COMPLEX VARIABLES AND APPLICATIONS, EIGHTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright  2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. Previous editions  2004, 1996, 1990, 1984, 1974, 1960, 1948 No part of this publication may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in
any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside
the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 9 8

ISBN 978–0–07–305194–9
MHID 0–07–305194–2

Editorial Director: Stewart K. Mattson

Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts
Senior Sponsoring Editor: Elizabeth Covello
Developmental Editor: Michelle Driscoll
Editorial Coordinator: Adam Fischer
Senior Marketing Manager: Eric Gates
Project Manager: April R. Southwood
Senior Production Supervisor: Kara Kudronowicz
Associate Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes
Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri
Project Coordinator: Melissa M. Leick
Compositor: Laserwords Private Limited
Typeface: 10.25/12 Times Roman
Printer: R. R. Donnelly Crawfordsville, IN

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brown, James Ward.

Complex variables and applications / James Ward Brown, Ruel V. Churchill.—8th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–07–305194–9—ISBN 0–07–305194–2 (hard copy : acid-free paper) 1. Functions of
complex variables. I. Churchill, Ruel Vance, 1899- II. Title.
QA331.7.C524 2009
515
.9—dc22
2007043490

www.mhhe.com
sec. 5 Complex Conjugates 13

5. COMPLEX CONJUGATES
The complex conjugate, or simply the conjugate, of a complex number z = x + iy
is defined as the complex number x − iy and is denoted by z ; that is,
(1) z = x − iy.
The number z is represented by the point (x, −y), which is the reflection in the real
axis of the point (x, y) representing z (Fig. 5). Note that
z=z and |z| = |z|
for all z.

(x, y)
z

O x
–z
(x, –y) FIGURE 5

If z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 , then

z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) − i(y1 + y2 ) = (x1 − iy1 ) + (x2 − iy2 ).

So the conjugate of the sum is the sum of the conjugates:

(2) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .

In like manner, it is easy to show that

(3) z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 ,
(4) z1 z2 = z1 z2 ,

and


z1 z1
(5) = (z2
= 0).
z2 z2
The sum z + z of a complex number z = x + iy and its conjugate z = x − iy
is the real number 2x, and the difference z − z is the pure imaginary number 2iy.
Hence
z+z z−z
(6) Re z = and Im z = .
2 2i
 Brown-chap01-v3 10/29/07 3:32pm 14

14 Complex Numbers chap. 1

An important identity relating the conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy

to its modulus is
(7) z z = |z|2 ,
where each side is equal to x 2 + y 2 . It suggests the method for determining a
quotient z1 /z2 that begins with expression (7), Sec. 3. That method is, of course,
based on multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of z1 /z2 by z2 , so
that the denominator becomes the real number |z2 |2 .

EXAMPLE 1. As an illustration,
−1 + 3i (−1 + 3i)(2 + i) −5 + 5i −5 + 5i
= = = = −1 + i.
2−i (2 − i)(2 + i) |2 − i| 2 5
See also the example in Sec. 3.

Identity (7) is especially useful in obtaining properties of moduli from properties

of conjugates noted above. We mention that
(8) |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
and
 
 z1  |z1 |
(9)  = (z2
= 0).
 z  |z |
2 2

Property (8) can be established by writing

|z1 z2 |2 = (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) = (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) = (z1 z1 )(z2 z2 ) = |z1 |2 |z2 |2 = (|z1 ||z2 |)2
and recalling that a modulus is never negative. Property (9) can be verified in a
similar way.

EXAMPLE 2. Property (8) tells us that |z2 | = |z|2 and |z3 | = |z|3 . Hence if
z is a point inside the circle centered at the origin with radius 2, so that |z| < 2, it
follows from the generalized triangle inequality (10) in Sec. 4 that
|z3 + 3z2 − 2z + 1| ≤ |z|3 + 3|z|2 + 2|z| + 1 < 25.

EXERCISES
1. Use properties of conjugates and moduli established in Sec. 5 to show that
(a) z + 3i = z − 3i; (b) iz = −iz;
√ √
(c) (2 + i)2 = 3 − 4i; (d) |(2z + 5)( 2 − i)| = 3 |2z + 5|.
2. Sketch the set of points determined by the condition
(a) Re(z − i) = 2; (b) |2z + i| = 4.
 Brown-chap01-v3 10/29/07 3:32pm 15

sec. 5 Exercises 15

3. Verify properties (3) and (4) of conjugates in Sec. 5.

4. Use property (4) of conjugates in Sec. 5 to show that
(a) z1 z2 z3 = z1 z2 z3 ; (b) z4 = z4 .
5. Verify property (9) of moduli in Sec. 5.
6. Use results in Sec. 5 to show that when z2 and z3 are nonzero,

  
 z1 
(a)
z1
=
z1
; (b)   = |z1 | .
z2 z3 z2 z3 z2 z3  |z2 ||z3 |

7. Show that
|Re(2 + z + z3 )| ≤ 4 when |z| ≤ 1.

8. It is shown in Sec. 3 that if z1 z2 = 0, then at least one of the numbers z1 and z2 must
be zero. Give an alternative proof based on the corresponding result for real numbers
and using identity (8), Sec. 5.
9. By factoring z4 − 4z2 + 3 into two quadratic factors and using inequality (8), Sec. 4,
show that if z lies on the circle |z| = 2, then
 
 1  1
 
 z4 − 4z2 + 3  ≤ 3 .

