BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024

ORGANIC MOLECULES that joined together like a

 also known as hydrocarbons are chain
chemical compounds that contain the o Polymers – monomers that
elements carbon and hydrogen, and a joined together.
simple C-H bond in them.  Glucose in cells are made up of
 methane (CH4) is a highly carbohydrates
flammable gas that occurs abundantly  Fat layers in skin is made up of
in nature and as a product of certain lipids.
human activities.
Dehydration Synthesis
INORGANIC MOLECULES – chemical process of joining
 do not contain the elements carbon monomers to form polymers.
and hydrogen, thus lack C-H bonds. – At the end of each monomer is a (H)
hydrogen atom and a (-OH) group
Random Facts: everytime a monomer is added , a
 Poly – Many molecule of water is given off.
 Mono – One
 Hydro – Water Hydrolysis
 Lipos – Fat – the chemical breakdown of polymers
 Synthesis – To make or form into monomers through the addition
of water, essentially the opposite of
 Lysis – Loosen or break apart
dehydration synthesis.
Biological Molecules:
Carbohydrates – for energy
Lipids – stores energy
Proteins – antibodies and enzymes
Nucleic Acids – contains genetic
information

Carbon CARBOHYDRATES
– has a good versatility and the 4th most – These are energy rich compounds
abundant element in the universe. made from carbon, hydrogen, and
– Has a stable bond with itself or with oxygen in a 1:2:1 proportion..
other elements – Cells use carbohydrates to get and
store energy.
Macromolecules – They are often called sugars or
– Large organic compound made up of starches.
smaller molecules (Polymers)
o Monomer Types of Carbohydrates
s – small Monosaccharide
molecules – is the simplest sugar. It usually
contains five to six carbon
atoms.
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024
– Ex. 5-C ribose, pentose, serve as a protective cushion
pentose, 6-C glucose, fructose around organs
and galactose. – Ex. Fat, oil, waxes
– Fructose fruit sugar, galactose
animal sugar
Disaccharide
– is form by linking two Types of Lipids
monosaccharides together in a Triglyceride
chemical reaction called – commonly known as a fat
dehydration synthesis also molecule which consist of
called as condensation three long hydrocarbon chains
reaction. attached to a carboxyl group
– an enzyme removes an -OH called fatty acids bonded to
(hydroxyl group) from one glycerol forms the triglyceride
molecule and a hydrogen atom backbone.
from another, forming H 2 O – typically consist of fatty acid
and a new covalent chains attached to a glycerol
(glycosidic) bond between the backbone
two smaller components. – Dehydration Synthesis:
– Ex. Sucrose from sugarcane glycerol + 3 fatty acids = fat +
and beet root (Glucose + 3water
fructose), Maltose from – Hydrolysis: Fat + 3 Water =
barley, wheat, rice (Glucose glycerol + 3 fatty acids
+Glucose), Lactose from
milk(Glucose +Galactose) Saturated Fats
Polysaccharide – Contains all the hydrogen it
– consisting of hundreds or possible can
thousands of monosaccharide – More C-H bonds means more
monomers. energy or calories
– Ex. Cellulose surrounds the – These are straight and are
cell wall in plants called fiber, tightly packed against each
starch also known as amylose other which may result to
is the glucose in plants, solid at room temperature.
glycogen is the stored glucose – Mostly comes from animal
in the liver and muscles, and fats
chitin is the second most
common polysaccharide in Unsaturated Fats
nature which composes walls – It has a double bond between
of fungi and the exoskeleton carbon atoms, as it now has
of insects. fewer hydrogen bonds
– Since it has less C-H bonds, it
LIPIDS has less energy or calories
– Are made by cells to store energy – Monounsaturated or Oleic
for long periods of time, to Acid – one double bond in a
insulate against heat loss, and fatty acid
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024
– Polyunsaturated or Linoleic the risk of cardiovascular
Acid – multiple double bond disease.
in a fatty acid
– Liquid in room temperature
– Primarily comes from plants
– Ex. Corn oil, olive oil,
coconut oil, pal-kernel oils
Phospholipids
– Its structure is similar to a
triglyceride. However, it
generally consist of two fatty
acids and a modified
phosphate group occupies the
third carbon of the glycerol
backbone.
– Consists of a hydrophilic
(water-loving) head and
hydrophobic (water-fearing)
tail
– Is essentially a triglyceride in
which a fatty acid has been
replace by a phosphate group
of some sort.

Steroids
– Have four interconnected or
fused carbon rings
– They are soluble in nonpolar
solvents

