Group theory

Set : The collection of well defined objectives is called a set and it is denoted by { }

Ex : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Non – empty set : A set which containing some elements then the set is called a non- empty set

Ex : { x / x ∈ Z +¿}¿ = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ----------------------}

Empty set : A set which containing no elements is called a empty set and it is denoted by ∅

Ex : { x ∈ N / x 2+5 x +6=0 } is an empty set

Cartesian product: Let A and B are two non- empty sets then the Cartesian product of A and B is defined by

{ ( a ,b )|a ∈ A∧b ∈ B } and it is denoted by A X B

ie A X B = { ( a ,b )|a ∈ A∧b ∈ B }

Note : Let the number of elements of A are n ie n(A) = n and the number of elements of B are m ie n(B) = m
Then number of elements of A X B are nm ie n (A X B) = nm = n(A)n(B)
Ex : Let A = { 1, 2, 3 } ⇒ n(A) = 3

B = { a, b, c, } ⇒ n(B) = 3

Since A X B = { ( a ,b )|a ∈ A∧b ∈ B }

= { ( 1 , a ) , ( 1, b ) , ( 1 , c ) , ( 2 , a ) , (2 , b ) , ( 2 , c ) , ( 3 , a ) , ( 3 ,b ) , ( 3 , c ) }

∴ n ( AX B )=9=3 X 3=n ( A ) n(B)

Binary operation: Let S is any non – empty set and f : SXS → S be a function then f is called binary operation on S
And it is denoted by ¿ ,+,−, X , ⊕,−−−−−−−−−¿
ie f : (a, b) → afb

Note : Let ¿ is binary operation on a non – empty set S then ¿ ( a , b )=a∗b ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S

Ex : Let + is a binary operation on N

I e a+ b ∈ N ∀ a , b ∈ N
Since sum of two natural numbers is always a natural number
∴ + is a binary operation on N

Ex 2: since 2- 3 = -1 ∉ N
∴ - is not a binary operation on N

Ex 3 : since sum of two integers is always is an integer then + is binary operation on Z

Similarly subs traction of two integers is an integer always then – is a binary operation on Z
2
Note : n(S) = n then the number of binary operations on S are = nn

Algebraic structure : Let S any non – empty set together with binary operations is called algebraic structure and it is
 Denoted by ( S, +, .) ,(S ¿ ) (R, +, .) -------------etc
Closer property : Let S is any non – empty set with binary operation ¿. If a∗b ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S then S is satisfied
Closer property with respect to ¿
Ex : Let a∗b=a+ b+ab ∀ a , b ∈ Z

Solution : a∗b=a+ b+ab ∀ a , b ∈ Z−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− (1 )

Since a , b ∈ Z ⇒ ab ∈ Z
Since a , b , ab ∈ Z ⇒a+b +ab ∈ Z

⇒ a∗b ∈ Z ∀ a ,b ∈ Z
∴∗¿ is binary operation on Z and (Z, ¿ ) is satisfied closer property

Ex : Let a∗b=a+ b−ab ∀ a ,b ∈ N

Solution : a∗b=a+ b−ab ∀ a ,b ∈ N−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Let a=2∧b=3 ⇒ 2∗3=2+3−2.3=−1∉ N

∴∗¿ is not binary operation on N

Ex : x∗y =x2 y ∀ x , y ∈ R

Solution : x∗y =x2 y ∀ x , y ∈ R−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Let x , y ∈ R ⇒ x 2 , y ∈ R

⇒ x2 y ∈ R

⇒ x∗y ∈ R , for all x , y ∈ R ( since by (1) )

∴ ¿ is satisfied closer property

Associate property : Let S is any non – empty set with binary operation ¿ . If a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c , ∀ a , b , c ∈ S

Then the algebraic structure (S, ¿ ) is satisfied associate property

Ex : : x∗y =x2 y ∀ x , y ∈ R

Solution : : x∗y =x2 y ∀ x , y ∈ R−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Now we have to prove that x∗( y∗z )=( x∗y )∗z ∀ x , y , z ∈ R

L. H.S ⇒ x∗( y∗z )=x∗( y 2 z )

= x2 y2 z

R.H . S ⇒ ( x∗y )∗z=( x 2 y )∗z=(x 2 y )2 z=x 4 y 2 z

x∗( y∗z ) ≠ ( x∗y )∗z

∴(R, ¿ ) is not satisfied associate property

Ex : Let a∗b=a+ b+ab ∀ a , b ∈ Z−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

 Solution : Now we have to prove that a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c ∀ a , b , c ∈ Z

L . H .S ⇒ a∗( b∗c )=a∗( b+c +bc )

¿ a+ b+c +bc +a( b+c +bc )

¿ a+ b+c +ab+ ac+ bc+ abc

¿ a+ b+ab+ c+ ac+ bc+ abc

= a+ b+ab+ c+(a+ b+ab) c

¿ ( a+ b+ab )∗c

= (a∗b)∗c

∴ a∗( b∗c )=( a∗b )∗c ∀ a ,b , c ∈ Z

∴ (Z, ¿ ) is satisfied associate property

Left identity : Let (S, ¿ ) is an algebraic structure an element e ∈ S is said to be a left identity if e∗a=a ∀ a ∈ S
Ex : a∗b=a+ b+2 ∀ a ,b ∈ Z
Let e is a left identity in Z with respect to ¿