10. Prove that

(a) z is real if and only if z = z;
(b) z is either real or pure imaginary if and only if z2 = z2 .
11. Use mathematical induction to show that when n = 2, 3, . . . ,
(a) z1 + z2 + · · · + zn = z1 + z2 + · · · + zn ; (b) z1 z2 · · · zn = z1 z2 · · · zn .

12. Let a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an (n ≥ 1) denote real numbers, and let z be any complex number.
With the aid of the results in Exercise 11, show that

a 0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · + an z n = a0 + a 1 z + a 2 z 2 + · · · + a n z n .

13. Show that the equation |z − z0 | = R of a circle, centered at z0 with radius R, can be
written
|z|2 − 2 Re(zz0 ) + |z0 |2 = R 2 .

14. Using expressions (6), Sec. 5, for Re z and Im z, show that the hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1
can be written
z2 + z2 = 2.

15. Follow the steps below to give an algebraic derivation of the triangle inequality (Sec. 4)

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

(a) Show that

|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) = z1 z1 + (z1 z2 + z1 z2 ) + z2 z2 .

16 Complex Numbers chap. 1

(b) Point out why

z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 2 Re(z1 z2 ) ≤ 2|z1 ||z2 |.
(c) Use the results in parts (a) and (b) to obtain the inequality
|z1 + z2 |2 ≤ (|z1 | + |z2 |)2 ,
and note how the triangle inequality follows.

6. EXPONENTIAL FORM
Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point (x, y) that corresponds to a nonzero
complex number z = x + iy. Since x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ , the number z can
be written in polar form as
(1) z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ).
If z = 0, the coordinate θ is undefined; and so it is understood that z
= 0 whenever
polar coordinates are used.
In complex analysis, the real number r is not allowed to be negative and is the
length of the radius vector for z ; that is, r = |z|. The real number θ represents the
angle, measured in radians, that z makes with the positive real axis when z is inter-
preted as a radius vector (Fig. 6). As in calculus, θ has an infinite number of possible
values, including negative ones, that differ by integral multiples of 2π. Those values
can be determined from the equation tan θ = y/x, where the quadrant containing the
point corresponding to z must be specified. Each value of θ is called an argument
of z, and the set of all such values is denoted by arg z. The principal value of arg z,
denoted by Arg z, is that unique value  such that −π <  ≤ π. Evidently, then,
(2) arg z = Arg z + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .).
Also, when z is a negative real number, Arg z has value π, not −π.

z = x + iy
r

x
FIGURE 6

EXAMPLE 1. The complex number −1 − i, which lies in the third quadrant,

has principal argument −3π/4. That is,
3π
Arg(−1 − i) = − .
4
 Brown-chap01-v3 10/29/07 3:32pm 17

sec. 6 Exponential Form 17

It must be emphasized that because of the restriction −π <  ≤ π of the principal

argument , it is not true that Arg(−1 − i) = 5π/4.
According to equation (2),
3π
arg(−1 − i) = − + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .).
4
Note that the term Arg z on the right-hand side of equation (2) can be replaced by
any particular value of arg z and that one can write, for instance,
5π
arg(−1 − i) = + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .).
4

The symbol eiθ , or exp(iθ ), is defined by means of Euler’s formula as

(3) eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ,

where θ is to be measured in radians. It enables one to write the polar form (1)
more compactly in exponential form as

(4) z = reiθ .

The choice of the symbol eiθ will be fully motivated later on in Sec. 29. Its use in
Sec. 7 will, however, suggest that it is a natural choice.

EXAMPLE 2. The number −1 − i in Example 1 has exponential form



√ 3π
(5) −1 − i = 2 exp i − .
4
√
With the agreement that e−iθ = ei(−θ) , this can also be written −1 − i = 2 e−i3π/4 .
Expression (5) is, of course, only one of an infinite number of possibilities for the
exponential form of −1 − i:


√ 3π
(6) −1 − i = 2 exp i − + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .).
4

Note how expression (4) with r = 1 tells us that the numbers eiθ lie on the
circle centered at the origin with radius unity, as shown in Fig. 7. Values of eiθ
are, then, immediate from that figure, without reference to Euler’s formula. It is, for
instance, geometrically obvious that

eiπ = −1, e−iπ/2 = −i, and e−i4π = 1.

18 Complex Numbers chap. 1

O x

FIGURE 7

Note, too, that the equation

(7) z = Reiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π)
is a parametric representation of the circle |z| = R, centered at the origin with radius
R. As the parameter θ increases from θ = 0 to θ = 2π, the point z starts from the
positive real axis and traverses the circle once in the counterclockwise direction.
More generally, the circle |z − z0 | = R, whose center is z0 and whose radius is R,
has the parametric representation
(8) z = z0 + Reiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π).
This can be seen vectorially (Fig. 8) by noting that a point z traversing the circle
|z − z0 | = R once in the counterclockwise direction corresponds to the sum of the
fixed vector z0 and a vector of length R whose angle of inclination θ varies from
θ = 0 to θ = 2π.

z0
O x FIGURE 8

7. PRODUCTS AND POWERS IN EXPONENTIAL FORM

Simple trigonometry tells us that eiθ has the familiar additive property of the expo-
nential function in calculus:
eiθ1 eiθ2 = (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
= (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )
= cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .