AS ICT Revision Notes

Table of Contents
Networks....................................................................................................2
Data............................................................................................................8
ICT Laws & Legislation..............................................................................13
Software...................................................................................................16
Hardware..................................................................................................21
Feasibility..................................................................................................25
Jobs in ICT.................................................................................................26
Software Development............................................................................27
Threats......................................................................................................32
Security.....................................................................................................33
Virtual Reality...........................................................................................36
Processing.................................................................................................38
Memory....................................................................................................39
Internet & Communications.....................................................................40
Unions.......................................................................................................42
CAD / CAM................................................................................................43
Operating System.....................................................................................44
Errors........................................................................................................45
Photos / Images........................................................................................46
TCP / IP.....................................................................................................48
Barcode / RFID..........................................................................................49

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Networks

Advantages of a Network

 Hardware resources can be shared

 Software resources can be shared
 Data can be shared
 Electronic communication between users is possible
 A user can use any computer on the network
 Centralised control is possible

LAN

 A network in a single location / building

 The connection of computers within the house comprise a LAN

WAN

 A network spread over a wide geographical area

 Internet is a global WAN
 The pupils could access the school network from home

Hub

 Passes all communications / data it receives

o To all the computers in the network

File Server

 To manage communications from network stations / nodes

 To store shared application software
 To store shared files such as documents, databases
 To control central resources such as storage media / printers

Switch

 Acts as a traffic control centre for the LAN

 When the switch receives a data packet
o Reads the address from the header
 The data packet is then routed to the destination
 Check the destination of all communications / data it receives
o Forwards it to the computer it is intended for

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Firewall

 Consists of software or a combination of hardware and software

 Controls / filters the flow of traffic into the network
o By implementing security rules / levels of security
 Traffic which does not meet the security rules is blocked
o Such as viruses / spam / denial of service attacks / backdoors /
hacking
 It can control the flow of traffic out of the network
 It can control how users connect to web sites
o And which files are permitted to leave the network
o Allows the monitoring of users’ Internet access
 Filters all messages entering / leaving the network
 Examines each message and blocks those that do not meet security criteria
 Prevents unauthorised external access
 Prevents unauthorised internal access
 Prevents malicious access
 Prevents virus attacks / hacking
 May act as a router, forwarding packets between the LAN and the Internet

Fibre Optic Cable

 Supports broadband / multiple data transmissions

 Flexible medium and can be used in awkward layouts
 Minimal signal loss over distance
 Uses light
 Cable consists of glass or plastic wires / cores / filaments
o Bundled together
o Encased in a jacket
 Each core has a mirror-lined wall or cladding
o Which reflects light back along the core (total internal reflection)
o Minimises signal degradation
 Light is transmitted in pulses
o Which represents a range of frequencies / that is modulated
 The cable can vary in length from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres
 Impervious to electromagnetic interference
 Not susceptible to interference
o Signal difficult to intercept without destroying it

Converting a network into a wireless network

 Each PC will require a wireless network adapter / card

o With a radio transmitter / receiver / antenna
 To communicate with the hub / server
 A wireless router / hub / switch will be required
o With a radio transmitter / receiver / antenna

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  To communicate with each PC
 A wireless modem may be used
o To connect directly to the ISP / Internet
 Appropriate software / drivers will be required

Bus Network

 All computers are connected to a single cable or backbone

 Data travels from the source in both directions along the bus
 A terminator is positioned at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal
from bouncing back
 A computer sending data identifies the recipient
 Each computer on the bus network checks if it is the intended recipient
 If it is, the computer accepts the data
 If it is not, the computer ignores the data
 The CMSA / CD protocol is used

Star Network

 All computers / work stations / nodes are connected to a central hub /

computer
 Each computer is connected directly to the hub
 Data travels from the source to the central hub
o Boosts / repeats / rebroadcasts the data signal
o Sends it directly to the intended recipient

Bus / Star Network

 Single backbone cable

o To which a number of star networks are each connected directly
 Communication within a particular star is controlled by its hub
 Communication between different star networks is vie the backbone
 There is a high level of traffic within each star
 There is a lower level of traffic on the bus connection
 The network consists of a number of hubs
o Each of which is configured as a star network
 The hubs are connected together along a bus connection
o Known as the “backbone”
o Which has terminators at each end
 Typically, the hubs are located on different floors in a building
o Where the backbone uses fibre optic cable
o And the workstations are wired to the hub with UTP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair) cable
 A common example is a large Ethernet network with multiple hubs

4
Adding new nodes to a Network

 Bus
o New computers connected directly / by its own cable
 To the bus backbone
 Star
o New computers connected directly / by its own cable / wirelessly
 To the central / controlling computer
 Ring
o New computers added by splitting existing connection between two
nodes
 New computer connected between these existing connections

Cable Failure

 Star Network
o Each node is directly connected to the hub / server by a cable
o Failure of a cable will only affect the node connected by the cable
o All other nodes will be able to communicate via the hub
 Bus Network
o All nodes are connected to a backbone
o Failure of the backbone will affect the rest of the network
o Failure of a cable connecting a node to the backbone will only affect
that node

Wi-Fi

 Wi-Fi enables two or more devices to connect (wirelessly) for data sharing
 A computer with a Wi-Fi network card
o Can connect wirelessly to a wireless router
o Over a limited distance (60m /90m)
 A Wi-Fi network can either be open (anyone can use them)
o Or closed (password is needed)
 An area with wireless access is called a wireless hotspot

Wireless Network – Benefits

 No cabling required
o Saves installation cost and time
 Computers on the network are not restricted to a physical location
o They can be used anywhere there is network coverage

Resources required to connect to the Internet

 A broadband Internet connection / modem

o To support high-speed internet connection / AD conversion

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  Router / hub
o To communicate directly to the Internet connection
o To communicate directly with each computer / node
 Adapter / network card in each computer / WiFi / Bluetooth / transceiver
o To enable the PC to send / receive data without a physical
connection / send data to the router
o Software drivers for the wireless router / wireless adapters
 To configure / install the router / adapters
o A micro filter
 To separate data signal from voice signal
 ISP
o To provide access to the WWW

IP Address

 A unique number
o Assigned to any device / computer connected to the Internet
 IP address consists of four sets of numbers
o Separated by full-stops / periods
 E.g. 123.45.67.254
 The computer processes this as a 32-bit pattern / four octets
 First octet identifies the network
 Last octet identifies the actual computer on the network

SMS

 Enables a short text message to be sent between mobile phones

o Short Message Service
 The text messages can be up to 160 characters
 Messages can be received whilst making voice calls
 Messages generated by SMS are immediately delivered directly to the
recipients phone / recipients’ phones
 If the recipient’s phone is out of coverage, in use or turned off
o The service holds the message until the phone comes back into the
area

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Bluetooth

 Bluetooth wireless technology enables electronic devices to communicate

without cables
 Operates over short distances / up to 100 meters
 Uses very little power
 Can be blocked by solid walls / is a ‘line of sight’ method
 Uses radio waves (in the 2.4 gigahertz range)
 Was designed to connect a range of portable devices / laptops / PDAs /
mobile phones
 A common use of Bluetooth is to connect desktop computers and printers
 A device has to be “Bluetooth Enables” i.e. contain a Bluetooth chip

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Data

Data

 Data is raw facts and figures

 No meaning on its own
 42137 is just a number / sequence of digits

Information

 Information is data that has been processed to give it context / meaning

 42137 could be a patient ID

Knowledge

 The application of information

Direct Data Source

 Direct Data Source has been created for a specific purpose and used for that
purpose
 E.g. purpose of a questionnaire is to gather data about eating habits

Indirect Data Source

 Indirect Data Source is used for a purpose for which it was not originally
intended
 Membership details could used for a survey / passed to a third party for
example
 Benefits
o Can be very cost effective
 Data has already been collected / processed / paid for
o Should be immediately available
 As data has already been collected using the data source
 Drawbacks
o The source was designed for a different purpose
 May not provide exactly the data required / additional filtering
or processing may be required

Distributing Information

 Using a website
o With graphical / multimedia / interactive representations of the
information
o Visitors will be directed to the website via search engines
 Or they can go directly to the website using its URL

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  Using an online bulletin board / message board / forum / social networking /
blogging / VLE / podcasts
o Where information can be posted / threads created
o And readers can post responses or to post new messages

Quality of Information

 Being up to data
 Relevance
 Effective presentation
 Complete
 Accurate

Quality of Information

 How up-to-date the data source is

o The information will not reflect the current situation if not up-to-date
o Some data may have changed
 E.g. change of address

 How relevant the data source is

o The information may not include all the essential / required details
o The information may include the wrong details
o The information may include unnecessary details

 How complete the data source is

o The information may omit essential details
 E.g. some fields may not have been completed

 How accurate the data source is

o The information may be incorrect / inaccurate
 E.g. Invalid data in a field due to transcription error

 How well presented the information is

o It may not be appropriate for its intended audience
 E.g. Inappropriate format / lack of annotation

Costs involved in the production of information

 Hardware costs
o The cost of purchasing / leasing computers / peripherals
o The cost of consumables
 Software costs
o The cost of purchasing application software licences / the operating
system

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  Personnel
o Employing / training someone to develop the application / input
data / run reports

Validation

 Enables the computer / automatic process

o To ensure that data is
 Meaningful
 Reasonable
 Complete
 Correct type
 Correct format
 Sensible
o Within a range
 Length check
o The number of characters in a field must be a set length
 Range check
o The value of a field must lie within a specified range between a max
and a min
 E.g. Month
 The value must lie in the range of 1 to 12 inclusive
 Lookup Table
o All valid values of a key field are held in an electronic list / stored list
 Type check
o E.g. the value must only consist of text
 Boolean or YES/NO
o E.g. Gender
 E.g. the value can only take one of two values, M or F
 Presence check
o This is used with a field that is mandatory / compulsory / required
 Format check
o This is used with a field whose characters must comply with a pre-set
pattern / picture

Data Verification

 To check that the data which has been entered / input

o Is as intended / matches the source data
 The user entering the data
o Performs a visual check / proofreads what has been entered
o And confirms that it is as intended
o Click the proceed button if it is correct / edit button if it is not
 Example
o Double entry
 Entering an email address twice

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 o Proofreading
 User must confirm that the data is as intended by clicking the
Save button

Access Rights

 Each authorised user is allocated specific access rights

o E.g. Read Only / Read & Write
 This allows the user to read a file but not modify it / read a file and modify it
 Rights are identified in an access table
o Which is checked by the DBMS whenever a user requests access

Data Encryption

 Data is coded / translated

o Before transmission
o By the application of a key / function / password
 On receipt the data is decrypted / restored to plain text
o Using the appropriate decryption key
 Intercepted data is meaningless without possession of the key

Input / Output / Processing / Storage / Feedback ATM Example

 Input
o The cash card is inserted
o PIN is entered
o Menu choice is selected
o Amount is entered or selected
 Output
o Instructions / menu choices are displayed on ATM screen
o Receipt may be printed
o Sum of money is issued
 Processing
o Customer’s data is retrieved from the banks database
o PIN is validated
o Amount is checked against the customers balance
o Amount is deducted from the customers balance
 Storage
o Customer data is stored in the cash card
o Customers details are stored in the banks database
o Details of the transaction are stored in the banks database
 Feedback

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o The amount is instantly deducted from the customers balance
o If the card is invalid / incorrect PIN / withdrawal amount is not
possible an error message appears on the ATM screen