⇒ e∗a=a

⇒ e +a+2=a

⇒ e +2=0
∴ e=−2 Left identity

Right identity : Let (S, ¿ ) is an algebraic structure an element e ∈ S is said to be a Right identity if a∗e=a ∀ a ∈ S
Ex : a∗b=a+ b+2 ∀ a ,b ∈ Z
Let e is a Right identity in Z with respect to ¿

⇒ a∗e=a

⇒ a+ e+2=a

⇒ e +2=0
∴ e=−2 is right identity

Ex : a∗b=b ∀ b ∈ Z
Since a∗b=b ∀ b ∈ Z

⇒ a is left identity

Since c∗b=b ∀ b ∈ Z
“c” is left identity
∴ (Z, ¿) has infinite number of left identities but right identity does not exist
Identity element : Let ( S, ¿ ) is algebraic structure, e is an element in S is said to be an identity element.
If a∗e=e∗a=a ∀ a∈ S
ie e is left and right identity element with respect to ¿ in S
ab +¿¿
Question : Let aob= ∀ a ,b ∈ Q . Then find identity element in Q+¿¿ with respect to “o”
3
ab
Solution : Let aob= ∀ a ,b ∈ Q+¿−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)¿
3

Suppose “e” is an identity element in Q+¿¿ with respect to “o”

+¿¿
⇒ aoe=eoa=a ∀ a ∈ Q
To find right identity aoe=a
ae
⇒ =a
3
e
⇒ =1
3
⇒e=3

To find left identity eoa=a

ea
⇒ =a
3
e
⇒ =1
3

⇒e=3
∴ e=3 is left and right identity

∴ e=3 is an identity element

a3
Verification : Let ao 3= =a
3

And 3oa = 3a/3 = a

+ ¿¿
∴ ao 3=3 oa=a ∀ a ∈Q
∴ e=3 is an identity element

Question : Let S = {( )| }
x x
0 0
x ∈ R . Then Find identity element with respect to usual multiplication of matrices

Solution : S = {( )| }
x x
0 o
x∈R

Let A = ( x0 x0 )∈ S
Suppose I = (0e 0e) ∈ S where e ∈ R is an identity element in S w.r. to multiplication
 AI = IA = A

⇒ ( x0 x0)(0e e0)=(0x 0x )
⇒ ( xe0 xeo )=( x0 xo)
⇒ xe=x

⇒e=1

I= (10 10 ) is right identity element in S

Similarly IA = A

⇒ (0e oe)( x0 ox)=(0x ox)

⇒ ( ex0 exo )=( 0x 0x)
⇒ ex =x

⇒e=1

∴I= (10 10) is Left dentity element

∴I = (10 1o) is an identity element in S
Left inverse of an element: Let (S , ¿ ) is an algebraic structure and e is an identity element in S with respect to
¿. Let an element b∈ S is said to be left inverse of an element a ∈ S if b∗a=e and it is denoted by
−1
a ie b = a−1

Right inverse of an element : Let (S , ¿ ) is an algebraic structure and e is an identity element in S with respect to

¿. Let an element b∈ S is said to be right inverse of an element a ∈ S if a∗b=e and it is denoted by

−1
a ie b = a−1

Inverse of an element : Let (S , ¿ ) is an algebraic structure and e is an identity element in S with respect to

¿. Let an element a ∈ S if there exist an element a−1 ∈ S is said to be inverse of an element a if

−1 −1
a∗a =a ∗a=e

Question: Let S = {( )| }
x x
0 o
x ∈ R . Then Find identity and inverse an element with respect to usual multiplication

of matrices

Solution : S = {( )| }
x x
0 o
x∈R
 Let A = ( x0 x0 )∈ S
Suppose I = (0e oe) ∈ S where e ∈ R is an identity element in S w.r. to multiplication
AI = IA = A

⇒ ( x0 xo )(0e eo)=(0x ox)

⇒ ( xe0 xeo )=( x0 xo)
⇒ xe=x

⇒e=1

I= (10 1o) is right identity element in S

Similarly IA = A

⇒ (0e oe)( x0 ox)=(0x ox)

⇒ ( ex0 exo )=( 0x ox)
⇒ ex =x

⇒e=1

∴I= (10 1o) is right identity element

∴I = (10 1o) is an identity element in S
−1
Let A = ( 0y 0y) ∈ S where y ∈ R is inverse of an element of A
⇒ A A−1 =A−1 A=I

⇒ A A−1 =I

⇒ ( x0 x0)( 0y 0y )=(10 10)

⇒ ( xy0 xy0 )=(10 10)
⇒ xy=1
1
⇒ y=
x
 1
Since x ∈ R then ∈ R
x

( )
1 1
∴ A−1= x x ∈ S is right inverse of A
0 0

Similarly A−1 A=I

⇒ ( 0y 0y )( 0x 0x)=(10 10 )
⇒ ( yx0 yx0 )=(10 10 )
⇒ yx=1
1
⇒ y=
x
1
Since x ∈ R then ∈ R
x

