STRUCTURE 1.

the composition of matter

• chemistry : study of matter and its composition

• energy : anything that exists but does not have the properties of matter

➝ considered as a property of matter : ex) ability to perform work or produce heat

• mass and energy can be converted into one another

➝ chemistry only studies transformations where both mass and energy are conserved = in
chemical reactions : products that have the same mass as starting materials, and the energy is
transformed from one form to another rather than created or destroyed

atomic theory

law of conservation of mass and the observation that certain substances always combine in
•

definite proportions led to the idea that matter was composed of elements ➝ theory :
elements combined to form substances but could not be chemically broken down
• atomic theory states : all matter is composed of atoms

➝ atoms cannot be created or destroyed, but they are rearranged during chemical
reactions ➝ physical and chemical properties of matter depend on the bonding and
arrangement

• atoms are the smallest units of matter that can individually

• when atoms combine elementary substances contain atoms of a single element➝ while
chemical compounds contain atoms of more elements bound by chemical forces

pure substances and mixtures

 pure substances cannot be separated into individual constituents without a chemical reaction,
•
which alters their physical properties

• mixtures contain more than one element or compound in no fixed ratio

➝ mixtures can be homogenous : when the particles are evenly distributed ➝

mixtures can be heterogenous : when the particles are not evenly distributed

separating mixtures

• mixtures can be separated by physical means because components have unique properties

➝ difference in properties is used to separate them

• filtration : solution poured through filter paper placed inside a funnel

➝ removed : liquid, left : solid

• dissolution (solvation) : mixture is added to water or an organic solvent

➝ removed : soluble substances , left : insoluble substances

crystalization : mixture is dissolved in hot water or an organic solvent, the solution cools down,
•
and the crystals formed are isolated by filtration

➝ removed : more soluble substance, left : less soluble substances

 • evaporation / distillation : mixture is heated up until one or more of its components vaporize

➝ removed : volatile liquid, left : solid and/or non-volatile liquids

paper chromatography : mixture is placed on a piece of paper; one side of paper is submerged in
•
water or a solvent; components move along the paper

➝ removed : more soluble component move faster, left : less soluble component move slower

solids, liquids and gases

• matter is composed of particles

➝ types of interactions between the particles determine the state of matter

solid liquid gas

fixed volume fixed volume no fixed volume

fixed shape no fixed shape no fixed shape

cannot be compressed cannot be compressed can be compressed

attractive forces attractive forces between attractive forces

between particles are particles are weaker than solids between particles are
strong negligible

vibrate in fixed positions but vibrate, rotate and move around vibrate, rotate, and
do not move around move around faster
than liquid

changes of state

• substances change their states of matter as they absorb or release energy

• sublimation : solid ➝ gas, deposition : gas ➝ solid

• changing from more condensed state ➝ less condensed state

= energy is absorbed by the particles from the surroundings

• changing from less condensed state ➝ more condensed state

= particles lose energy to the surroundings, for molecular substances, the intermolecular forces
 become stronger

kelvin temperature scale

temperature : measure of the average kinetic energy of particles

• when water is heated : there is no temperature change during the periods of change

➝ added energy is used to disrupt the solid lattice and overcome the intermolecular
forces between molecules in the liquid

• kelvin temperature : proportional to the average kinetic energy of particles

absolute zero (0K) : implies that at this temperature the particles cannot transfer any kinetic
•
energy on collisions ➝ cannot lose heat, cannot get any colder
• absolute zero on the celsius = -273.15°C

STRUCTURE 1.2
the structure of the atom

• an atom contains positive nucleus, protons, neutrons and electrons •

key factors of nucleus :
• it is very small in comparison to the atom itself

• it is a highly dense structure containing virtually all the mass of the atom •
it has a positive charge

Ernest Rutherford experiment :

• most alpha particles are undeflected

• some alpha particles are deflected slightly

• a few alpha particles bounce off nucleus

• Rutherford summarized by proposing the planetary model of atom (ruterford model)

 • negative electrons orbit the positively nucleus in the same way as planets orbit the Sun • sun

contains 99.8% of the solar system's mass ➝ nucleus contains over 99.9% of the mass

particle relative mass relative charge location

proton 1 +1 nucleus

neutron 1 0

electron negligible -1 outside nucleus

• electric charge carried by a single electron : elementary charge (1.602 x 10^-19C)

atomic number and the nuclear symbol

each element is neutral, with no charge, so the number of electrons in a neutral atom must equal
•
to the number of protons

isotopes
 • isotopes : different atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons

➝ have different mass numbers, but the same atomic number

➝ have the same nuclear charge
➝ have no effect on the electron configuration : chemical identities are nearly identical
➝ physical properties differ noticeably

• relative atomic mass (Ar) : listed on the periodic table is not a whole number

➝ because it is the weighted average of all isotopes of that element

natural abundance (NA) of an isotope : percentage of its atoms among all atoms of the given
•
element found on our planet
mass spectrometry

• mass spectrometer : instrument used to detect the relative abundance of isotopes

• stage 1 : sample is injected into the instrument and vaporized

• stage 2 : atoms are bombarded with high-energy electrons

➝ atoms lose some of their electrons to form positively charged ions (cations)
• stage 3 : resulting ions are then accelerated by an electric field

• stage 4 : then they are deflected by the magnetic field

➝ the degree of deflection depends on the mass to charge ratio

➝ particles without charge are not affected by the magnetic field (doesn't reach the detector)
• stage 5 : when ions hit the detector m/z values are determined and passed on to computer

= computer generates the mass spectrum of the sample ➝ relative abundances of all detected ions are
plotted against the mass to charge ratios

STRUCTURE 1.1

the composition of matter

• chemistry : study of matter and its composition

• energy : anything that exists but does not have the properties of matter

➝ considered as a property of matter : ex) ability to perform work or produce heat

• mass and energy can be converted into one another

➝ chemistry only studies transformations where both mass and energy are conserved = in chemical
reactions : products that have the same mass as starting materials, and the energy is transformed from
one form to another rather than created or destroyed
atomic theory

law of conservation of mass and the observation that certain substances always combine in

definite proportions led to the idea that matter was composed of elements ➝ theory : elements
combined to form substances but could not be chemically broken down

• atomic theory states : all matter is composed of atoms

➝ atoms cannot be created or destroyed, but they are rearranged during chemical reactions ➝ physical
and chemical properties of matter depend on the bonding and arrangement

• atoms are the smallest units of matter that can individually

• when atoms combine elementary substances contain atoms of a single element➝ while chemical
compounds contain atoms of more elements bound by chemical forces
pure substances and mixtures