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ICT Laws & Legislation

Data Protection Legislation

 Legislation requires personal information is:

o Processed fairly and lawfully
o Processed for one or more specified and lawful purposes, and not
further processed in any way that is incompatible with the original
purpose
o Adequate, relevant and not excessive
o Accurate, and, where necessary, kept up to date
o Kept for no longer than is necessary for the purpose for which it is
being used
o Processed in line with the rights of individuals
o Kept secure with appropriate technical and organisational measures
taken to protect the information
o Not transferred outside the European Economic Area (the European
Union member states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein) unless
there is adequate protection for the personal information being
transferred

DPA

 Need to register with the DP Registrar

o Must state what data it will store and for what purpose
 Should appoint a data protection controller
o Who will be responsible for ensuring the data complies with the
legislation
 Must only store original data identified
o Use this data for specified purpose
 Need to ensure relevant staff are trained
o To comply with legislation
 Must keep data up to date / accurate
o By ensuring if details change, the data base is updated
 Must establish procedures to keep data secure
o Such as user names / passwords
 Data should be deleted
o That is no longer needed
 Must respond to requests from data subjects
o And inform them of data held about them / correct any erroneous
data
 Data must not be passed on to third parties
o Without appropriate safeguards / authorisation

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Computer Misuse Act

 Unauthorised access to computer material is against the law

 This offence covers using someone else’s password to log onto their user
area
o And even looking at their files
 Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate a crime is against the
law
 This offence covers gaining access to someone else’s system with the sole
purpose of doing something illegal
 Unauthorised modification of computer material is against the law
 This offence also covers purposely introducing a virus into another person’s
computer system

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

 Gives the creators of literary / dramatic / musical / artistic works / sound

recordings / broadcasts / films
o Rights to control the ways in which their material may be used
o Including broadcast and public performance, copying, adapting,
issuing, renting and lending copies to the public
 The act refers to the intellectual property / ownership of software and
associated documentation
o In the same way as literary / artistic copyright
 Users need a licence to use copyrighted software
 It is against the Act to make copies / distribute unlicensed software

Plagiarism

 The vast amount of material on the internet has greatly increased the
incidence of plagiarism
 Information about almost any topic can be obtained with a few clicks of the
mouse via search engines
 Most of the information is free
 Many people are tempted to “cut and paste” material and pass it off as their
own
 This is difficult to detect as this involves tracking down the source of the
plagiarised material
 Such a problem that universities use special software to detect plagiarism
 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
o Makes plagiarism illegal

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Censorship

 The suppression of speech or writing considered to have an undesired

influence on society
 Has become more difficult for governments to control / suppress information
o National borders are difficult or impossible to enforce
 Some websites publish information some governments would like to censor
 Residents in a country banning certain information may be able to access it
on websites hosted outside the country
 Some countries have resorted to a complete ban on citizens using the
Internet
 Some countries (e.g. China) use sophisticated techniques to block specific
websites / portals / forums / blogs
o By blocking or re-directing their IP addresses
o Or by monitoring data packets for words such as “democracy”

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Software

Custom Built Software

 Should meet the exact needs of the users

o As it is designed specifically for the users / the users have a part to
play in the analysis stage
 The developers will be on hand
o To correct with any errors which arise during initial use of the
system / during system review

Off-the-shelf Software

 Development cost is spread over many users

o So the cost is relatively lower
 The software is readily available
o So there is no need to wait for the system to be developed
 The software may already be widely used
o So it should be well-tested / there could be existing user groups /
support materials

Obtaining Software

 Off the shelf software

o A generic / general purpose solution
 Or read made / designed / readily available solution
o Could be purchased ‘off the shelf’
o From a computer store / specialist software shop / web site /
downloaded

 In-house development
o Purpose-built / tailored / bespoke software
o Could be developed ‘in-house’
o By ICT specialists / programmers
 Within the business

 Outsourcing
o Purpose-built / tailored / bespoke software
o Could be ‘outsourced’
 To ICT specialists
 Outside the business
 E.g. A Software House

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Presentation Software

 Creating
o Standard slide tempaltes are available
o User defined templates can be created
o Multimedia content can be added to each slide
 Such as text / images / graphics / movies / sound / other
objects e.g. buttons
o Effects can be applied to slide components
 Entrance, emphasis, exit animations
 Presenting
o The slide show can be set to run automatically
 Controlled by the presenter using mouse / cursor keys
o Transition effects can be applied to slide
o Audience hand-outs, outlines and speakers’ note can be produced

Web Authoring Software

 Allows the creation of pages for a website

 Provides a toolbox of components
 Pages can be based on standard templates
 New templates can be created
 Each page can include multimedia components (text / images / sounds /
movie clips)
o Navigation links / hyper links
 Creates the HTML code automatically
 HTML code can be edited
 Page can be previewed in a browser

Internet Browser Software

 Allows web pages to be viewed

 Converts HTML code to a multimedia display
 Provides a navigation bar / navigation buttons / refresh buttons
 Provides a home page / button
o Page tabs / Search engine
 Records the history / favourites / bookmarks
 Plugins can be added
 Security levels can be set / filters applied
 Accessibility can be customised
 Tabs to open a number of websites in a single window
 Converts HTML code to display web pages

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Search Engine

 Search criteria is keyed into the search engine

 Consists of key words (details) about the search query
 User then clicks on the matches / follows the links
 Matches will be listed in order of relevance
 User can modify the search (refine / widen / narrow / use advanced search)
o Using AND, OR, NOT
 User can specify the type of result – images / video / maps

Open Source Software

 Software for which the copyright to source code

o Is in the public domain
 No licence is required to use the code
 Users can use / change / improve the software
o Redistribute it modified or unmodified
 Software is usually developed in a public, collaborative manner
 Advantages
o The source code is available and can be modified without restriction
 So the software can be improved or fine tuned
 So the software can be ported to different hardware platforms
o Modifications and improvements to the code can be distributed
 So the software can be shared by many users
 Encourages groups of developers to contribute to open source
projects
 Disadvantages
o There is no guarantee that project development will continue
 May be left with an application containing bugs, with no-one
to fix them
o There may be a lack of support
 With commercial software, the vendor has an obligation to
support the user, especially with serious / security bugs
 With an open source application, you may not get support
without paying for it

