ETHICS Notes
ETHICS Notes
ETHICS Notes
Think for example of Socrates, Gautama Buddha, In short philosophy attempts to understand things in
Confucius, and Plato. a critical and logical manner.
Immaterial: the notions of God, soul, and or spirits MAJOR BRANCES OF PHILOSOPHY
All of these are beings and philosophy studies their Philosophy is divided into four major branches
ultimate causes reason and principles through the namely:
aid of human reason alone. 1. Metaphysics
2. Epistemology
3. Logic But going back however Ontology therefore is the
4. Ethics specific branch of philosophy that studies beings in
their ultimate causes reasons and principles through
I. Metaphysics comes from the two Greek words the aid of reason alone.
“meta” which means beyond or after and “physika”
In other words, Ontology studies the first principles
which means physical or in nature.
are the essence of all things.
Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics means
Some of the basic questions in ontology are:
the study of things beyond the physical ; that is What is being?
concepts or things that cannot be experienced such Why do things exist rather than not to exist at
as the concepts of God, freedom, and soul. all?
What is the meaning and nature of reality?
Metaphysics is commonly understood as the
What is the underlying principle of all that
foundation of philosophy. exists?
Is there nothing?
In fact, Aristotle calls it the “first philosophy”
To describe very schematically the four major branches of
Originally, the Greek word metaphysical which
philosophy.
literally means after physics actually designated that
part of Aristotle’s works which came after those
chapters that dealt with physics.
2. Special metaphysics:
However, it was misappropriated later by the
medieval commentators on a classical texts as that On the other hand, we have special metaphysics
which is beyond the physical which includes Cosmology, Psychology or
Anthropology, and Natural Theology / Theodicy and I
This overtime, metaphysics has been understood as will also briefly discuss each of these subcategories
the study of that which exists beyond the physical
Cosmology from the ancient Greek words:
Now, metaphysics is further subdivided into Two, “Kosmos” which means the world and
namely: “logos” which means study
1. General metaphysics/ Ontology Is the specific sub branch of philosophy that studies
2. Special metaphysics the world or the universe including its origin,
Cosmology dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the laws
Psychology or Anthropology that govern its order.
Natural theology or Theodicy
Some of the basic questions in cosmology are:
1. General Metaphysics / Ontology What is the origin of the world?
What is the basic material of which the world is
Ontology is derived from the two Greek words: formed?
How do things arise?
“Onto” which means being or that which is that is In what consists its fundamental form or
everything that exists and principle of order?
“logos” which means knowledge or study. Is the world or universe infinite?
Broadly construed Theodicy is the study of God but The basic questions in logic includes the following:
specifically the Theodicy is concerned with a What is correct reasoning?
justification of the goodness of God in the face of the what distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
existence of evil in the world. how can we detect a fallacy in an argument?
what are the criteria in determining the validity of an
Some of the basic questions in theology are: argument?
Is there God? what are the types of logic?
What and who is God if he exists at all?
How do we prove the existence of God?
If God exists how do we justify the existence of
evil and suffering in the world? IV. The fourth major branch of philosophy is
Does belief in God's really necessary? ethics.
The Origin of Philosophy - Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person - PHILO-notes
The Origin of Philosophy: Western Philosophy. world or the meaning and purpose of life, one begins
to philosophize.
for some reason I will not include here the discussion
on the origin and development of Eastern or Asian Thus, in philosophic wonder one is not merely
philosophy, This will be discussed in our other amazed by the mysteriousness of the world or of life
editions. but seeks to understand this mystery in a word one
thinks.
According to Socrates as Plato reports wonder is
“the only beginning of philosophy” Given this brief discussion on the origin of
philosophy and the conceptual level, it is therefore,
Then later, Aristotle in response to his predecessors
reasonable to suppose that Western philosophy
especially the human philosophers said that “It is
originated in Miletus because Thales is the
owing to their wonder that men both now begin and
acclaimed the first philosopher in the Western world
at first begun to philosophize”
was from Miletus.
This is precisely the context and basis of the now
Miletus during the time of Thales was the richest
famous claim that Philosophy begins in wonder, but
and the most powerful of all the Union cities and
what kind of wonder is this?
was the first center of scholarship in ancient Greece
For sure wonder includes the feeling of surprise Ionia was a Greek city-state on the coast of Asia
coupled with admiration that is when one is being Minor or now called Turkey.
curious or being in all.