( )
1 1
−1
∴A = x x ∈ R is left inverse of A
0 0

( )( )(
1 1
−1
Verification : now consider A A =
x x
0 0
x
0
x =
0
1 1
0 0 )
−1
∴ A A =I

( () x0 x0 )=(10 10)
1 1
−1
Now consider A A= x x
0 0
−1
∴A A=I
−1 −1
∴A A= A A =I

( )
1 1
∴ A−1= x
0
x ϵ S isinverse of ∀ A=
0
( )
x x ∈S
0 0

Commutative property : Let (s, ¿ ) is an algebraic structure is satisfying commutative property if

a∗b=b∗a ∀ a , b ∈ S

Semi group : The algebraic structure (s, ¿ ) is said to be semi group if it satisfying closer and associative properties

Ex : (N, +), (N, .) (Z, + ), …………………………..etc

Ex : (Z, - ) is not semi group

Let 2,3,4 ∈ Z
Now consider 2- (3- 4 ) = 2- (-1) = 3
 Now consider (2 – 3 ) – 4 = - 1 – 4 = -5
∴ 2−( 3−4 ) ≠ ( 2−3 )−4

⇒(Z , - ) is not satisfying associative property

∴ (Z , - ) is not semi group

Monoid: The algebraic structure (s, ¿ ) is said to be a monoid if it is satisfying closer, associative and identity

Properties

Ex : (Z, + ) , (N, . ) , (W, +), (R, +). (C, +), …………………………………..etc

Ex : ( N, + ) is not monoid because additive identity does not exist

Group : Let G be a non – empty set with binary operation ¿. Then the algebraic structure ( G, ¿ ) is said to be a
Group if it is satisfying the following conditions
i) Closer property : a∗b ∈G ∀ a , b ∈G
ii)Associative property : a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c ∀ a , b , c ∈ G
iii) Identity property : Let a ∈ G, ∃ e ∈G such that a∗e=e∗a=a ∀ a∈ Gi . e e ∈ Gis identity element
iv) Inverse property : Let a ∈ G, e ∈ Gis an identity element if ∃ a−1 ∈G such that
−1 −1
a∗a =a ∗a=e ∀ a ∈ G
Note : The group ( G, ¿ ) is said to be commutative or abilean group if it is satisfying commutative property

ie a∗b=b∗a ∀ a , b ∈G

Question : Show that set of all even integers form an abilean group with respect to addition

(or)

Let G = {- ----- -6, -4 , -2 , 0, 2, 4, 6, ----------}. Then show that (G, +) is an abilean group

(or)

Let G = { 2 x|x ∈ Z } then show that ( G, +) is commutative group

Solution : Let G = { 2 x|x ∈ Z }

Now we have to prove that (G, +) is an abilean group

Let a , b , c ∈G ⇒a=2 x , b=2 y , c=2 z where x , y , z ∈ Z

Closer property : Let a , b , ∈G ⇒ a=2 x , b=2 y where x , y ∈ Z

Now consider a+ b=2 x +2 y=2 ( x + y ) −−−−−(1)

Since x, y ∈ Z ⇒ x + y ∈ Z

⇒ 2(x + y ) ∈ G

⇒a+b∈G ( since by (1) )

∴ a+b ∈ G ∀ a , b ∈G

∴ (G , + ) is satisfying closer property

Associative property : Let a , b , c ∈G ⇒a=2 x , b=2 y , c=2 z where x , y , z ∈ Z

 Now we have to prove that a+(b + c) = (a + b) +c

Since a + (b + c) = 2x +(2y + 2z)

= 2x + 2 (y + z)

= 2[ x + (y + z)]

= 2[( x +y ) + z ]

= 2(x + y ) +2z

= (2x + 2y ) + 2z

= (a + b) + c
∴ a+ ( b+ c )=( a+ b ) +c ∀ a ,b , c ∈G

( G, + ) is associative property

Identity property : Let a ∈ G⇒ a=2 x where x ∈ Z

Since 0∈ Z ⇒ 2(0) = 0 ∈G

Now consider a + 0 = 2x + 0 = 2x = a

Similarly we can prove 0 + a = a

∴ a ∈G ∃0 ∈G such that a+ 0=0+a=a ∀ a ∈G

∴ 0 is an identity element in G

∴ (G , + ) is satisfying identity property

Inverse property :Let a ∈ G⇒ a=2 x where x ∈ Z

Since x ∈ Z ⇒−x ∈ Z ⇒ 2 (−x ) ∈G

⇒ −2 x ∈G

⇒ −a ∈ G

∴ a ∈G ∃−a ∈G such that a+ (−a ) =−a+ a=0 ∀ a ∈G

I.e every element in G has additive inverse in G

∴ ( G, + ) is satisfying inverse property
∴ ( G, + ) is a group

Commutative property :Let Let a , b ∈G ⇒ a=2 x , b=2 y where x , y ∈ Z

Since a + b = 2x + 2y

= 2(x + y )

= 2 (y + x )

= 2y + 2x

=b+a
∴ a+b=b+ a ∀ a ,b ∈ G
 ∴ ( G, + ) is satisfying commutative property

∴ ( G, + ) is an abilean or commutative group

Question : Show that the set of all real numbers cannot farms a group with respect to multiplication.

