sis_12_RZ:Layout 1 31.07.

2009 12:31 Uhr Seite 57

Projects in science education

Radioactivity
in the classroom
Luis Peralta, professor at the
la
G raf University of Lisbon’s physics
co
N
i
department, and Carmen
of
y
tes
ur

Oliveira, physics and chem-

co
age
Im

istry teacher at Casquilhos

High School in Barreiro
near Lisbon, describe the
‘Environmental radiation’
project, in which students
become actively and enthu-
siastically involved in science
through easy and inexpensive
experiments that highlight the
thrilling world of invisible particles.

T he ‘Environmental radiation’
project, which started in 2007,
emphasises the importance of ionising
the Laboratory of Instrumentation
and Experimental Particle Physics.
The idea for the project was born
annual one-day workshop hosted by
one of the participating schools. This
includes a science fair where students
radiation – radiation with enough when students from several high present their results and share new
energy to remove electrons from schools visited Lisbon University for ideas, and the best works are award-
atoms or molecules – in daily life. It a few days in Summer 2006, and a ed symbolic prizes. At the end of this
now involves students (aged 12-18) first trip to uranium mines was day, there is a ‘pros and cons’ debate
and teachers from 25 high and middle organised for them. between the students and guest
schools throughout Portugal and the Teachers and students involved in scientists concerning radiation issues.
Azores, who receive technical and the project are invited to conduct This workshop is also an interesting
logistical support from the physics hands-on experiments and share their social event, attracting the attention
departments at the universities of results on the project’s websitew1 (see of newspapers and local radio sta-
Lisbon and Beira Interior, and from graph on page 58) and during an tions.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 12 : Summer 2009 57

sis_12_RZ:Layout 1 31.07.2009 12:31 Uhr Seite 58

with radioactivity and young peo-

ple, but all the samples we use have
Adapted from an image courtesy of Rei-artur; image source: Wikimedia Commons

a low radioactive content and, in

fact, this negative aspect can be
transformed into a positive one, as
this project enables students to
develop a culture of protection and
Image courtesy of the ‘Environmental radiation’ project good practices that carry through to
the way they deal with radioactivi-
ty in everyday life – for instance, in
medical imaging. To that end, the
project’s website has a dedicated
forum where students are encour-
aged to debate radiation-related
issues.

The experiments
We come across natural radiation
in a variety of situations. For
instance, radiation caused by radon
Location of Portuguese schools The radioactive map of Portugal: one of
and the elements into which it
participating in the project the pieces of work presented by school
decays represents around 50% of
students in 2008
the total radiation that people are
normally exposed to in Europe. In
The ‘Environmental radiation’ proj- collected. The students collected over turn, radon itself forms naturally
ect also provides extracurricular activ- 50 kg of rocks at the site, which were when uranium present in rocks,
ities. In 2008, students and teachers, later used to perform experiments at most commonly granite, decays.
accompanied by two geologists, visit- school. There are several areas in Radon gas leaks from the soil and
ed the uranium mines near Nisa, a Europe where such rocks can be col- through cracks in the walls, and
small town about 200 km north-east lected, for example in the Czech accumulates in closed rooms such
of Lisbon. This is one of several loca- Republic. as cellars, or inside buildings near
tions in Portugal where rocks with The project’s chosen topic may the ground floor, where its presence
some degree of radioactivity can be seem controversial, as we are dealing can be detected through simple
experiments that students can per-
form at their own schools.
“Radioactive” dust decay The experiments developed for
400 this project can be performed using
a minimum amount of inexpensive
350
materials. Each of the participating
300 schools was provided with a kit
Image courtesy of the ‘Environmental radiation’ project

250 comprising a Geiger counter, irradi-

ated seeds, X-ray dental film, and a
200
plastic box with up to 2 kg of rocks
Counts

150 collected at the uranium mines. The

schools provided lab space, com-
100
puters and the enthusiasm of stu-
50 dents and teachers.
0
A wide range of experiments can
be performed to introduce and
0 20 40 60 80 100
explore radioactivity, with varying
Time (min) degrees of complexity. For instance,
students can use Geiger counters to
‘Radioactive’ decay of the dust caught by a balloon measure radiation levels in and