It is worth noting that with a decline of Ionia which
But this is not enough, wonder as the beginning of began with its conquest by the persons in 546 BCE,
philosophy, is precisely philosophic wonder that is the intellectual life of Greece moved to Croton in
the feeling of being perplexed. southern Italy in 530 BCE. Croton was a splendid and
powerful city-state of Greece to where Pythagoras
For example, the ancient Greek philosophers were emigrated from Samos and founded the
perplexed about the origin and nature of the world Pythagorean Brotherhood
as Aristotle writes: “For men were first led to study
philosophy as indeed they are today by wonder now he Now if philosophy begins in wonder, how do we
who is perplexed and wanders believes himself to be exactly know that Thales was the first philosopher,
ignorant... they took to philosophy to escape ignorance” that he was the first one to wonder, that is the first
one to attempt to make sense of the mysteriousness
In this sense philosophic wonder seeks clarity by
of the world?
trying to understand the perplexities or vagueness or
confusion that shrouded the enquiring mind. In fact we cannot deny the occurrence of other pre
philosophical rumblings in Egyptian and Babylonian
In other words, philosophic wonder seeks answers cultures as well as in India and in China and for sure there
to or at least make sense of the mysterious world were great thinkers that existed in each of these cultures
and there are evidence that some of the earliest Greek
Thus, when one begins to make sense of the philosophers had come in contact with at least some of
questions regarding, for example the origin of the the products of Egyptian and Babylonian thoughts and of
course we cannot absolutely determine the first person reasoned arguments for the origin and development
who wondered or philosophized. of the world.
Well to address this question, it is commonly Indeed this is a unique feature of ancient Greek philosophy
believed that Thales was the first philosopher that distinguishes it from the pre philosophical rumblings
because he was the first at least in recorded history of other cultures. And so, to reiterate Western philosophy
to put his philosophy into writing . In fact we find begins in wonder and that the origin of philosophy in
Thales and many philosophers after him some terms of place is said to be in Miletus or Ionia.
What is Ethics_ (Ethics Defined, Ethics Meaning) (See link below for more video lectures in Ethics)
It is for this reason that the attempt to seek the good Although many philosophers believe that the two
through the aid of reason is the traditional goal of terms can be used interchangeably this is because
ethicists Ethics denotes the theory of right action and the
greater good while the Morality indicates practice
It must be noted however that there is no single
that is the rightness or wrongness of a human action
absolute definition of ethics.
In other words Ethics undertakes the “systematic
This is because ethics as a discipline is constantly
study” of the underlying principles of morality hence
evolving as a result of a change in socio-cultural and
it is interested primarily in the illustration of a more
political context
general problem and the examination of underlying
For example in the Greek tradition, ethics was assumptions in the critical evaluation of moral
conceived as relating to the concept of the good life. principles
Thus, the ethical inquiry during this time was
Morality of the other hand is more “prescriptive” in
directed toward discovering the nature of
nature it tells us what we ought to do and exhorts us
happiness. In fact Aristotle's Nicomachean ethics
to follow the right way
does not only present a theory of happiness but also
provides ways in which happiness is attained. According to Terence McConnell (1994) :
Now centuries later, a quite different orientation “Morality is characterized as an end governed rational
was introduced by the Judeo-Christian tradition. In enterprise whose object is to equip people with a body of
this ethical tradition, the ideals of righteousness norms that make for peaceful and collectively satisfying
coexistence by facilitating their living together and
before God and the love of God and neighbor not
interacting in a way that is productive for the realization of
the happy or pleasant life constitute the substance
the general benefit.”
of ethics.
For example, a religious leader may ask her followers inquiry is evaluative and prescriptive meta ethics is
to be good at all times. In this way a moralist may an elliptical and descriptive
want to keep alive the values she considers to be
put simply meta ethics is a type of ethical inquiry
worthwhile and to improve the moral quality of the
that aims to understand the nature and dynamics of
community where she belongs.
ethical principles, it asks questions about the nature
Hence, morality at the very least aims to guide one's and origin of moral facts as well as the way in which
action by reason and gives equal weight to the we learn and acquire moral beliefs
interests of each individual affected by one's
Thus, for example if Normative ethics urges us to do
decision.
good at all times, Meta ethics asks the question
Indeed, this gives us a picture of what it really means what is good
to be a morally upright person.
For sure if a moral philosopher attempts to address
And so, we may conclude that: the questions:
Ethics = is the Science of morals, while What is good? What is justice? Why should I be moral?
Morality = is the practice of ethics. then that moral philosopher is doing meta ethics.