Solution : Let the set of all real numbers denoted by R

(i) Closer property : Since product of two real numbers is always a real number
∴ (R, .) is satisfying closer property
(ii) Associative property : Since set of all real numbers are satisfying associative property
∴ (R, .) is satisfying associative property
(iii) Identity property : Since multiple identity is 1 and 1 is also a real number
i.e a .1=1. a=a ∀ a ∈ R ∃1 ∈ R
∴ (R, .) is satisfying identity property
(iv) Inverse property : Let a (≠ 0)∈ R∧1∈ R is an identity element
1 1 1
Since a ( ≠ 0 ) ∈ R , ∃ ∈ R such that a . = . a=1 ∀ a (≠ 0)∈ R
a a a
∴ Every non – zero element in R has inverse

But multiple inverse of 0 ∈ R does not exist

∴ (R, .) is not satisfying inverse property

∴ (R, .) is not group

Ex :
Abilean group
Inverse
Algebraic Closer Associative Identity property (or) Commutative
structure property property property group property
(N, +) √ √ X X √ X
(N,.) √ √ √ x √ X
(W, +) √ √ √ x √ X
(W,.) √ √ √ x √ X
(Z, +) √ √ √ √ √ √
(Z,.) √ √ √ x √ X
(Q, + ) √ √ √ √ √ √
( Q, . ) √ √ √ x √ X
(Q- {0} , .) √ √ √ √ √ √
( R, + ) √ √ √ √ √ √
( R , .) √ √ √ x √ X
( R - {0} , .) √ √ √ √ √ √

ab +¿ ¿
Question : Let a∗b= , ∀ a , b ∈Q . Then show that (Q+¿ ,∗¿ ¿ abilean group
4
ab +¿−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)¿
Solution : Let a∗b= , ∀ a , b ∈Q
4
+ ¿¿
(i) Closer property : Let a , b ∈Q
ab +¿¿
⇒ ∈Q
4
⇒ a∗b ∈Q+ ¿(sinceby (1 ))¿
 +¿ ¿
+¿ ∀ a , b ∈Q ¿
∴ a∗b ∈Q
∴ (Q+¿ ,∗¿ ¿ is satisfying closer property
+¿¿
(ii) Associative property : Let a , b , c ∈Q

Now we have to prove that a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c

L.H.S ⇒ a∗( b∗c )=a∗ ( bc4 )

a ( bc )
¿
16
( ab ) c
¿
16
¿
ab c
4 4
. ( )
¿
ab
4
∗c ( )
¿ ( a∗b )∗c=R . H . S
+¿ ¿
∴ a∗( b∗c )=( a∗b )∗c , ∀ a ,b , c ∈Q
∴ (Q+¿ ,∗¿ ¿ is satisfying associative property
+ ¿¿
+¿¿
(iii) Identity property : Let a ∈ Q+ ¿∧suppose e∈Q ¿ is an identity in Q with respect to *
⇒ a∗e=e∗a=a

Since a∗e=a
ae
⇒ =a
4
e
⇒ =1
4
∴ e=4
Similarly e∗a=a
ea
⇒ =a
4
e
⇒ =1
4
∴ e=4 +¿ ¿
+ ¿sucth that a∗4=4∗a =a ∀a ∈ Q ¿

∴ a ∈Q +¿∃ 4 ∈Q ¿

∴ e=4 is an identity element in Q+¿¿

∴ (Q+¿ ,∗¿ ¿ is satisfying identity property
+ ¿¿

(iv) Inverse property : Let a ∈ Q+ ¿,∧e=4 is identity ∈Q ¿

Suppose that a−1 ∈ Q+¿¿ is an inverse of a
⇒ a∗a−1=a−1∗a=e=4
⇒ a∗a−1=4
a a−1
⇒ =4
4
⇒ a a−1=16
−1 16
∴a =
a
Similarly a−1∗a=4
−1
a a
⇒ =4
4
⇒ a−1 a=16
16
∴ a−1=
a
 −1 a∗16 a 16
Verification : now consider a∗a = = =4=e
a 4a
16
∴ is¿ inverse of a∈Q+ ¿¿
a
−1 16 16 a
Now consider a ∗a= ∗a= =4
a 4a
a∗16 16 +¿ ¿
16 +¿ suchthat = ∗a=4 ,∀a ∈ Q ¿
+¿∃ a−1= ∈Q a a
¿
a
∴ a ∈Q
∴ ¿ is satisfying inverse property
+ ¿¿
(v) Commutative property : Let a , b ∈Q
ab ba
Now consider a∗b= = =b∗a
4 4
+¿¿
∴ a∗b=b∗a ∀ a ,b ∈ Q
∴ ¿ is satisfying commutative property
∴ ¿ is an abilean group

Cancelation laws in a group : Let ( G, *) is a group and a , b c ∈G then

(i) Left cancelation law : If a∗b=a∗c ⇒b=c ∀ a , b , c ∈G

(ii) Right cancelation law : If b∗a=c∗a ⇒ b=c ∀ a , b , c ∈G

Theorem : Show that identity element in a group is unique.

