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African Literature From the Oral Tradition to Current Trends

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AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL
TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

2008 – 2009 FULBRIGHT RESEARCH

Pr. Dr. Djénéba TRAORE
Faculté des Lettres, Langues, Arts et Sciences
Humaines (FLASH)
University of Bamako – MALI

https://www.amazon.com/African-literature-tradition-current-trends/dp/3639290739
 AFRICAN LITERATURE –
FROM THE ORAL TRADITION
TO CURRENT TRENDS

GUEST INSTITUTION:
INDIANA UNIVERSITY
BLOOMINGTON
INDIANA - AFRICAN
STUDIES PROGRAM
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

PLAN of PRESENTATION

I. THE ORAL TRADITION

II. THE MAIN PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

AFRICAN LITERATURE

III. THE NEGRITUDE

IV. CURRENT TRENDS IN THE AFRICAN LITERATURE

 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

I. THE ORAL TRADITION

I.1 Griots: origin and role

I.2 Forms of the oral tradition
I.2.1 Poems
a) Animistic approach in the poem
b) Lyric structures
c) Drum-poems
d) Proverbs
e) Epic/heroic epic
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

I.2.2 Prose
a) Oral fiction
b) Sagas
c) Myths
d) Animal fables
e) Guessings

I.2.3 Theatre and Koteba

 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

II. THE MAIN PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN

LITERATURE
- Oral literature (people poetry)
- The publication in the year 1573 of the first work written by an African
author
- The publication in 1946 of the first African international poetry
anthology in French language and the creation in 1947 of the publishing
house “Présence Africaine”
- The literature trends from 1960 to 1990
- The literature trends after 1990
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

III. THE NEGRITUDE

Historical context
Definition and representatives
Ideological contradictions
Léopold Sédar Senghor
Left wing of the Negritude and the literature trends in the
Anglophone Countries
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

II. MAIN PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN LITERATURE 2. THE

MAIN PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN LITERATURE
It can be said that five main periods have determined the development of the
African literature:

v1. The oral literature or people poetry that prevailed long time in Africa.

v2. The publication in 1573 of the first written African work. His author Juan
Latino, born in about 1516, came probably from the coast of Guinea and was
carried off together with his mother in the age of eight years as slave into the
house of Dona Elvira from Spain (daughter of one of the more famous
commander Spain’s, Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba). The young Juan Latino was
educated and sent to school. He studied and was accepted into the noble society.
He married a Spain woman with whom he lived together up to his death. His
poems written in Latin language were printed in1573 in Granada. At the
beginning of the “Don Quixote” of Cervantes, Juan Latino is portrayed as a noble
scholar. An episode from his life was processed by Lope de Vega in a drama.
Jimenez de Encisco wrote a whole comedy about him. He was lecturing from 1557
as university professor. He died in 1606.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

ØThe first known authors of African origin are former slaves who had been
carried off in majority to America and to Europe, for instance:
Antonius Guilielmuses (Anton Wilhelm Amo), born in 1703, he was brought
by Anton Ulrich von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in Germany. He completed
a study in law and philosophy and taught from 1736 to 1738 at the Halle
University. He wrote three philosophical and medical treaties in Latin
language. In 1753 he came back to the Gold Coast (the current Republic of
Ghana in West Africa).
Ø Other names are Jacobus Elisa Ioanneses, also from Ghana and Phillis
Wheatley from Senegal. Jacobus Elisa Ioannes that was lost to Holland,
studied and published books there. The Senegalese Phillis Wheatley that had
been named after her American owner is the first known poet with African
origin. Her poems consist of elegies, religious and moralizing lyric
monologues. She has been a bestseller author.
Ø Further slaves, who distinguished themselves through their artistic works
were Ignatius Sanchos from an unknown African country. His letters were
published 1782 in London. In his writings, he turns against the slave-trade.
Ø A known author with African origin is also Olaudah Equiano (Gustavus
Vassa) from the Ibo ethnical group. He published 1789 his autobiography in
London.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

v3. The publication in 1946 of the first of Africans international

Poetry Anthology in French language, the creation in 1947 of the
journal “Présence Africaine“ and the establishment in 1949 of the
publishing house “Présence Africaine“ in the aftermath of the
founding of the philosophical-literary trend of the ”Negritude”. The
journal “Présence Africaine " was supported by André Gide, Albert
Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. Other revues like " Black Orpheus ",
established in 1957 by Janheinz Jahn and Ulli Beier with headquarters
in Nigeria, "la Voix du Congolais " (1946) and "Jeune Afrique" (1947)
were published. But, in the 30th years committed jounals like "Revue
du monde noir" and "Légitime Défense” were prohibited in France.
v In 1956 the Society for Culture was created which aimed to
coordinate all scientists, artists and authors of African origin. 1959,
the first world-congress of African and Afro-American authors took
place in the Sorbonne University in Paris.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

v4. The fourth period begins with the year 1960 as the UN-full-Meeting
proclaimed the declaration over the final and complete elimination of the
colonialism and numerous countries of Africa achieved their national and
political independence. In April 1966, the first world festival of the Negro-
Arts was organized in Dakar. From now, the written literature in the
continent developed itself very fast and the number of the publications
increased considerably as well.

