galileo. When His
Eminence was elected pope, Galileo CLASSICAL VIEWS ABOUT THE
broke his silence by writing a book, the
infamous Dialogo.
UNIVERSE
o This book argued both VESTO MELVIN SLIPHER: Expanding
Ptolemaic and Copernican Universe
views on the universe, which
then favored that of Copernican  The earliest known studies into the
belief in its conclusion. Upon its origins of the universe came from Vesto
publication, Galileo was Melvin Slipher in 1912. He was famous
summoned in his second Roman for creating the Expanding Universe
Inquisition in 1633 which Theory, the theory that laid the
resulted in the banning of the foundation for the Big Bang Theory. At
Dialogo as well as he was the time, he was studying light waves in
relation to the spiral movement of
 galaxies. What he used as an behavior of gravity. The
observation tool is the so-called Doppler theory treats this
Effect. fundamental force as a
o In brief, the Doppler Effect is force that distorts space
the propagation of any wave in relation to the size of
with respect to the source. If the an object, rather than it
source emitting either sound or being a simple force
light waves is producing pulses binding objects
of sound or light, it would together. In proper
produce uniform concentric perspective, the bigger
waves. If, however, the center the object, the more
that is emitting sound or light distorted the space
pulses is moving, waves would becomes because of
still pulsate in the same manner, gravity, like a drop of
but the waves would be water warping the pool's
concentrated more on where the surface upon impact.
source is as it moves and less Because gravity can
from where the source originally warp space, the element
was. This particular of time that governs
phenomenon was observed by many of the occurrences
Slipher in galaxies, leading him in the universe is
to propose that everything in the affected. When space
universe appears to be moving distorts because of
away from a central point. gravity, time itself
dilates or speeds up, and
the bigger the object,
ALBERT EINSTEIN: General and Special the higher the dilation
Relativity of time.
 Special Relativity, on
 In 1929, the genius of the modern age, the other hand, is a part
Albert Einstein, delved into studying the of relativity that cannot
origins of the universe. In his be explained by the first
observations, he found that all matter part of the theory. This
and energy appeared to be moving at the part of the theory
same speed. As nothing acts upon any explains the effect of
object in the universe except gravity, he speed on mass, time,
surmised that this is possible only when and space. When an
the entire universe is in a state of a object approaches the
vacuum. From these observations, he speed at which light
laid the groundwork for what would be travels, the mass of this
known as the Theory of Relativity. object increases to
o In this particular theory, there infinity as well as the
are two general provisions: energy required to move
General and Special Relativity: such an object.
 General Relativity, in its Following this notion, it
essentiality, is a part of then purports that no
relativity explaining the object can travel at the
 speed of light, as these is their recessional velocity. This
objects are limited by particular hypothesis then laid the
the Physics by which groundwork for another set of laws in
they are governed that Astronomy known as Hubble's Law.
was discovered then by o In simple terms, Hubble's Law
Sir Isaac Newton. states that the velocity of
o Both parts of this theory worked anybody in the universe is
upon the assumption that the directly proportional to its
universe is static, rather than distance from its relative center.
dynamic or moving. Of course, This means that the further an
as the universe is a constantly object in the universe is from its
moving entity, the findings of relative center, the higher its
Einstein were corrected years velocity.
later by Friedmann.
GEORGES LEMAITRE: Big Bang and Big
Crunch Theory
ALEXANDER FRIEDMANN: Correcting
Einstein's Relativity  Around the time of Georges Lemaitre,
there are a lot of theories already
 Because the universe is a moving entity
available about the origins of the
rather than a static entity, Einstein's
universe, but nobody made an effort to
Relativity contained flaws. These flaws,
connect the findings of these theories to
upon stringent study, were corrected a
unify them into one unified theory that
year later (1922) by Alexander
how the universe was born. In an effort
Friedmann. Using a series of equations
to do just that, Monsieur Lemaitre
now known as the Friedmann Equations,
collated and studied these theories and
Friedmann improved Einstein's
independently put forth a theory that, as
Relativity to make it fit with the Physics
you go back in time, the universe
of the universe and boosted the notion
appears to get smaller, and the more you
that the universe is an expanding entity.
continue going back in time, you will
arrive at a time where all matter in the
EDWIN POWELL HUBBLE: Redshift universe is concentrated into one
Hypothesis and Hubble's Law "mass". These argumentations then
became formally known as the Big Bang
 In 1924, Edwin Powell Hubble invented Theory.
the most powerful telescope of that time,  Of course, expansion does not continue
known as the Hubble Space Telescope. to infinity. Monsieur Lemaitre, along
Using this invention, he studied galaxies with his explanation of the big bang,
beyond our home galaxy, and from these also explained that the universe would
studies, he formulated what is known as eventually reach maximum elasticity
the Redshift Hypothesis. This and would eventually stop expanding.
hypothesis describes a heavenly object's When such a time occurs, the universe
Recessional Velocity or the velocity of would then gradually shrink back and be
any object in the universe as it moves consumed by black holes and be
away from a relative central point. This returned to the universe's original state
hypothesis, states that the farther objects before the big bang occurred. This part
are from their relative center, the higher of the cycle is what Monsieur Lemaitre
 eventually introduced as the Big Crunch be added that mass directly affects
Theory. motion, as Aristotle observed that
heavier objects stay more in their natural
state than lighter objects.
BASIC CONCEPTS ON MOTION  Analyzing the assumptions made by
Aristotle, it is arguable that it became
the foundation of Newton's Law of
Inertia because Aristotle summed up
The Motion of an object is the change in its motion as something that requires force
relative position over a certain period of time, for it to occur. Comparing Aristotle's
and this notion is the sole basis of the laws that analysis with that of Newton's, Any
govern it, as defined by Sir Isaac Newton. object, therefore, would remain in its
However, the concept itself did not come from natural state until an external force
Newton per se, but from the philosophies of moves it.
Aristotle and the brilliant observational skills of
Galileo Galilei.