During the mid 20th century according to Sumner Hence, when Plato propose an answer to the
(1967) a certain theory in the methodology of ethics question “why should I be moral?” Plato was doing
has gradually become more and more widely meta ethics.
accepted at least by British and American moral
Indeed, Plato raised a meta ethical question in the
philosophers.
course of the development of ethics.
According to this position there are Two ways of
doing ethical, namely;
Applied ethics became its third major type as its
1. Normative ethics
name suggests
2. Meta ethics
3. Applied ethics Applied ethics is the actual application of ethical or
Normative ethics is “prescriptive” in nature as it moral theories for the purpose of deciding which
seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given
and wrong or good and bad conduct. This may situation
involve articulating the good habits that we should
acquire, the duties we should follow, and the For this reason, Casuists adherents of applied ethics
consequences of our behavior on others. are concerned with individual moral problems, such
as abortion, or euthanasia, and attempt to resolve
Hence, normative ethics normally attempts to the conflicting issues that surround these particular
develop guidelines or theories that tell us how we moral problems
ought to behave.
Casuistry also act on some occasions in an advisory
For an example, Immanuel Kant's claim that an act is capacity such as guiding individuals in their choice of
morally right if it is done for the sake of duty is an actions
example of a normative ethics.
For example, they may attempt to resolve the
Meta ethics on the other hand is “descriptive” in conflicting duties of a mother suffering from ectopic
nature pregnancy who has no other option than to abort
the fetus.
according to Sumner (1967) meta ethics is allegedly
constituted at least in part by questions of the Applied ethics is usually divided into different fields:
meanings of the various ethical terms and functions
of ethical etre insists hence if a normative ethical
Business ethics which deals with ethical behavior in “A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to
the corporate world. blow up a crowded shopping mall. “
Biomedical and environmental ethics which deal The act of the police officer is morally wrong
with issues relating to health welfare and the according to Ethics because it is always wrong to kill,
responsibility we have toward people in our as it is well known killing in itself is intrinsically
environment wrong.
Social ethics which deals with the principles and However, if the police officer does not shoot the
guidelines that regulate corporate welfare within terrorists men, innocent people will die or get
societies insured. Though the police officers act may be wrong
the adherence of ignore motive ethics may say that
it is the right thing to do in this particular situation,
because not doing so will result in the death of so
many people. Hence, the action might be morally
correct finally
Distinguish morality from ethics by explaining the While Morality is generally understood as the
meaning nature and dynamics of morality rightness or wrongness of a human action
What is morality? In this way we can say that Ethics is the specific
branch of philosophy that studies the morality that is
It must be noted however that the difference
the rightness or wrongness of a human action with
between ethics and morality is not that significant.
this we may initially conclude that ethics is the
In fact the former is essentially synonymous with a science of morals
latter. While morality is the practice of ethics
Etymologically speaking, ethics comes from the Based on this initial discussion on the difference
Greek word “ethos” while morality is from the latin between the two terms we can now draw the idea
word “Mos” or “mores” if used in its plural form. that ethics attempts to provide systems of moral
principles and the reasons why these principles are
Both words are referring to customary behavior valid
for this reason we may use the word immoral in lieu hence, ethics is more concerned with the theories
of the word unethical or we may use the word moral that can be used to explain why a particular moral
instead of the word ethical principle is valid or not right or wrong.
this is the reason why we say that a moral person or it is for this reason that ethicists have come up with
ethical person is One who is good and does the right some of the basic ethical principles that may help
thing determine the rightness or wrongness of a human
action.
And an immoral person or unethical person is One
who is bad and does what is wrong Some of these Basic Ethical Principles are:
As we can see the terms ethics and morality can be 1. Respect for persons
used interchangeably. 2. Truthfulness and Confidentiality
3. Autonomy and Informed Consent
However, there is a fine line that divides the two in 4. Beneficence
other words we can distinguish one from the other 5. Non-maleficence
in some respects. 6. Justice
The first idea that came to our mind when we asked Now, as already mentioned, morality refers to the
the difference between ethics and morality is that principles of right and wrong behavior or rightness
Ethics generally refers to the “systematic study” of and wrongness that is goodness and badness of
the rightness or wrongness of a human action human actions
And more importantly, in determining the rightness If ethics says that “killing is wrong” because it
or wrongness of human actions, the moral agent is violates the basic ethical principles of respect for
guided by the broader rules of principles of ethics. persons or non-maleficence, morality on the other
hand says “do not kill because it is wrong”
For instance, the person's moral belief that killing is
wrong may stem from the basic ethical principle of Again, this is the reason why Ethics is understood as
respect for persons or non-maleficence the science of morals while Morality is the practice
of the basic principles of ethics.