58 Science in School Issue 12 : Summer 2009 www.scienceinschool.org

sis_12_RZ:Layout 1 31.07.2009 12:31 Uhr Seite 59

Projects in science education

Image courtesy of the ‘Environmental radiation’ project

Detection of radioactivity Becquerel´s experiment Plants germinated from Field trip to the Nisa mines
in the rock irradiated seeds

around their schools, and create a of radioactivity. The experiment has ment and at a facility that sterilises
local radiation map using GPS coordi- been successfully performed by stu- surgical implements. You can contact
nates which they then feed into dents aged 13-20, but is also suitable similar institutions in your country to
Google Earthw2. Other simple experi- for younger students, if the evalua- irradiate the seeds you need.
ments using only a Geiger counter tion (measurements and graphs) is
involve detecting radiation in salts adapted accordingly. Equipment and materials per
used in food preparation, such as While the fact that ionising radiation group of 2-4 students
potassium chloride, and in natural damages DNA and other cellular · Several trays (all the same shape
rocks; in more complex experiments, structures poses a risk to humans, it and size)
students can place metal plates with can also be – and frequently is – used · Plant seeds previously subjected to
different thicknesses and composi- to our advantage. Ionising radiation is different (known) doses of radia-
tions (lead, aluminium) between used to kill all microbes on surgical tion (ideally 0-400 Gy)
radioactive material and the Geiger instruments, sterilising them, and it is We recommend the use of wheat
counter, to discover how radiation also employed in a similar fashion to seeds if possible, but canary grass
diminishes when it traverses metal. extend the shelf life of some foods, (Phalaris canariensis, a common bird-
Experiments developed by the and even in agriculture, where it is seed) will also work and is perhaps
‘Environmental radiation’ project also used to eliminate parasites from plant easier to find.
include using a balloon to catch seeds. In Portugal, seed irradiation is The most important factor is dose
radioactive dust from a closed room: done for research purposes only, while uniformity (i.e. when irradiated, all
rub the balloon with a furry cloth to in the USA, this is common practice. seeds in a batch should receive the
create static electricity which will Of course, the latter could inflict radi- same amount of radiation). We used a
attract the dust, hang it for 30 minutes ation damage to the seeds themselves. Philips high-power X-ray tube to per-
in a room which is usually kept However, plant seeds are generally form the irradiation. The seeds (a vol-
closed, deflate it and use a Geiger more resistant to radiation than the ume of about 0.5 l at first) were
counter to measure the radiation it micro-organisms that plague them, so placed inside a plastic cup, which
emits. Students can even re-enact it is a question of finding the right bal- stood about 0.5 m from the X-ray tube
Becquerel’s historic experiment that ance: the radiation to which the seeds window. To control the delivered
led to the discovery of radioactivity, are subjected must be strong enough radiation dose, a PTW Farmer ionisa-
in which radioactive rocks are placed to kill the parasites, but not so strong tion chamber was placed inside the
on dental X-ray plates and developed as to harm the seeds. By tracking the cup, right in the middle of the seeds.
to reveal the ‘auto X-ray’ they have development of plant seeds subjected When one of the desired doses was
created. For detailed descriptions of to different amounts of radiation, stu- reached, part of the seeds were taken
all the experiments and a discussion dents can observe the effects of radia- out of the cup and separated in a
forum on radioactivity (all in tion on plant germination and growth. labelled bag. In this way the dose was
Portuguese), visit the project For this experiment, the cumulative for the remaining seeds in
websitew1. ‘Environmental radiation’ project had the cup.
Using the protocol below, students their seeds irradiated at the Uni- One of the problems during irradia-
can explore a commercial application versity of Lisbon’s physics depart- tion was the fact that the seeds closer

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 12 : Summer 2009 59

sis_12_RZ:Layout 1 31.07.2009 12:31 Uhr Seite 60

Images courtesy of the ‘Environmental radiation’ project

Radiation dose = 23 Gy Germinated plants vs radiation dose

10 100
9 90

% of germinated plants
8 80
Number of plants

7 70
6 60
5 50
4 40
3 30
2 20
1 10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Hight (cm) Radiation dose (Gy)

to the tube window received a higher 5. Keep all trays in the same place individual plant is measured,
dose, even though the cup was rotat- throughout the experiment, to which takes about 15 minutes for
ed by 180° between irradiations. A ensure growth conditions are the 50 plants. Sowing the seeds in a
better solution in the future would be same. grid makes this step easier.
to place the cup on a rotating base 6. If you have the necessary instru- 9. For each radiation dose, group the
(such as an old record player). ments, measure and register the measured heights in intervals of
· Soil (garden earth will do) environmental variables (tempera- 0.5 cm, and draw a histogram
· Water ture, light, pH and humidity) regu- showing the number of plants in
· A ruler larly. If you perform this as an each height group (see example
· Optional: temperature, light, pH extracurricular activity, students histogram above).
and humidity monitors. can perform daily measurements. 10.Calculate the average plant height
Otherwise, checking the plants for each radiation dose 8 and 12
Procedure
during class hours will do. days after germination.
1. Place equal amounts of the same
7. For each radiation dose, count how 11.Note down these results in the
kind of earth in each tray.
many seeds germinate. You may tables and draw a graph showing
2. Divide the trays into equal areas also want to make a note of which how the average plant height
(one area for each radiation dose), dose led seeds to germinate first. varies with radiation dose.
label them accordingly, and sow The growing time is very depend- 12.Calculate the percentage of seeds
the seeds that received each radia- ent on local conditions. We have that germinated for each dose (rela-
tion dose in their respective area. experienced differences of more tive to the number of seeds you
Make sure you sow the same num- than a week among our schools. planted for that dose). Display
ber of seeds (50-100) in each area Light and temperature are very these results in a graph showing
and note down the number! If pos- important factors, as is the depth at how radiation dose affects the per-
sible, sow in a grid – this really which the seeds are sown. In one of centage of germinated seeds (see
helps when you have to measure the schools, plants could already be example graph above).
and count individual plants later measured after 4 days, while in
on. others it took 12 days. As a rule of Safety notes:
3. Cover the seeds with a 2-3 mm thumb you can make the first · Place the radioactive rocks in a
thick layer of earth (if you use measurement when the tallest plastic box and wear gloves when
more, they will take longer to plants have reached 4-5 cm. you handle them.
sprout). 8. Measure the height of each plant 8 · Experiments involving radioactive
and 12 days after it started to ger- rocks should be performed in a
4. Regularly water all your seeds
minate and record it. As mentioned ventilated room.
with the same type and quantity of
water. above, this is only a guideline as · For the experiments with irradiated
growing time is variable. Each seeds, it is enough for the students