v 5. The fifth period starts in the early 1990 following the decisive political
and social meeting in Benin called “Conférence Nationale” which gave birth
to the first step of the democratic process in West Africa, many countries of
the continent faced important political and social changes in relationship
with the from then on strong democratic demand of the people. In Mali for
example, these major changes the result of bloody riots which ended on
March 26, 1991. The literature of the continent will cover the issues linked
with the democratization process.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

III. THE NEGRITUDE

III.1 Historical context

Aimé Césaire from Martinique, Léopold Sédar Senghor from Senegal and Léon
Gontran Damas from Guyana were the spiritual founders of the Negritude.
Important representatives were among many others Alioune Diop, Birago Diop,
David Diop from Senegal, Camara Laye from Guinea, Joseph Miezan Bognini,
Kumassi Brou and Denise Massida from the Ivory Coast and William Dubois
from the USA.

The Negritude was under the influence of the North American Negro-
renaissance, a literary current which was based on the conscience of the
African personality. The apostle of this literature trend was Langston Hughes
from the United States of America.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

III.2 Negritude: Definition

Senghor defines the Negritude as follows: "Objectively seen, it is the totality

of the works of not only the people of black Africa but also the black
minorities of America, Asia and the countries of the Pacific Ocean...
subjectively the Negritude is seen as the will to represent the culture-values
of the black world to live with them, after one has fertilized and has
modernized them, but, also to make them accessible others”* .
Most of the Negritude authors wrote in French language, drew a picture of
their African home without denouncing the colonialism as oppression and
exploitation system.

* (Leopold Sédar Senghor, cited in: Broszinky-Schwabe, Edith, Kulturrevolution in Afrika, VEB
Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1979, p. 112 (English translation by Djénéba Traoré).
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

III.3 Negritude: Ideological contradictions

Ø The founders of the Negritude wanted to fight against the assimilation politic of the
colonizers but could however not free themselves from the French way of thinking. A pro
French attitude could be observed in their works (Ousmane Socé Diop’s “Mirage de Paris"
(1937)).

ØThe young authors wanted to use their literary works to claim the national independence
of their respective countries, nevertheless they kept themselves in their writings away
from political questions.

ØThe Negritude wanted to define itself as a weapon against the colonial oppression, but
pursued the colonial assimilation politic at the same time. Tibor Keszthelyi describes the
situation as follows: “The supporters of the Negritude directed their statements to the
European readers - not only in lack of an African public but from a very own drive. It was
not very much about calling on their people to the independence than to announce their
claim under appeal on the humanism on freedom to those, who had stolen it to them. The
African intellectual minority who had broken out from the crushing African reality, had
acquired a western education and had chosen against the colonial power the weapon of
the culture, could probably think hardly differently. The Negritude has never beaten roots
in revolutionary movements; it removed itself from them even more and more “.
AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

ØThe left wing of the Negritude and the literary tendency in the Anglophone countries of
Africa
ØA left wing of the Negritude existed. Its main representatives were David Diop (1927-1960)
from Senegal and Bernard B. Dadié (1916 …) from the Ivory Coast. Their lyric is anti colonial
and shows an aggressive character.
ØThe Negritude appeared unfortunately unable to solve the problems and conflicts of the
African society. Ousmane Sembène from Senegal was the opinion that it forces into the
passivity. At the end of the fifties, the representatives of the Negritude movement found
themselves into a kind of vacuum.
ØIt is a matter of fact that the authors from the Anglophone countries didn't take the
Negritude trend into account, even refused the trend. If some authors from Ghana and
Nigeria inspired themselves from it, it was however only momentary. They didn't believe in
the effectiveness of the Negritude. The main critic of the movement is surely Es'kia
Mphahlele (December 17, 1919 - October 27, 2008), a South African author living in the
emigration. His name of birth was Ezekiel that he changed to Es'kia in 1977. He accuses the
Negritude of its obstinate bearings on the “black-being.’’
ØIn the 1960’s, the historical prerequisites were no more given for the ideal world of the
Negritude. The movement was outdated and had become anachronistic. The Nigerian Wole
Soyinka marked it ironically as “Tigritude” (tigerhood), like the tiger which brags with its
strips.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

IV. CURRENT TRENDS IN THE AFRICAN LITERATURE CURRENT TRENDS IN THE

AFRICAN LITERATURE
ØAs protest against the philosophical-literary system of the Negritude that
increasingly became retarded in the time of a high level of contradictions
between the Africans fought about their independence and the French and
English colonialists, in the beginning of the 1960’s a realistic West African
literature has been developed. Instead of to turn like the authors of the
Negritude to the former colonial power to fill about a type “highlighting”
function, they wrote for the African public itself and described the negative
social and political facts critically, even satirically.