(or)

Let G be a group then show that identity element in G is unique

Solution : Let ( G, . ) be a group

Suppose e ∈G is an identity element

Now we have to prove that e is unique

If possible e ' is other identity element in G

Since” e “is an identity in G

⇒ ea=ae=a , ∀ a ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Since e ' is an identity element in G

⇒ e ' a=a e ' =a , ∀ a ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

From (1) and (2) ⇒ e ' a=ea ⇒ e' =e ( since by right cancelation laws )

Similarly ⇒ a e ' =a e ⇒ e ' =e ( since left cancelation law )

'
∴ e =e
∴ Identity element in G is unique
Theorem : Let G be a group, e is an identity element in G. Then show that every element in G has unique inverse.

Solution : Let G be a group i.e ( G, .) be a group

Since e is an identity element in G

i.e xe=ex =x , ∀ x ∈G

Now we have to prove that every element in G has unique inverse

 If possible an element a ∈ G has two inverses

Let b, c are two inverses of a in G

ab=ba=e−−−−−−−−−−(1)

And ac=ca=e−−−−−−−−−( 2 )

From (1) and (2) ⇒ ab=ac ⇒b=c

Similarly ba=ca ⇒b=c

∴ b=c
∴ a ∈G has unique inverse in G ∀ a ∈G
∴ Every element in G has unique inverse

Question : Let G = {[ ]|
x x
x x }
x ∈ R−{0 } . Then show that G be a group with respect to multiplication

Solution : Let G = {[ ]|
x
x
x
x
x ∈ R−{0 } . }
(i) Closer property : Let A , B ∈ G where A= [ xx xx ]∧B=[ yy yy] for x , y ∈ R−{0 }
Now consider [ x x ][ y y ]
A . B= x x y y

[ xy+
xy+ xy xy + xy ]
=
xy xy + xy

∴ AB [
2 xy 2 xy ]
2 xy 2 xy
=

Since x , y ∈ R−{0 }⇒ 2 xy ∈ R−{0 }

⇒ [ 22 xyxy 2 xy
2 xy ]
∈G

∴ AB ∈G , ∀ A , B ∈G
∴ ( G, .) is satisfying closer property
(ii) Associative property : Since set of all matrices are satisfying associative property with respect to multiplication
∴ ( G, .) is satisfying associative property
(iii) Identity property : Let A= [ xx xx ] ∈G where x ∈ R−{0 }
I =[
e e]
e e
Suppose ∈ G where e ∈ R−{0 ¿ is identity element
⇒ AI = IA = A
⇒ AI = A
⇒ [ xx xx ][ ee ee ]=[ xx xx ]
⇒ [ xe+ xe xe + xe
xe+ xe xe + xe ] =
[ x x]
x x

⇒ [ 22 xexe 22 xexe ]=[ xx xx ]

⇒ 2 xe=x
 1
⇒ e=
2

[ ]
1 1
2 2
∴I=
1 1
2 2
Since IA = A
⇒ [ ee ee ][ xx xx ]=[ xx xx ]
⇒ [ 22 exex 22 exex ]=[ xx xx]
⇒ 2 ex=x
1
∴ e=
2

[ ]
1 1
2 2
∴I= is an identity element in G
1 1
2 2

∴ ( G, . ) is satisfying identity property

[ ]
1 1
(iv) Inverse property :Let A= [ ]
x x
x x
∈G∧I =
2 2
1 1
∈ Gis an identity element
2 2

Suppose B= [ ]
y y
y y
∈G is the inverse of A
⇒ AB = BA = I
Since AB = I

[ ]
1 1
⇒ [ xx xx ][ yy ] y
y
=
2
1
2
1
2 2

][ ]
1 1
⇒ [
xy+ xy xy + xy
xy+ xy xy + xy
=
2
1
2
1
2 2

][ ]
1 1
⇒ [
2 xy 2 xy
2 xy 2 xy
=
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
⇒ 2 xy=
2
1
∴ y=
4x
1
since x ∈ R−{ 0 } ⇒ ∈ R−{0}
4x
 [ ]
1 1
∴ B=
4x
1
4x
1
is the inverse of A =
x
x [ xx ] ∀ A ∈G
4x 4x

∴ ( G, .) is satisfying inverse property

∴ ( G, .) is group
(v) Commutative property : Let A, B ∈G

A= [ xx xx ] and B = A = [ yy yy ]
⇒ AB = [ xx xx ] [ yy yy ]=[ 22 xyxy 22 xyxy ]
Since BA = [ yy yy ] [ xx xx ]=[ 22 xyxy 22 xyxy ]
∴ AB=BA , ∀ A , B ∈G
∴ (G, . ) is commutative group

Question : Let a∗b=min { a , b } ∀ a , b ∈ Z . then verify ¿

Solution : Let a∗b=min { a , b } ∀ a , b ∈ Z−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Now we have to prove that a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c ∀ a , b c ∈ Z

L.H.S ⇒ a∗( b∗c )=a∗[ min {b , c } ]