Motion According to Aristotle Motion According to Galileo Galilei

 There are two ways by which objects  Galileo's notion about motion is that it is
move according to Aristotle: constant whether the object is moving or
o Any kind of motion that an not, and is always dependent on force
object does without any external generated by its mass and acceleration,
force inciting the action and this arguably became the foundation
naturally is what Aristotle refers for Newton's Law of Acceleration.
to as Natural Motion. Natural Although it follows through on
motion all have internal motion, Aristotle's notions, Galileo differed from
which means that it is inherent the assumptions from which his
to the object. Following this interpretation of motion came.
thought, the natural state of any o The first thing that Galileo
object, therefore, is being at rest, analyzed is the acceleration
as most objects do not move relative to mass. Aristotle
without an external force. argued that motion would be
o On the other hand, any kind of slower for heavier objects than
motion caused by an external for light objects. However, in
force is what Aristotle refers to Galileo's experiment (lowest
as Violent Motion. The term that illustration), he used two lead
Aristotle used must not be taken balls of different sizes and
in its literal sense but must be rolled them down the ramp. The
interpreted as the disturbance in result was that, regardless of
the natural state of any object, mass, all moving objects
causing an unnatural movement. accelerate the same way.
 These kinds of motions were deduced o The second thing Galileo
following observations of objects of analyzed is inertia relative to
varying mass. Although they follow the mass. Aristotle argued that
same principle as stated above, it must heavier objects are more inert
 than lighter objects, but in acceleration are constant regardless of
Galileo's experiment (middle mass. Atop the Leaning Tower of Pisa,
and top image), which Galileo dropped a lead ball and a lighter
continued from his inclined object, which some references refer to as
plane experiment if two ramps being a feather. What resulted is
of shallow height are placed end Galileo's discovery of Freefall.
to end and you roll both a  Freefall is the motion of objects that fall
lightweight and a heavyweight without any force acting upon them
object from the same height as except gravity. Following this notion,
the ramp, they would reach their the following can be established:
starting height at the same time. o As no force acts upon an object
The same thing happens when except gravity, its acceleration is
you increase the height of the due to gravity and is at a
ramp. Therefore, regardless of constant value of 9.8m/s2
mass, the inertia of an object is o As there is no force that
the same. interferes with an object at
o Aside from these notions, he freefall, there is no resistance
also found that there is no being experienced.
impetus for any object to move,  Because gravity is the sole mover of
as was previously thought by objects in freefall, such objects are in a
Aristotle, whose line of thinking state of vacuum, because it is only in
was that there is no motion this state that freefall can be possible.
when there is no cause for  It must be noted, however, that freefall
movement. In Galileo's applies only in a vertical motion, in such
experiment, he found that any that as an object goes down, acceleration
object is already in motion even is constant but speed or velocity
when resting, which was one of increases as the object accelerates
the basis for Newton's First downward. If we are to refer to
Law. Furthermore, Galileo horizontal motion, as in the motion of
found out that it is force, rather heavenly bodies, what applies now is
than impetus, that would cause recessional velocity as discussed in
an object to move in accordance module 4, where velocity increases with
with the mass and acceleration distance moving away from the center of
of an object, whether at rest or gravity while having constant
not. acceleration in accordance with
Hubble's Law.

FREEFALL
NEWTONIAN LAWS OF
MOTION
 Aside from the experiments that
challenged the claims of Aristotle
regarding motion, Galileo had another
experiment that determines the As discussed in the previous topics, Aristotle
acceleration of an object if the and Galileo laid the foundations for the Laws of
assumption is that inertia and Motion developed by none other than Sir Isaac
Newton. Although with subtle distinctions, the
assumptions of Aristotle and the findings of that causes motion whether an
Galileo align with the laws Newton himself had object is at rest or not.
developed as one of the most important sets of C. Law of Action and Reaction
laws in Physics.  This particular law is added by
Newton himself, when he
observed that, for an object at
Three Laws of Motion rest to be forced to move, and
for an object in motion to be
A. Law of Inertia forced to stop, an equal amount
 According to this law, an object of force must be applied to an
at rest will remain at rest - and object at rest and an object in
an object in motion will remain motion to make an object at rest
in motion - until an equal force move and to make an object in
acts upon it. In Aristotle's motion stop. Therefore, Newton
assumption, it is validated that concluded that for every action,
being at rest is the natural there must be an equal and
motion of things, but remaining opposite reaction, which is what
at rest is dependent upon its the law actually states.
mass. This assumption was then
challenged by Galileo, who
found that, regardless of mass,
inertia in an object is the same LIGHT PROPAGATION,
or constant, which Newton later REACTION, AND REFLECTION
affirmed.
B. Law of Acceleration
 According to this law, an When we see light, it appears as a scattered
object's acceleration is directly white beam, but we must remember that white is
proportional to the force applied not a color, but a denotation that there is a
to the object and is inversely presence of color, whereas black, its opposite,
proportional to its mass. This denotes the absence of color. When subjected
means that the force applied is through a prism, visible light separates into a
dependent on an object's mass myriad of colors which we often see naturally in
as well as its acceleration. rainbows when there is a light drizzle. In the
Newton and Galileo agree on diagram above, the higher the wavelength, the
this point, but Aristotle differed farther that color travels, hence, red travels the
in the reasoning of mass. farthest while violet does not.
Aristotle said that there is no
motion if there is no impetus, or
cause for motion. This
THEORIES ON THE PROPAGATION OF
knowledge was later challenged
LIGHT
by Galileo through his
experiment, to which he In free space, the propagation of light is
concluded (and Newton later described by two theories: the Wave Theory and
affirmed) that there is motion the Corpuscular Theory.
whether an object is at rest or
not, and it is force, not impetus, o Wave Theory of Light
  Christiaan Huygens, an  When light is subjected through a
astronomer who was the first to medium, it may either be bounced back
accurately describe Saturn's or be bent, and we know these
rings, is famous for his proposal phenomena as Reflection and
of the Wave Theory of Light, Refraction, respectively.
written in a treatise entitled o When the light changes direction
Traité de la Lumière. The theory upon hitting an interface between
he proposed states that light is two media, we refer to this
emitted in waves going in all phenomenon as Reflection. When
directions, and each point in a the light changes direction at this
wave can produce its own set of interface, it bounces back to
waves. It is through this notion where it came from in such a way
that a lot of concepts about light that the light wave is reversed,
were formed, such as reflection, making an image that we usually
refraction, diffraction, and see the right side up become
interference, which would be upside down. In any reflection,
discussed in the latter parts of there is always an Incident Ray
the module. which is the incoming ray, and a
o Corpuscular Theory of Light Reflected Ray which is the
 Contradictory to Huygens, Sir outgoing ray. The imaginary line
Isaac Newton proposed a that goes between these two rays
different theory, which treats is the Normal, dividing the angle
light as something made up of formed between the two rays into
particles. He called this theory two equal parts: the Angle of
the Corpuscular Theory of Incidence and the Angle of
Light, which states that light is Reflection.
made up of corpuscles that o On the other hand, when light
travel in a straight line when the passes through the interface of
light itself is propagated. This two different media and becomes
theory enabled scientists to bent, we refer to this phenomenon
understand the nature of photons as Refraction. There is also an
and how they behave. However, incident ray with an angle of
when applied to concepts such incidence between the normal and
as diffraction, refraction, and the incident ray, but the ray that
interference, Newton's theory bends after passing through the
fails to accurately describe such interface is what we refer to as the
phenomena, making this theory Refracted Ray with its Angle of
inadequate in exploring the very Refraction going from the normal
nature of light itself. to the refracted ray. If the angles
o Given these theories, we can now are equal in reflection, they are
explore the propagation of light in not equal when it comes to
different phenomena, the first two of refraction as the density of one
which involve a medium. medium defines the angle at
which light would be bent.

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

 LIGHT PROPAGATION, B. Light Scattering
o Light is generally assumed to
REACTION, AND REFLECTION
travel in a straight path and
would only become reflected or
refracted when it hits a different
Because light can sometimes be polarized led Sir medium. When light hits
Isaac Newton to believe that light is made up of obstacles that can either reflect
particles. This is true, especially for photons and or refract light or even both, it
electrons. Photons are basically light with causes light to spread out in all
energy, and these particles are often used in sorts of directions. This
bombarding a surface to release electrons. When phenomenon is what we refer to
a beam of photons hit a surface, it targets as Scattering.
electrons and knocks them off the atoms where C. Interference and Diffraction
they are bound at the cost of some of the o When a wave of light
photon's energy being used up in the process.
encounters an obstacle, it will
The rest of the photon's energy then occupies the
bend around the obstacle to pass
free negative charge left by the knocked
through it. This phenomenon is
electron, forming a photoelectron. This very
what we refer to as Diffraction.
process is what we refer to as the Photoelectric
As light waves bend around an
Effect.
obstacle, they may sometimes
Practically, it is used in old televisions that use overlap each other, and this is
phototubes to create images on the screen. It is what we refer to as Interference.
also used in security scanners and in electron When light waves overlap, they
microscopes to produce high-resolution images. may produce a light wave with a
greater wavelength or a lower
wavelength. When the
This particular concept is also the same concept interference produces a light
used in the fictional lightsaber, where a photon wave with a greater wavelength,
beam hits a crystal that emits light condensed we refer to this interference as
into a high-density beam that is solid enough to constructive, but if the
act as a sword. interference produces a light
wave of a lower wavelength, we
refer to this interference as
destructive.
PHENOMENA RELATED TO THE
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
A. Light Dispersion SCIENCE OF LENSES
o Dispersion is a phenomenon
where light when subjected to a
prism, splits up into seven
colors found in the visible light THE SCIENCE OF OPTICS AND
spectra. This splitting is due to RELATED NATURAL PHENOMENA
differences in the wavelengths  Optics is a field in physics that studies
of each color which bends and the nature and behavior of
deviates at different angles electromagnetic waves (i.e. infrared
depending on the color's rays, ultraviolet rays, x-ray, gamma rays,
wavelength.
microwaves) and how these waves the one in the picture as if
interact with matter as well as the there is a pool of water
instrumentation used in gathering appearing on the distant
information regarding these interactions. horizon. This distortion is
Aside from this, Optics also deals with what we call a Mirage.
the study of light, being that it is also Mirages result when the
part of the electromagnetic spectrum, as media creating an
well as the natural phenomena that interface with the
involve light, such as the following: surrounding air becomes
o Images on Reflection highly dense because of a
 On a flat, reflective sudden increase in
surface, the image that temperature. When this
forms is the right way up, happens, light becomes
but on a curved surface, refracted in all sorts of
like that of a spoon, the directions, distorting
image becomes inverted. whatever it is that an
If we would remember, observer sees, thereby
incidence rays in creating a mirage.
reflection travel are o Light Absorbance
straight parallel lines, and  Let us say you subjected
when it hits a perfectly white light to a prism to
flat reflective surface the separate colors, and the
reflective ray would rainbow that resulted was
bounce upward without subjected to a red-colored