HTML

 Programming language
o Controls the appearance of a web page / tells the browser how to
display a web page
 Uses special tags
o To specify the structure of the web page / header / body
o To specify the content / multimedia elements / text / images / tables
o To set attributes such as fonts / background colour
o And hyperlinks / navigation buttons

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  Hyper Text Mark-up Language
 A language / has a syntax
 A HTML file is created for each individual web page
 HTML commands take the forms of tags
 The head tag describes / identifies the website / page
 The body tag specifies the content of the web page / what will be displayed in
the browser
 Text can be formatted – fonts, sizes, colours
 Multimedia content can be inserted – graphics / images / sounds / movies
 Links can be inserted – to other pages / multimedia objects
 The structure of a page can be controlled by templates / tables / CSS

MP4 Technology

 Designed for digital streaming over the internet

 Stores and plays multimedia – digital audio and video including subtitles
 Stores data
 Encompasses MP3 technology – audio and images
 Uses compression to reduce large video files
 Software is available for editing files
 Uses Mpeg format

Rich Text Format (RTF)

 RTF documents can be read by most word processors and operating systems
 Various text formatting properties
o Such as bold characters and different typefaces
o As well as document formatting / structures / tables
o Are encoded in a standard way

Reports

 A wizard / macro could be used

 The manager would first create a query
o By selecting the appropriate table
o And entering the appropriate search criteria
 The manager would then create a report
o Based on the query
o Specifying the fields to be displayed
 The report can be formatted / a template can be used
o E.g. header / footer can be specified

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Spreadsheet Functions

 SUM() or Total() function

o Calculates the sum of a range of cells
 The AVR() or AVERAGE()
o This calculates the average of a range of cells
 The MAX() or maximum function
o This calculates the maximum value of a range of cells
 The COUNT() function
o This counts the number of (non-blank) cells in a range of cells

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Hardware

Interactive White Board

 Output device – displays the output from the computer to which it is

connected (via a data projector)
 An input device – the user can select GUI options using a special pen
 Handwritten notes can be written on screen
o Saved for later use (image form)
o Printed out for distribution to the class
 Handwritten notes can be converted to text using OCR

Data Projector

 Output device – displays the output from the computer to which it is

connected
 Project the output onto a screen
 Projects a high quality image
 Can be controlled via a remote control
o Focus / image size can be changed

CD-R

 Laser is used
o Heats areas of an organic dye layer
o Permanently change the reflectivity of those areas
 A lower powered laser reads the data
o By detecting alternating regions of heated and unaltered dye

CD-RW

 A laser is used
o To temporarily modify the phase change properties of a dye
o Between crystal phase (erased) and amorphous phase (recorded)
 A laser detects the difference between resulting light and dark areas
 Can be rewritten to 1000 times or more
o Allows users to keep the most up to date data on the disk
 Suitability for backups
o CD-RW is portable
 And can be removed to a safe location
o The data can be copied onto the CD-RW as it is writable
 So the backup data can be copied to it
o A CD-RW can be reused for multiple backups
 As the backup can be erased and new data written (rewritable)
o CD-RW has enough capacity
 For small / medium databases

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 o May not have enough capacity
 For large databases

DVD – Read and Write

 A laser beam is used to read the data

 On a read-only DVD, pits are pressed onto the surface
 These are detected by changes in the intensity of the reflected laser beam
 On a DVD-R or DVD+R, the laser burns / heats the dye on the surface of the
DVD
o Changing its reflectivity
 On a non-rewriteable DVD, the writing laser is more powerful than the
reading laser

Blue-Ray

 Advantages
o The format was developed for high-definition video (HD) and for
storing large amounts of data
 Permitting high definition audio and video
 Providing clearer pictures with improved colour and vividness
 Disadvantages
o Blue-ray is a new / emerging technology
 Players and discs are still relatively expensive
 Range of films is restricted

Touch Screen

 Input and output device

 Screen is covered by a membrane
o Which is sensitive to pressure
 Alternatively, a line of infrared sensors / lights
o Along the edges of the screen
 The pressure of the user’s finger is detected / the finger cuts the beams
 The x and y positions / coordinates are calculated

Speech Input

 A microphone
o Attached to a soundcard
 Used to capture speech
 The signal is converted from analogue to digital
o Using sampling
 The digital signal is compared to a database of sounds
o For a matching pattern
 Of frequencies / wavelengths

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Speech Input compared to a Touch Screen

 Advantages
o No special ICT skills required, just spoken commands
o The user can control the system from a distance
o Can be designed only to respond to certain people’s voices
o Can be adapted for remote activation e.g. by phone
o More suitable for people with disabilities
 Disadvantages
o Can be complicated / time consuming to calibrate / set up
o Could be activated by extraneous sounds e.g. background noise
o May fail to respond to the user if they have a cold for example
o May respond to a word not intended as a command

Sensor

 Sensor readings monitored at intervals

o Heat sensor continuously monitors temperature
o Microphone records sounds

Actuator

 Attached to a pump for example

 Computer sends a signal to switch it on or off
o Computer controlled motor

Digital Television: Benefits

 Improved picture quality / sound quality

o Programs can be broadcast in much higher resolution than analogue
television
 Increase in number of TV channels
o Compression technique enable the broadcast of high definition signals
/ multiple streams with stereo sound
o Improved accessibility for the visually and hearing impaired
o Sign language / audio description / subtitling can be made available
 Access to interactive services

Robots

 Can be used in hazardous environments

o E.g. paint spraying a car
 Used to assemble goods from components
o E.g. building a car
 Moving components from store to the assembly line

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  Welding components together
 Testing of safety of goods
o E.g. car crashes / dummies

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

 A special document / form is used to collect the data

 This has specific areas / boxes representing the user’s choices / answers /
selections
o Which the user shades in
 Document is scanned using light
 Reflected light is analysed
o Positions of the user’s answers / choices determined
o Against a template
 Benefits
o Human error is eliminated
o Answers can be read at electronic speeds reducing the processing
time

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

 Light (a laser) is passed over the document

o Converting light and dark areas into binary / digital data
 OCR software can distinguish between types of content
o Text, tables, photographs
 OCR program matches any text elements
o With an internal library of characters, letters, numbers, spaces etc
o This produces editable text
 Images are stored as bitmaps / JPG

24
Feasibility

Technical Feasibility

 Is the technology commercially available?