= min { a , ( b , c ) }

= min { ( a , b ) , c }

= [ min { a , b } ]∗c

= ( a∗b )∗c=R . H . S

∴ a∗( b∗c )= ( a∗b )∗c ∀ a , b c ∈ Z

∴ ¿ is satisfying associated property

{[ ] }
1 a b
Question : Prove that set of all 3X3 matrices of the form 0 1 c /a ,b , c ∈ R forms a group with respect to
0 0 1

Matrix multiplication

{[ ] }
1 a b
Solution : G = 0 1 c /a ,b , c ∈ R
0 0 1

[ ] [ ]
1 a b 1 x y
Let A , B ∈ G where A= 0 1 c ∧B= 0 1 z where a , b , c , x , y , z ∈ R
0 0 1 0 0 1
 [ ] [ ]
1 a b 1 x y
(i) Closer property : Let A , B ∈ G where A= 0 1 c ∧B= 0 1 z where a , b , c , x , y , z ∈ R
0 0 1 0 0 1

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 a b 1 x y 1 x +a y +az +b
Now consider AB = 0 1 c 0 1 z =0 1 z +c
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

[ ]
1 x+a y +az +b
Since a , b , c , x , y , z ∈ R ⇒ x+ a , y+ az +b , z+ c ∈ R ⇒ 0 1 z + c ∈G
0 0 1
⇒ AB ∈ G
∴ AB ∈G ∀ A , B ∈G
∴ (G, .) is satisfying closer property
(ii) Associative property : Since the set of all matrices are satisfying associative property
∴ (G, .) is satisfying associative property

[ ]
1 0 0
(iii) Identity property : Since 0 ∈ R ⇒ I = 0 1 0 ∈G such that AI = IA = A ∀ A ∈G
0 0 1

[ ]
1 a b
Where A = 0 1 c
0 0 1

∴ (G, .) is satisfying identity property

[ ]
1 a b
(iv) Inverse property :Let A = 0 1 c ∈G
0 0 1
⇒ | A|=1 ≠ 0

∴ A−1 is exist

[ ]
1 0 0
Co-factor matrix = −a 1 0
ac−b −c 1

[ ]
1 −a ac−b
Since Adj A = transpose of co- factor matrix = 0 1 −c
0 0 1

−1
∴A =
| A| [
Adj A 1 −a ac−b
=0 1
0 0
−c
1 ]
Since a , b , c ∈ R ⇒−a , ac−b ,−c ∈ R

[ ]
1 −a ac−b
A−1= 0 1 −c ∈G
0 0 1

[ ][ ]
1 a b 1 −a ac−b
−1
Now consider A A = 0 1 c 0 1 −c
0 0 1 0 0 1
 [ ]
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 =I
0 0 1
−1
∴ A A =I

Similarly we can show that A−1 A=I

−1 −1 −1
∴ A ∈ G∃ A ∈G such that A A = A A=I ∀ A ∈G

∴ ( G,.) is satisfying in inverse property

∴ ( G, .) is a group

Theorem : Let G be a group then show that (ab)−1=b−1 a−1 , ∀ a , b ∈G

Proof : Let ( G, .) be a group

Let e ∈ G is an identity element such that xe=ex =x ∀ x ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Since G be a group then every element in G has unique inverse

i.e Let y ∈G ∃ y−1 ∈G such that y y−1= y−1 y=e ∀ y ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

Now we have to prove that (ab)−1=b−1 a−1 , ∀ a , b ∈G

Let a , b ∈G ⇒ ab ∈ G

It is sufficient to prove that the inverse of b−1 a−1 is ab

Now consider( ab ¿ ( b−1 a−1 ) =a(b b−1 )a−1

= a ( e ) a−1 ¿

= (ae )a−1

= a a−1 ¿ )

=e ( since by (2))

∴ ( ab ) ( b a )=e
−1 −1

∴ ( ab ) is ¿ of ( b−1 a−1 )

Now consider ( b−1 a−1 ) ( ab ) =b−1 ( a−1 a ) b

=b−1 ( e ) b( since by (2 ))

= (b−1 e)b

= b−1 b (since by ( 1 ) )

=e

∴ ( b a ) ( ab )=e
−1 −1
 ∴ ab is¿ inverse of ( b a )
−1 −1

∴ ( b−1 a−1) ( ab )=( ab ) ( b−1 a−1 )=e

∴ ab isinverse of ( b a )
−1 −1

( ab ) ( b−1 a−1 ) =e ⇒ ( b−1 a−1 ) =( ab )−1

−1 −1 −1
∴(ab) =b a , ∀ a , b ∈G

Theorem : Let G be a group and every element in G has own inverse then show that G is an abilean group

(or)

Let G be a group such that a=a−1 ∀ a ∈G then show that G is an abilean group.

(or)

Let G be a group such that a 2=e ∀ a ∈G then show that G is an abilean group.