Cholesterol
– A common steroid present in
any food from animal
source(meat, fish, eggs, and
can be also synthesized in the
liver)
– Animal cells use cholesterol
as a starting material to make
other lipids including vitamin
D, sex hormones testosterone
and estrogen.
– An unhealthy diet can easily
contribute to cholesterol levels
that are too high, increasing
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024
PROTEINS  An R group may be as simple as the
 Proteins are one of the four lone hydrogen atom in glycine or as
different types of biological complex as the two rings of tryptophan.
molecules. It is more complex than The properties of the R-group
carbohydrates and lipids, being determine an amino acid’s chemical
composed of elements C, H, O and behavior whether it is considered acidic
N. or basic, strongly hydrophobic or
 play a wide array of roles in a cell hydrophilic.
or organism. This includes
repairing and building of tissues,  There are 20 amino acids that can
acting as enzymes, aiding the be mixed and matched which
immune system, and served as means that that proteins have a
hormones, that control specific seemingly limitless array of
physiological processes. Each of structures and functions.
these important functions requires
a slightly different form of protein.  Peptide Bond is the bond that joins the
Despite their differences in amino acids together. It is formed when
structure, all proteins contain the the carboxyl group of one molecule
same basic sub-components. combines with the amino group of
another molecule to release a water
TYPES OF PROTEINS molecule.
Amino Acids
 a chain of monomers and are the  Polypeptides are long chains of amino
building blocks of proteins. acids.
 Each amino acid has a central
carbon atom bonded to four other  Essential amino acids cannot be made
atoms or groups of atoms. The by the body, they must come from
three parts that are common to food. There are only 9 essential amino
each amino acid are a hydrogen acids out of 20. Foods that contain all
atom, a carboxyl group (COOH), nine essential amino acids are
and an amino group (a nitrogen considered complete protein, such as
atom bonded to two hydrogen eggs, meat, and fish.
atoms, -NH 2 ). Whereas side
chain also known as R group can  Non-essential amino acids can be
be any of 20 chemical groups. made in our body, so we do not need to
consume them.
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024
 Protein Folding and Structure bonds form between the
 Unlike polysaccharides, most peptide backbone and
proteins do not exist as long chains some R groups.
inside the cells. The shape of a - Ex. Antibodies are
protein is very important to its proteins that destroys any
function. Polypeptide chain folds foreign agents that enters
into a unique three- dimensional the body such as virus and
structure determined by the order bacteria.
and kinds of amino acids.
Four levels of protein 4. Quaternary (4’) Structure
conformation/structure: - The shape arising from
1. primary (1’) structure interactions between
- is basically the sequence of multiple polypeptide
amino acids in a subunits of the same
polypeptide chain. protein.
- Ex. the pancreatic - Ex. Hemoglobin carries
hormone insulin has two oxygen in the blood and is
polypeptide chains. made up of four subunits,
two each of the α and β
2. Secondary (2’) structure types.
- They are held in shape by
hydrogen bonds, which
form between the carbonyl
O of one amino acid and
the amino H of another.
- Ex. Keratin, a protein that
 Sickle Cell Anemia
is found in our hair, skin
and nails; collagen. It a  Sickled cells get stuck as they
vital component of the try to pass through blood
connective tissue found in vessels and obstruct blood
tendons and ligaments. flow.
-
3. Tertiary (3’) Structure Denaturation of Proteins
- is its overall three-  Each protein has its own unique
dimensional form, after all sequence and shape that are held
of the elements of the together by chemical interactions.
secondary structure have Proteins are vulnerable to external
folded together. Inside a conditions that alter their shapes.
cell, water molecules Heat, excessive salt or wrong pH
surround each polypeptide. level can denature a protein,
The hydrophobic R groups changing its shape so that it can no
move away from water longer carry out its function.
toward the protein’s
interior. In addition,
hydrogen bonds and ionic
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024
NUCLEIC ACID
 are long polymers composed of  Deoxyribose - the five-carbon sugar in
single elements called nucleotides. DNA and has one less oxygen atom
Each nucleotide is made up of attached to the second (2’) carbon
nucleotide monomer consists of
three components: a five-carbon  Antiparallel orientation - The two
(pentose) sugar at the center, one strands of the helix run in opposite
phosphate group (PO4 ), and a directions which means that the 5′ end
nitrogenous base. of one strand is connected to the 3′ end
 Among the four biomolecules, of its corresponding strand. It. is
nucleic acids are the only necessary for DNA copying.
biomolecules that cannot be
metabolized to generate energy, in
the form of ATP.

 Nitrogenous bases have two categories:

 the double-ring purines such as
adenine (A) and guanine (G)
 single-ring pyrimidine such as
cytosine (C), thymine (T), uracil
(U)

Types of Nucleic Acid

Deoxyribonucleic Acid
 DNA carries the genetic Ribonucleic Acid
information in all organisms  RNA is also a vital molecule
and is the blueprint in which in life. RNA is involved in the
all the traits such color of the synthesis of proteins,
eyes, height and even diseases regulation of genes and carrier
are encoded. of genetic information in some
 In eukaryotes, DNA is found viruses.
in nucleus and mitochondria  This can be found in the
and chloroplast of plants. nucleus of eukaryotic
 In prokaryotes such as organisms and in the
bacteria, the DNA can be cytoplasm of the prokaryotes.
found in a specialized region  Is single stranded.
in the cytoplasm called  It has ribose as its pentose
nucleoid. sugar.
 DNA polymer is a double
helix that resembles a spiral
staircase. Alternating sugars
and phosphates form the rails
of the staircase, and
nitrogenous bases form the
rungs.
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES – LARA GEM GALON NOTES HYPERION 2024
 Types of RNA
 mRNA
 also known as the
messenger RNA, contains
the instructions or recipe
that directs the cells to
make a protein using its
natural machinery.

 tRNA
 also known as the transfer
RNA, responsible for
choosing the right amino
acid (one element used to
produce a protein) to carry
within a cell to the
ribosome.

 rRNA
 also known as ribosomal
RNA, helps to bind mRNA
in the right place so that it
can read out its sequence
information

 Transcription - an RNA-polymerizing
enzyme will come and make a copy of
the DNA sequence of the gene.

 Translation – the making of proper

protein your body needs after the
ribosome receives the correct amino
acid from the tRNA and the mRNA
genetic information.

 Adenosine triphosphate or ATP is an

RNA nucleotide with an adenine base
and 3 phosphate groups and a ribose
sugar. ATP is used in the ATP Cycle.