 Is the hardware and software available to meet the requirements?
 Will the technology cope effectively with proposed workloads?
 Will the required technology be compatible with existing technology?

Legal Feasibility

 Will the proposed system comply with all relevant legislation such as the Data
Protection Act?

Social Feasibility

 What will the effect be on employees and customers / redundancies,

retraining, relocation / effect on customer service
 E.g. they might have to apply online

Economic Feasibility

 Will the benefits outweigh the cost?

 Is the system affordable?

Operational Feasibility

 Will the system be practical to use / what changes to procedures will be

required?
 Will the impact of the system on peoples working lives be manageable?
o Retraining / redundancy?

Schedule Feasibility

 Can the system be developed within the required timeframe?

25
Jobs in ICT

Programmer

 Produces program code

o Using a programming language such as VB, SQL
 From module specifications
 Debugs the code
 Documents the code
 Maintains the code
 Carries out testing

ICT Project Manager

 To oversee / manage the development of the new system

 To plan / schedule the project / set time scales
 To manage the budget
 To allocate resources
o Human, hardware, software
 To monitor progress
 To identify / respond to risk
 To report to management / client

Technicians

 Installs hardware
 Installs and configures software
 Maintains ICT systems
 Liaise with / support users
 Troubleshoot / monitor ICT system
 Perform backups

26
Software Development

Fact Finding Methods

 Observation
o Benefits
 The working of the system can be studied at first hand
o Drawback
 Users may ‘act up’ under observation
 Questionnaire
o Benefits
 Same set of questions can be given to a large cross section of
users at the same time
 Anonymous process may encourage honest answers
o Drawbacks
 The questions are set beforehand and a question cannot be
changed in the light of the user’s response
 Interviews
o Benefits
 Can be fine tuned for the particular user / follow up questions
can be asked
o Drawbacks
 Users may ‘act up’ under the pressure of an interview
 May be difficult to select the users to interview

Design Stage

 Detailed design of user interface / switchboard / menus / screens

o Output / reports
o Database structure / model / DFDs
o Test plan
 Design of data capture forms
 Process design
o E.g. queries
 Specification of manual / clerical procedures

Implementation Stage

 System is developed
o From the technical specification
 Software / code produced
 Installation of the new system
 Testing of the overall system
 Staff training
 Changeover
o Data conversion

27
Testing

 System is operated under controlled conditions and the results evaluated

o To ensure it meets its objectives / requirements / identify errors /
faults / bugs
 Test data is used / test plan is used
 Module / unit testing is carried out
o And integration testing
o And system testing
 Alpha / beta / acceptance / application testing is carried out
 Software is debugged

Technical Documentation

 Contains system objectives / specification / user requirements

 DFDs / ERDs / normalisation results / database structure / data dictionary
 Module architecture / specifications
 Interface design
 Queries and reports definitions / validation formulae
 Code Listings
 Test plan and results
 Needed during the development of the system
o So that the system can be developed to meet the system
requirements
o So that programmers / testers / developers understand how the
system will be developed
 Needed during the system maintenance
o So that the system can be corrected / perfected / adapted to meet
the user’s requirements
o So that programmers / testers understand how the system was
developers
o Testers can refer to the test plan / the original testing can be
replicated

User Documentation

 Overview of the system / introduction to the system

 HW & SW configuration
 Installation instructions
 User Guide
 Troubleshooting section / FAQ section
 Training materials

28
DFD

 Provide a visualisation / graphical presentation

o Of a system at different levels
o Of how a system interacts with external entities
 Identifies processes / data stores
 Includes:
o External Entity
o Process
o Data Store
o Data Flow

Entity Relationship Diagrams

 An ER diagram is a graphical model / representation

o Of a system’s data requirements
 It identifies the entities about which data is stored
o An the links between them / relationships
o And the type of links
o And the entities’ attributes / properties
o Including the key attributes / fields

Application Testing

 Performed by the developer

 Software is tested against the system requirements
 Includes
o Module testing
o Integration testing
o System testing
 Modules are tested against module specifications / module testing
 Modules are tested working together / integration testing
 Test schedules / test data will be used
 Test plans are followed / test data is used
o Valid
o Invalid
o Extreme
 Black Box and White Box testing is used

Acceptance Testing

 Performed when the software is ready to be released / handed over to the

client / users / after application testing
 Intended to give the end users the confidence that the software meets their
requirements
 A group representing the end users tests the application

29
 o Using real world scenarios / data
 The users report back / provide feedback on any problems
 Eventually, the users sign off the software / complete the contract
 Alpha and beta testing may be used

Parallel Changeover

 Both systems are used at the same time

 The old system is discarded when the new system is satisfactory

Pilot Changeover

 The system is first introduced into one part of the organisation

 The new system is then introduced across the organisation

Direct Changeover

 The old system is discarded

 The new system replaces it immediately
 Benefit
o Both the new system and old system have to be resourced during
changeover
 Drawback
o If the new system fails, the old system is not there as a backup

Phased Changeover

 The new system is gradually implemented

o In stages or module by module

Parallel Changeover compared to Direct Changeover

 The original system is still fully operational

o If the new system fails / is unsatisfactory using parallel changeover
 The results from the original system can be compared

Evaluation of Software

 The usability of the software

o How fast can a user learn to use the user interface?
o Is the interface intuitive?
o Does the interface match the users level of ICT competence?
o Is the interface familiar to the user?
o How well can a user transfer previous skills?