Proof : Let G be a group i.e (G, .) be a group

Since every element in G has own inverse

⇒ a=a−1 ∀ a ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− (1 )

⇒ a 2=e ∀ a ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

Let a , b ∈G

⇒ by closer property ab ∈ G

⇒ (ab)2=e

⇒ ( ab )( ab )=e

⇒ ab=(ab)−1

⇒ ab=b−1 a−1 ( since ( ab )−1=b−1 a−1 , a , b ∈G)

⇒ ab=ba ( since by ( 1 ) )

∴ ab=ba , ∀ a , b ∈ G

G is commutative group

Hence proved

Finite group : A group G is said to be a finite group if it is consisting finite number of elements otherwise infinite group

Order of the group: The number of elements in a group G is called order of the group G and it is denoted by |G| or O(G)

Question : Show that cube roots of unity forms an abilean group with respect to multiplication. Hence find its order.

Solution : Le G = { 1 , ω , ω2 } where 1+ω+ ω2=0∧ω 3=1

(i) Closer property : Since set of all complex numbers are satisfying closer property then (G, .) is satisfying closer
Property .
(ii) Associative property : Since set of all complex numbers are satisfying associative property then (G, .) is satisfying
Associative Property .
(iii) Identity property :Since the multiple identity 1∈G then (G, .) is satisfying identity property
(iv) Inverse property : Since identity element in G is 1
Since 1.1 = 1.1 = 1
∴ Inverse of is 1
Since ω . ω 2=ω 2 . ω=1
∴ Inverse of ω is ω 2 together

∴ Every element in G has inverse then (G, . ) is satisfying inverse property

(v) Commutative property : Since the set of all complex numbers are satisfying commutative property with respect to
multiplication then ( G, .) is Commutative property
∴ ( G, .) is an abilean group
∴ O(G) = 3

Theorem : Let G be a group. Then G is an abilian group ⇔ (ab)2=a2 b2 , ∀ a , b ∈G

Solution : Let (G, .) be a group

Case(i) : Let G is an abilian group

i.e ab=ba , ∀ a , b ∈G

Now we have to prove that (ab)2=a2 b2 , ∀ a , b ∈G

Now consider ( ab )2=( ab )( ab )

= a ( ba ) b

= a ( ab ) b ( since G isan abilian group )

= ( aa )( bb )

= a2b2

∴(ab)2=a2 b2 , ∀ a , b ∈G

Case (ii) : Conversely suppose ( ab )2=a2 b2 , ∀ a , b∈ G

Now we have to prove that G is an abilian group

Since (ab)2=a2 b2 , ∀ a , b ∈G

⇒( ab ) (ab) = ( aa )( bb )

⇒a (ba)b = a ( ab ) b

⇒ba = ab (since by cancelation laws )

∴ ab=ba , ∀ a , b ∈ G

⇒ ( G, .) is satisfying commutative property

 ∴ G is an abilian group

Hence proved

Addition modulo : Let a, b are two integers and m is positive integer. If r is the remainder when a + b is divided by m then

We say that “a addition modulo m b” and it is denoted by a +¿ m b=r ¿

Ex : 4 +¿ 5 3=2¿ , 5 +¿ 4 6=3 ¿

Question : Show that (Z6 , +6) is an abilian group

Solution : Let Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5}

Composition table :

+¿ 6 ¿ 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
Since from the composition table every element in is an element
in Z6 then (Z6 , +6) is

Satisfying closer and Associative properties

Identity property : Since from the composition table the identity element in Z 6 is 0 with respect to +6

∴ (Z6 , +6) is satisfying identity property

Inverse property : Since from the composition table 0 + 6 0 = 0

Inverse of 0 is 0

Since 1 +6 5 = 5 ,+6 1 = 0

∴ Inverse of 1 is 5 and inverse of 5 is 1

Since 2 +6 4 = 4 +6 2 = 0

∴ Inverse of 2 is 4 and inverse of 4 is 2

Since 3 +6 3 = 0

∴ Inverse of 3 is it self

∴ Every element in Z6 has inverse with respect to +6

∴ (Z6 , +6) is satisfying inverse property

Commutative property : Since from the composition table every row is identically equal with corresponding column

∴ (Z6 , +6) is satisfying commutative property

∴ (Z6 , +6) is an abilianwhat group

∴ O(Z6 ) = 6
Order of an element : Let G be a group and a ∈ G is an element and e is an identity element in G. If there exist a least positive

Integer n such that a n=e (¿ additive notation na=e)then the least positive integer n is called

Order of an element “a” and it is denoted by O(a) or |a|

Otherwise order of an element does not exist (infinite )

Note : Let G be a group and order of an element a in G is n ⇔ an=e where n isleast + ve integer

Note : Let G be a group and order of an element a in G is n . If there exist a positive integer m such that a m=e the n ≤ m.

Note: Order of an identity element is always 1 i.e O(e) = 1

Question : Find order of every element in group G = { 1 , ω , ω2 } where 1+ω+ ω2=0∧ω 3=1.