ØThe representatives of this group are the Senegalese Ousmane Sembène and the
Cameroonian Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono for example. In their works, they
try to reflect the new time critically.

ØSince 1960 Africans are more numerous in the development of the literature of
the Francophone and Anglophone countries. Quantitative and qualitative
changes can be observed. The epic begun in a wide scope to analyze the past
and to describe the social and political conflicts of the present.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

ØA not insignificant literary activity which was already developed in the colonial time and
which became in very short time an important component of most th
national cultures then,
is the theater-literature. In the seventies and eighties of the 20 century, the African drama
treats relevant topics, like the history of the continent, the tradition and the change of the
African way of life through the influence of the urban culture, the amazing rich mythology,
i.e.
ØA quite new topic that the African theater-literature treats is the equality between men
and women and the changing role of the women on the continent.

In the Epic, usually it is about novels, two prevalent content-thematic lines can be
observed:
Ø1 The return to the history of the continent: Not in order to glorify like the Negritude the
bygone achievements of the Africans but to assess it again in its inconsistency and to carry
out a deep reflection. From the experience of the seventies and eighties, some authors
treat the time of the thirties, forties and fifties once again: for example Ousmane
Sembène: "Le dernier de l’Empire" (1981), Francis Bebey from Cameroon (1929-2001): "Le
roi Albert d'Effidi" (1976), Mongo Beti: "Remember Ruben I and II " (1974 & 1979),
Mohammed Touré alias Alioum Fantouré from Guinea (1938…): "L'homme du troupeau du
Sahel" (1979) in which the question of the identity search is treated; On another side some
authors try to make clear that the thorough knowledge of the past, including the done
mistakes, is the best prerequisite for the action in the present and the future. Parallel,
African historians devote time to the history of their continent which can now be written
by the Africans themselves again. Some scholars like Joseph Ki-Zerbo from Burkina Faso,
Cheickh Anta Diop from Senegal, Djibril Tamsir Niane and Ibrahima Baba Kaké from Guinea
as well as Amadou Hampaté Bâ and Madina Ly Tall from Mali.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

Ø2 After the Disillusions of the 70’s the authors turn themselves to the
immediate present of their countries and criticize the negative social
circumstances appeared after the declaration of the national
independences. They emphasize in their novels, with different style-
methods, above all nepotism, enrichment, nasty businesses, luxurious ways
of life of the national and bureaucratic bourgeoisie, however also poverty,
manners-decay, unemployment and the destruction of the individual
through the deformed capitalist system.

ØThe situation is alarming for many authors. They represent in their novels,
people, who have fought against the colonial regime and become
themselves dictators, tyrants and exploiters.

ØAlready in the fifties, the Cameroonian author Alexandre Biyidi, who is more
known under the pseudonyms Mongo Beti and Eza Boto, said in an
interview: “It would be better to see the problem as social rather than as
racist then. Besides the situation develops, and it is likely that it if the
colonial pressure vanishes, it will give attempts of the oppression of Blacks
against Blacks. Therefore, the situation must be seen in the context of social
oppression." Beti’s predictions were proved as right.

Beti, Mongo, cited in: Renate Brandes words to: Perpetue und die Gewöhnung ans Unglück, Verlag Volk
und Welt, Berlin 1977, p. 306.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

Ø3. The current literary trends in Africa are characterized by their sharp critic
to the current neocolonial situation in African countries. The authors put the
accent on the loss of the cultural values like dignity, honesty, solidarity,
hospitality, social cohesion and a multiplicity of positive sides of the
tradition. It seems that literature reacts very actively in countries where
social and political contradictions become worse.
ØA new literature form was founded. It had together a critical and a realistic
function in the Francophone and Anglophone countries, as for example
novels in form of letters, short stories or novels.
ØIn novels, urban life is predominantly described although the majority of the
population lives on the country. This fact expresses the increasing
urbanization tendency in many African countries.
ØOn the other side, it becomes obvious that in the literature, conflicts like
strong old religious beliefs and behaviors still exist. Modernization trends
have sometimes a destructive effect on the people. Actions leading to the
downfall of figures are described in a great number of books.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

• Many books present the collision of traditional and modern way of

life in particularly concerning the relationships between men and
women if for example the polygamy and the obedience rules are put
in question concerning women. The tradition is in particularly strict
with the women and represents an effective oppression method. For
this reason, in the novels many women break consciously or
spontaneously with its rules. This fact alerts that African women
develop a new self-confidence, and that they want to adapt
themselves no longer to old traditions (Mongo Beti, Ousmane
Sembène, Okot p’Bitek).
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DVD
• From Mali to Michigan – A musical bridge. 2005. Producers: Robert Thompson and Louise Bourgault .
CD
• Playing for life – Performance in Africa in the Age of AIDS. 2003. Louise M. Bourgault.
 AFRICAN LITERATURE – FROM THE ORAL TRADITION TO CURRENT TRENDS

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