30
 The effectiveness of the software
o Is the system cost effective?
o Does the system perform its tasks efficiently / meet benchmarks?

 The suitability of the software

o Does the system meet all its objectives?
o Does the system provide the required functionality?
o Is it compatible with existing technology / hardware / software /
data?
o Is it robust?

 Has it delivered the promised improvements?

o Such as reduced processing time / improved productivity?
o Increased processing accuracy?
o Better quality information?
o Reduced business costs / operating costs / manpower costs?

31
Threats

Worm

 Replicates itself from system to system

o Without the need for a host file
 Worms generally exist inside other files
 Example:
o A worm will pass on a document infected with a malicious macro
 Effect
o The replication will progressively slow down the computer

Macro Virus

 Usually attached to a document or spreadsheet

o Uses the macro functions / language of the application
 It is typically designed to run automatically when the document /
spreadsheet is opened
 It copies itself and spreads from one file / document / spreadsheet to
another
o By infecting the application’s start up file

Logic Bomb

 A logic bomb lies dormant

o Until a specific piece of program code is activated / or an event occurs
 A typical activator for a logic bomb is a date
 The logic bomb checks the system data and does nothing until a pre-
programmed data and time is reached
 May wait for a certain message from its programmer
o Before executing its code

32
Security

Firewall

 Set of related programs / software / hardware

o Which monitors / controls traffic entering and leaving the network
o To protect the network from unauthorised access / intrusion / hackers
/ viruses
 Examines each network packet / message
o To determine whether to forward it towards its destination
o To comply with the network’s security policy

Proxy Server

 Intercepts all requests to the Internet

o To see if it can meet the request
 If not, it forwards the request to the Internet
 It stores recently used pages in cache memory
o Increasing access speeds
 Proxy server may be used to filter requests
o Preventing employees from accessing specific web sites
 Hides the IP address from external access

HTTPS

 A protocol
 When a user connects to a website via HTTPS a secure session is created
 The website uses encryption
o For sensitive data such as bank details
 Using a digital certificate
 Has a private key restricted to the owner
 Public key given to the user
 The website must have a Secure Socket Layer (SSL) Certificate
o Which must be verified / trusted
 Example:
o PayPal
 Safeguards the buyer’s and seller’s bank details
 Buyer and seller must each have a PayPal account
 PayPal transfers money from the buyers account to the sellers
account
 So that the buyers confidential details are withheld
from the seller and vice versa

33
Username & Password

 Allocated to each authorised user

 Username is unique
 User is usually first given a default password
 The password can be created / changed / selected by the user
 Both are required to log on
 There may be a restriction on the number of attempts at the password

Why a user ID and password system may be ineffective

 Users choose a common or obvious password which can be guessed

 Users to not keep passwords secure e.g. they write them down
 Users use the same password for multiple applications
 Users do not change default passwords
 Users share passwords
 Users forget to log off
 Unencrypted passwords can be hacked

On-line Security

 PayPal
o Method sending and receiving money online / over the internet
o It is a secure method
o Acts as an intermediary between buyer and seller
 So that the buyers details are withheld from the seller
o It is set up using an email address and a password
o Money is transferred through PayPal accounts, not ordinary bank
accounts
o Transaction fee may be charged
 HTTPS
o Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
o A protocol
 Providing secure / safe internet transactions
 Via a secure website
o It is used when the information being communicated is sensitive /
confidential
 Such as credit / debit card details
o Uses encryption
 So that the information being transferred back and forth is
encoded
o And will be meaningless to any unauthorised parties

34
Online Banking – Security Risks

 Identity fraud
o Personal / banking details keyed in during a transaction may be
intercepted and used for unauthorised purchases / keystroke logging
 Phishing / fraudulent emails
o User asked to supply personal / banking detail by a bogus email
 Viruses
o May be downloaded while using on-line banking

Minimising Internet Security Risks

 Use antivirus software

o That is updated regularly
 Do not open suspicious emails
 Do not visit dubious websites
 Use passwords on wireless network
 Block pop-ups
 Always log off interactive websites
 Delete internet cookies
 Set browser security levels

Disaster Recovery Plan

 Describes how critical operations will be restored

o After a natural or human-induced disaster
o Including plans for coping with the unexpected or sudden loss of
communications
o And key personnel
o And back up and recovery procedures

Minimising risk of Computer Viruses

 Install antivirus software

 Install a firewall
 Use a proxy server
 Remove / disable / scan portable devices such as memory pens
 Introduce an acceptable use policy
 Train users to avoid opening suspicious emails etc

35
Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality

 Allows the user to interact with an environment that exits only inside a
computer / an artificial environment is created
 Uses immersive technologies
o Such as head-mounted displays / virtual reality helmets / special
gloves
o Or a special room whose walls consist of screens / simulators
 The computer creates a three-dimensional environment
o From numerical data / sensors
o Which sense the user’s reactions and motions
 The user can modify the synthetic environment
o Creating the illusion of bing part of the real environment / receive
feedback
 Real-time processing is required
 Benefits
o Procedures can be repeated
 At any time
 Many times
o Variations / emergencies can be programmed in
o New techniques can be practiced
o Feedback provided on the users performance
o Minimises human risk from real life situations

Simulator

 Removal of physical risk

o Users can be trained or testing without risking lives / expensive
equipment
 Cost-effective (ignoring the high costs of simulators)
o Compared to the cost of an air-craft for example
 Simulator can be programmed
o To recreate specific situations e.g. flight conditions / emergencies /
exceptional conditions / to repeat scenarios
 Data from training sessions can be recorded electronically
o For future analysis / comparisons
 Training session can be repeated
o So the user can improve / learn from mistakes
 Extreme / rare conditions can be created
o Which the user may never actually experience / which would be
impossible to guarantee in real life