indeed this example further explains the basic
difference between ethics and morality
Lesson No. 1
The Nature of Human Acts
I. Definition
Human Act (Actus Humanus)
an act which proceeds from the deliberate
free will of man
an act that proceeds from the knowing and
freely willing human being
Example: listening to a talk, studying this
PDF
b. Intention c. Mixed
the purposive tendency of the will towards acts that involve the employment of bodily
a thing regarded as realizable, whether the and mental powers
thing is actually done or not ( Example: solving a Math problem )
( Example: I will see you tonight. )
c. Consent
the acceptance by the will of the means
necessary to carry out intention
it is the further intention of doing what is
necessary to realize the main intention
( If I will see you tonight, I consent to how really to
see you. )
d. Election
the selection by the will of the precise B. Based on the Relation of Human Acts to Reason
means to be employed in carrying out an Human acts are either in agreement or
intention disagreement with the dictates of reason,
( I will select riding my bike to see you tonight. ) and this relationship constitutes the
morality of human acts.
e. Use
the employment by the will of bodily or B.1. Good
mental powers or both to carry out its when human acts are in harmony with the
intention by the means elected dictates of right reason
( To actually see you, I will command my mental and B.2. Evil
bodily powers to carry out my intention. ) when human acts are in opposition with the
dictates of right reason
f. Fruition B.3. Indifferent
the enjoyment of a thing willed and done when they stand in no positive relation to
the will’s act of satisfaction in intention the dictates of reason
fulfilled
( I will experience this the moment I will see actually
see you. )
III. Constituents of the Human Acts
These refer to the essential elements or
A.2. Commanded Acts qualities for an act to be human.
a. Internal These qualities are knowledge, freedom,
acts done by internal mental powers under and voluntariness.
command of the will 1. Knowledge
A human act proceeds from the deliberate It is an act that is under control of the will,
will; it requires deliberation. an act that the will can do or leave undone.
Deliberation means advertence, or Such an act is called a free act, thus, every
knowledge in intellect of what one is about human act must be free.
and what this means. Deliberation means
knowledge. 3. Voluntariness
Thus, no human act is possible without A human act to be voluntary, or must have
knowledge. voluntariness, simply means it must be a
will-act.
2. Freedom This is to say that there must be both
A human act is an act determined (elicited knowledge and freedom in the agent or the
or commanded) by the will and by nothing doer of the action.
else.
Lesson No. 2
Voluntariness of Human Acts
From these two principles, we may deduce the > Before we will discuss the ethical
following thoughts before the performance of any principles governing ignorance, let us first consider it
act: in three ways.
We must do good; we must avoid evil.
We must never do what is evil, even
though good may be looked for and A. Ignorance in its Object
intended as a result of it This talks about the thing of which the
agent may be ignorant about.
a. Ignorance of Law
This refers to the
Modifiers of Human Acts ignorance of the existence
of a duty, rule, or
The modifiers of human acts refer to the regulation.
things that may affect the human act's essential
qualities and thus lessen the moral character of the b. Ignorance of Fact
act, and consequently diminish the responsibility of This refers to the
the agent. ignorance of the nature or
circumstances of an act as
> There are five of them, namely: forbidden. It is also lack of
1. Ignorance knowledge that what one is
2. Concupiscence actually doing comes under the
3. Fear prohibition of a known law.
4. Violence
5. Habit c. Ignorance of Penalty
> Let us consider them. This is lack of knowledge
of the precise sanction affixed to
the law.
1. Ignorance
> Before we will discuss the ethical principles c. affected ignorance - if positive effort is
governing ignorance, let us first consider it in three made to retain it.
ways.
b. Invincible Ignorance
A. Ignorance in its Object
This talks about the thing of which the This is ignorance that ordinary and proper
agent may be ignorant about. diligence cannot dispel because:
a. From Fear - when actions are done • The Ethical Principle on Habit
caused by fear.
(Example: A student cheats because he is Habit does not destroy voluntariness; acts
afraid of failing.) from habit are always voluntary, at least in
cause, as long as the habit is allowed to
b. With Fear - when fear is the endure.
accompanying circumstance in doing an act
(Example: A student cheating is afraid of
being caught.)