reversing the light wave, transparent lens. When
making the image upright. the light hit the wall, what
However, when you look you only saw is nothing
at yourself on a curved but a concentration of red
reflective surface, what light. This phenomenon is
happens is that the what we refer to as
reflective rays from the absorbance. What
top of your head will happened along the setup
bounce downward and the was that the lens has only
reflective rays from your a specified wavelength of
chin and below would light that it can allow to
bounce upward. When pass through, and all the
this reversal happens, the rest of the light will be
light waves reverse along absorbed by the filter. In
with the reversal of the the natural setup, this is
reflective rays, thus, the reason why we see
making the image leaves as green, because it
inverted. absorbs all other colors
o Mirages except green, hence, what
 In hot places like the we see is a green color.
desert or the beach, you o Optical Illusions Involving
sometimes see distortions Colors
in what you see such as
  why did people see two light. Only when constant
different sets of colors? drizzle or fine snow is
The simplest explanation falling on a bright day
has to do with what kind would this phenomenon
of light all clothes are be possible.
exposed to. Generally, o Transforming Colors of the Sky
there is just one white and Clouds
light, but its source can  If the weather is bright and
either be artificial, as in a sunny, the sky would be blue for
lightbulb, or natural, as in most of the day, but when the
sunlight. Despite both of time for the sun to set arrives,
them producing the same the sky becomes red and orange.
kind of white light, they The reason for the sky being
have slight differences in blue is because of something
wavelength. When you called Rayleigh Scattering.
expose colored clothes to Rayleigh scattering spreads out
sunlight, certain or scatters shorter wavelengths
wavelengths are absorbed, of light more strongly than
but if you exposed the longer wavelengths. On the
same articles of colored other hand, the reason why skies
clothing to artificial light, at sunset are colored red and
it absorbs a different set orange is because of the Tyndall
of light wavelengths. Effect, where light with longer
Going back to the dress, wavelengths is scattered more
perhaps the most plausible strongly than light of shorter
explanation is its exposure wavelengths.
both to the flash of the  As for clouds, aside from
camera the mother used as Rayleigh Scattering and Tyndall
well as sunlight. Effect coloring them at specified
o Hales, Sundogs, Primary times of the day, they are
Rainbows, Secondary usually found to be white, but
Rainbows, and Supernumerary when it becomes heavy with
Bows vapor, it turns dark. The reason
 Whatever type of bow it behind this is because of the
is, the way haloes, density of the vapor contained
sundogs, and rainbows are within the clouds. When water
the same: through vapor is less in a cloud, the
raindrops. If we will recall vapor is more spread out, thus
the concept of dispersion, reflecting a lot of white light,
anything clear and turning it white. However, as
prismatic can disperse more vapor is added to a cloud,
white light into the visible the vapor contained in the cloud
light spectra. However, becomes dense, thus, less while
it's not just any raindrop the light is reflected, turning the
that must be present, as cloud darker in color.
not all types of
precipitation disperse
LENSES AND THEIR TYPES
In the discussion above, most phenomena occur
because of something that reflects, refracts,
disperses, or scatters light. Anything that can
reflect, refract, disperse, or scatter light is what
we refer to as Lenses.

CONVEX LENS AND ITS TYPES

This kind of
lens is thicker
in the middle
and it
converges all
rays of light
that pass
through it.
ITERATIONS OF CONVEX LENSES

CONCAVE LENS AND ITS TYPES

This kind of
lens is thicker
in the middle
and diverges
all rays of light.
ITERATIONS OF CONCAVE LENSES