36
How ICT is used in a simulator

 Computer software generates 3D images of what the user can see (weather,
landscape etc.)
o Projects them onto a special screen / dome
 Actuators move hydraulic / electromechanical legs
o To recreate things such as pitch / acceleration / deceleration
 Sensors are used to detect use response
o Such as response times / metabolic readings
 Virtual reality helmets / gloves with sensors may be used

37
Processing

Real Time Processing

 The processing of data as it is received / generated

o Producing results without delay / immediate feedback
 So the result is reflected / effective for the next processing
activity
o Example:
 The system always has up-to-date data about temperatures at
a house

Batch Processing

 Data to be processed is grouped / held in bundles

o Until a suitable quantity / processing time is reached
 The entire patch is processed in one go
o Usually at an off peak period / overnight
 All data undergoes the same processing
o Without human intervention
 Validation by control / batch total is used

38
Memory

Hard Disk

 Used as semi-permanent storage

 Holds the system’s application software e.g. database software
 Holds the complete operating system
 Holds the data / files
o Which has been saved
 Suitability for backups
o Hard disk is connected to the computer system
 Cannot easily be removed / stored in a safe or remote location

ROM

 To permanently store the boot up sequence / bootstrap / OS core / BIOS

RAM

 Temporary / volatile storage

 Holds programs while they are being executed
o And data while it is being directly processed / upon input / prior to
being stored in external memory
 To store data currently in use
 To store the current application

Cache Memory

 To allow the processor to operate at full speed

o By storing data in faster memory (SRAM)
 Holds data that the processor is likely to use in the very near future
 Used by a proxy server
o To store recently downloaded web pages
 To store the most recently / frequently accessed data
o Speeds of retrieval of this data

39
Internet & Communications

Internet – Search Engine

 Use a search engine

o By typing in key words about what is being searched for
 Follow the links in the results
o Will be listed in order of relevance
 Search could be widened / narrowed down
o By including / excluding words
 AND / OR

Internet – Communicating

 Could communicate by e-mail

o Using an address book
o Using saved contacts
o Multiple recipients
o Using attachments
 Using an Internet forum or message board
o Users could register as members
 Could submit / contribute to topics (threads)
 Or communicated via messages visible to all members (posts)
 Videoconferencing
o Each user needs a webcam
o Each user needs a microphone

Email

 Attachments can be added to an email

o Such as photos / videos
 Address book can be created / maintained
o Containing email addresses of friends / family / customers
 The same email can be sent to a number of users at the same time
o Relevant recipients can be selected and added to the “send” field
 The text of the email can be written in HTML
o Allowing hyperlinks to be added

Email – Group

 Prepare email / any electronic documents / reports etc.

 Create a subject for the email
 Create a message for the email
 Attach any documents
 Select the recipients
o From the address / contacts list / send a CC

40
Email – Draft

 Draft article is prepared in electronic form / using a word processor

 The text of the accompanying letter is composed
 Topic is inserted into the subject box
 Draft article is attached
 The users email addresses will be selected from a contact list
 The message can be sent to all members at the same time
o Or selected members

Email – Handwritten Draft

 The student will use a scanner

o To convert the draft into digital form
o Such as a JPG file / BMP file
o And save it
 The student will create an email for the tutor and add the file as an
attachment

Video Conferencing

 Hardware
o Web cam
o Microphone
o Loudspeaker
o High resolution screen / data projector
o High bandwidth cable / connection
 Software
o Communication software enable the sending and receiving of data
over telephone
o Image compression / decompression software to reduce file sizes
during transmission

41
Unions

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

 World-wide organisation / United Nations agency

 Coordinates governments and private organisations
 Regulates the use of the radio spectrum throughout the world
 Assigns communication satellite orbits
 Establishes standards for a range of communication systems
 Organises meetings and exhibitions

ISO

 International Organisation for Standardisation

 It is a network of standardisation bodies from over 150 countries
 It establishes standards which control products and services
o Such as quality, environmental friendliness, safety, reliability,
efficiency interchange ability
 Most ISO standards refer to specific products
o E.g. Disaster Recovery
 Some are generic
o E.g. ISO 9001 (quality)
o But apply to ICT

42
CAD / CAM

Computer Aided Design (CAD)

 The use of computer technology / software in the drafting / design stage

o Of object such as tools / machine parts / buildings / clothing /
integrated circuits / food
 Benefits
o Increase in productivity / accuracy – electronic v manual
o Use of templates / tool box of specialist shapes increases
productivity / quality
o Designs can be edited electronically
o Designs can be input directly into the CAM process
o Manipulations such as 3D representations are possible
o The design can be tested / evaluated before production

Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM)

 The use of computer technology / software to control

o The production / manufacture of objects
o Incorporating automatic tool changing
o Such as drills, lathes, robots
o Usually using the design / digital models created by CAD
 Benefits
o Increase in productivity
 Accuracy / precision
 Consistency
o Reduction in manpower levels / reduced wage costs
o Can be reprogrammed – changes can be implemented by modifying
the program

43
Operating System

Multitasking Operating System

 Enables the user to perform more than one task / program at a time
 Each task may have its own window
 Each task can be totally independent of each other
 The tasks may be dependent e.g. they may share data
 The OS must keep track of where the user is in these tasks
o Enable them to go from one to the other without losing data
 The OS allocates storage and other resources accordingly
 In pre-emptive multitasking, the OS allocates CPU time slices to each program
/ task
 In co-operative multitasking, each program has use of the CPU for as long as
it needs

Multi-User OS

 Enables many users to run programs simultaneously

o From a few users up to thousands of users
 The OS must make sure that the resources allocated to the current users are
balanced
o So that each user has sufficient resources
o Whilst the overall performance of the system is satisfactory
 Time slicing can be used