60 Science in School Issue 12 : Summer 2009 www.scienceinschool.org

sis_12_RZ:Layout 1 31.07.2009 12:31 Uhr Seite 61

Projects in science education

to wear gloves when they sow the can be found here:

seeds. The irradiation of seeds is www.lip.pt/radao
carried out in the Physics w2 – To download and install Google
Department of Lisbon University Earth for free, see: With its various forms and
by technical experts who follow http://earth.google.com applications, radioactivity
appropriate security. has come to play an
· For the Becquerel experiment, Resources increasingly vital role in
gloves must be worn to handle the our everyday lives.
Rego F, Peralta L (2006). Portuguese
X-ray dental film when students Nowadays, the amount of
student’s knowledge of radiation
are developing the film. radiation from human
physics. Physics Education 41:
259-262 activities is already rough-
Discussion
ly equal to the amount of
For a table of radioactive isotopes,
· Does the radiation dose influence see:
radiation originating from
natural sources (Earth and
the number of seeds that germi-
http://nucleardata.nuclear.lu.se/
nate? How? space). In addition, the
nucleardata/toi/
· Does the radiation dose affect how
The UK’s Institute of Physics has
number of nuclear power
plants continues to
tall plants become? Does it affect
how fast they grow? developed a teaching unit on increase.
· What radiation dose leads to the radioactivity, which can be found
on its website (www.iop.org) or
As future citizens will be
largest possible number of germi- forced to make critical
nated seeds? Which is the right dose here: http://tinyurl.com/lsr5r5
decisions on related
to obtain the greatest plant height? issues, students of today
Students should conclude that Acknowledgement should start to prepare by
increasing radiation dose increases This project was financed by Ciência studying the potential
the percentage of germinated seeds Viva, the Portuguese National applications of radioactiv-
and the average height the plants Agency for Scientific and ity and the possible conse-
reach, up to a certain dose of radia- Technological Culture, the Science quences of its use.
tion above which the radiation and Innovation Program for 2010, In this article, Luis Peralta
becomes harmful to the seeds them- and ERDF (European Regional and Carmen Oliveira offer
selves and so the number of germi- Development Fund). information and ideas on
nated seeds and the average plant involving students in
height decrease. In our experience, motivating educational
depending on plant species, above activities relating to the
300-400 Gy, most seeds will not ger- Luis Peralta is a professor in the
physics department of Lisbon importance of ionising
minate, and those that do germinate radiation. The variety and
University. He obtained his PhD in
REVIEW

have serious problems, for example the number of ways in

they rot after only a few days. 1991 working on a high-energy
which these activities can
The organisers of the physics experiment at CERN, in the
be integrated into the cur-
‘Environmental radiation’ project are field of heavy-ion collisions. In recent
ricula are remarkable.
currently in contact with biologists years, he has been working on radia-
tion physics applied to medicine and Vangelis Koltsakis, Greece
and biology teachers in an effort to
further expand this experiment to is now interested in environmental
encompass a multidisciplinary radon-related problems.
approach, in which students may be Carmen Oliveira is a physics and
able to observe the effects of radiation chemistry teacher at Casquilhos High
on the plants’ cells and genetic mate- School in Barreiro, near Lisbon. She
rial. Interested teachers may contact obtained a masters’ degree in physics
the organisers through the forum on in 1996, working on radioactivity and
the project’s website. the environment. Currently, she is
working towards a PhD in physics,
Web references developing ionising radiation detec-
w1 – The website of the tors for primary and secondary
‘Environmental radiation’ project schools.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 12 : Summer 2009 61