44
Errors

Errors

 Transposition error
o The order of data / information has been switched
 Transmission error
o The data has not been sent successfully / fully
 Omission error
o Data has been omitted during transmission / data is missing

Check Digit

 Calculated from the other digits in the data item

o Becomes part of the data item
 The check digit is recalculated when the data item is input
o If it does not match, an error will have occurred
 E.g.
o A transposition error will alter the place value of the digits
 In a transposition error, the places of two digits are interchanged
 The check digit is recalculated after transmission
 As each digit in the sequence is multiplied by its place weighting
o And the positions of some digits have changed
o The check digit will be incorrect

45
Photos / Images

Photo File Formats

 JPEG / JPG
o Method of compressing full-colour or grey-scale images
o Uses image compression
o This reduces file size
o Possible expense of image quality / lossy compression
 Degree of ‘lossiness’ can be varied
 Greater degree of compression, smaller the file size
 Greater the reduction in quality
o Can handle over 16 million colours

 BMP / Bitmap
o Non-compression method
o A bitmap file represents pixels in a grid
o Each pixel in the photograph
 Represented using 8 / 16 / 24 / 32 bits (colour depth)
 For grayscale / coloured images
o All detail in the image is stored / no compression
 Resulting in large file sizes
o The more bits, the greater the resolution
 Larger the file size

 TIFF / Tagged Image File Format

o Designed to transport colour or grey-scale images
o Large and very high quality
o Stored information about the image in a header
o Supports multiple formats / different types of images available
 Black and white / grey scale
 Palette / RGB (i.e. true colour)
 Each with a different range of colours
o Virtually no compression

 PNG
o Open-source format
o Supports true colour (16 million colours)
o Lossless / no compression
o A lossless compression method
o Supports indexed colours / grey-scale / RGB / millions of colours
o Uses progressive rendering
 The contents of a file become apparent earlier in the load
process
o Uses an alpha channel which enables multiple levels of opacity

46
 o Uses gamma correction to control how an image will appear on
different types of display
o Include file integrity checks to minimise problems while downloading
or transferring PNG files
o

 GIF
o This is a method of compressing colour or grey-scale images
o Bitmap image format
o It is an 8-bit format
 Supports 256 colours
o Uses compression for colour depth
o Stores pixel data

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

 Standard image compression format

o Designed for compressing either a full-colour or grey-scale image
 So that its file size is reduced
 JPEG is ‘lossy’
o Resultant image does not contain the same detail as the original
o But it exploits the limitations of the human eye in detecting small
colour changes
 Degree of ‘lossiness’ can be varied by adjusting compression parameters
o So that file size can be traded against image quality

Transferring a Photo

 Camera could be connected directly to the computer

o Using USB cable / connection
 Camera’s memory card could be removed
o Placed in a media card reader connected / built in to the computer
 Photograph could be sent wirelessly to the computer
o Using a Bluetooth connection

Image Enhancement using a Computer

 Digital imaging / graphics software is used

 This can alter the lightness / darkness of the photograph
o And the contrast
o And the colour saturation / hue / balance
 Automatically / as defined by the user
 Parts of the image can be copied / moved / deleted
 Image can be cropped / re-sized
 Filters / effects can be applied

47
 o Image can be sharpened for example
 Blemishes / dirt marks can be removed / blurred / cloned out

48
TCP / IP

TCP / IP

 TCP layer
o Supports the transfer of files between computer systems
o Controls security / permission issues
o Can handle file transfer between different computers (different
character sets, end of line conventions)
o Splits data into packets
o Allocates an address to each packer
 IP layer
o Responsible for transferring packets of data from node to node
o Forwards each packet using its address
o Responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data
o Detects errors or lost data

TCP / IP

 TCP layer
o Enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange data
o It is responsible for reliability and correct delivery
o It converts a message into data packets
 Containing a header / sequence number / destination address
 That are transmitted over the network to the destination
computer
 And then reassembled so that the message can be read by the
recipient
 IP layer
o Responsible for routing data packets from node to node
o It forwards each packet using its destination address (the IP number)
o Packets of the same message may be sent by different routes
By routers / switches

49
Barcode / RFID

Barcode

 Increased accuracy / speed over manual systems

o Barcode is read electronically / it is a direct data capture method
 There are no transcription errors
 More up to date prices
o Once a price is changed in the database it will be immediately used
when / if the barcode on the corresponding product is scanned

RFID

 Radio Frequency IDentification

 Data relating to a product is stored on a RFID tag attached to the product
 An RFID tag carries data programmed into a small computer chip
 The tag is activated by radio waves emitted from an RFID reader / wirelessly
 The tag sends the data stored in its memory back to the reader
 RFID uses radio waves / wireless technology
o To transmit the identity of an object / its unique serial number
 An antenna / reader emits radio signal to activate the RFID tag / chip
o And decode it
o And to read and write data to the tag
 A tag can hold kilobytes of data
 The range can be anything from centimetres to metres
 In active systems
o The chip has its own power supply
 In passive systems
o The chip is activated by the reader’s power
 RFID chips are generally very small / approximately 1cm by 2mm
 RFID technology does not require direct contact
 RFID can track moving objects

50
RFID over Barcodes

 There is no line of sight requirement

o A barcode must be clean and the reader and label must be properly
oriented with respect to each other
o RFID tags can be read from a greater distance, even in harsh
environments
 The information stored in a barcode is fixed and cannot be changed
o RFID tags can be dynamically changed
 Human intervention is usually required in order to scan a barcode
o Whereas data from an RFID tag can be read without the need for
someone to properly align the tag with the equipment that reads the
data
 Barcodes must be visible on the outside of a product’s packaging
o Whereas RFID tags can be placed inside either the packaging or the
product itself
 More data can be stored in an RFID tag than on a barcode
o And RFID tags have both read / write capability, whereas barcodes are
read-only and cannot be reused

51