Solution : Let G = { 1 , ω , ω2 } where 1+ω+ ω2=0∧ω 3=1

Since (G, .) is a group

Let 1 ∈G is an identity element

∴ O(1) = 1

Let ω ∈ G

⇒ ω . ω=ω 2 ≠ 1

⇒ ω . ω . ω=ω 3=1

∴ O ( ω )=3

Let ω 2 ∈G

⇒ ω 2 . ω 2=ω 4=ω

⇒ ω 2 . ω 2 . ω2 =ω3 =1

2 3
⇒(ω ) =1

∴ O ( ω )=3
2

Question : Find order of every element in group Z6

Solution : Let Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Since (Z6 , +6 ) is an abilian group

Since identity element in Z6 is 0

⇒ O(0) = 1

Let 1 ∈ Z 6

⇒ 1+ ¿6 1=2 ≠0 ¿

⇒ 1+ ¿6 1+¿ 6 1=3≠ 0 ¿ ¿
 ⇒ 1+ ¿6 1+¿ 6 1 +¿6 1=4 ≠ 0 ¿ ¿ ¿

⇒ 1+ ¿6 1+¿ 6 1 +¿6 1+ ¿6 1=5 ≠0 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

⇒ 1+ ¿6 1+¿ 6 1 +¿6 1+ ¿6 1 +¿6 1=0¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

⇒ 6(1) = 0

∴ O ( 1 )=6

Let 2∈ Z 6

⇒ 2 +¿6 2=4 ≠ 0 ¿

⇒ 2 +¿6 2+¿ 6 2=0 ¿ ¿

⇒ 3(2) = 0

∴ O ( 2 ) =3

Let 3 ∈ Z 6

⇒ 3 +¿6 3=0 ¿

⇒ 2(3) = 0

∴ O ( 3 ) =2

Let 4 ∈ Z 6

⇒ 4 +¿6 4=2 ≠ 0 ¿

⇒ 4 +¿6 4 + ¿6 4=0 ¿ ¿

⇒ 3(4 ) = 0

∴ O ( 4 ) =3

Let 5 ∈ Z 6

⇒ 5 +¿6 5=4 ≠ 0 ¿

⇒ 5 +¿6 5 +¿6 5=3 ≠ 0 ¿ ¿

⇒ 5 +¿6 5 +¿6 5+ ¿6 5=2 ≠ 0¿ ¿ ¿

⇒ 5 +¿6 5 +¿6 5+ ¿6 5 +¿ 6 5=1≠ 0 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

⇒ 5 +¿6 5 +¿6 5+ ¿6 5 +¿ 6 5 +¿ 6 5=0 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

⇒ 6(5) = 0

∴ O ( 5 ) =6

Theorem : Let G be a group and order of an element a ∈ G is n . If m is any positive integer such that a m=e ⇔ n /m
 (i.e n divides m )

Proof : Let G be a group and e is an identity element in G

Let a ∈ G such that order of a is n

⇒ a n=e ∃ a least + ve integer n−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Now we have to prove that a m=e ⇔ n /m

Case (i) : Suppose a m=e

Now we have to prove that n/m

Since m, n are +ve integers

⇒ by division algorithm there exist unique +ve integers q, r such that

m=nq+r where 0 ≤r < n−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

Since a m=e

⇒ a nq+r =e

⇒ a nq a r=e

⇒ ¿¿¿

⇒ e q ar =e

⇒e ar =e

∴ a r=e

This is contradiction to a n=e where n is theleast + ve integer

⇒r=0

Now substitute r = 0 in (2)

⇒ m = nq

∴ n/m

Case (ii) : Conversely suppose n divides m i.e n/m

Now we have to prove that a m=e

Since n/m
+¿ ¿
⇒ m=nd ∃unique d ∈ Z

Now consider a m=a nd

= (a ¿¿ n)d ¿

= e d ( since an=e )

=e
 m
∴ a =e
m
∴ a =e ⇔ n/m

Theorem : Let G be a group then show an element and its inverse have the same order in G .

Proof : Let G be a group

Let a ∈ G∃ a−1 ∈G

Suppose O ( a )= p i . e a p =e ∃least + ve intrger p

O ( a ) =q i . e(a¿¿−1) =e ∃ a least + ve integer q ¿

−1 q
And

Now we have to prove that O ( a )=O ( a−1 ) i. e p=q

p
Since a =e

⇒ (a p)−1 =e−1

⇒ a− p=e

⇒ (a ¿¿−1) p =e ¿

But O(a ¿¿−1)=q ¿

⇒ q/p ---------------------------------(1)

Since (a ¿¿−1)q =e ¿

⇒ a−q=e

⇒ (a ¿¿−q)−1=e−1 ¿

⇒ a q=e

But O ( a )= p

∴ p/q ------------------------------------------- (2)

From (1) and (2) ⇒ p = q

∴ O ( a )=O ( a−1) , ∀ a ∈G

Hence the theorem

Note : Let Zn = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ----------------------------------------------------- n- 1 } is an abilian group with respect to + n and

O ( Zn) n
O(Zn ) = n. Let a ∈ Z n ⇒O ( a )= =
gcd (a , O ( Z n ) ) gcd (a , n)

Ex : Find the order of every element in Z 8

Solution : Let Z 8={ 0,1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 }

Since ( Z 8 , +¿8 ¿ ) is an abilian group

 Since O( Z 8 ¿=8

Since O(0) = 1

Let 1 ∈ Z8

8 8
⇒ O ( 1 )= = =8
gcd (1 , 8) 1

Since inverse of 1 is 7 and we know that O ( a )=O(a−1 )

∴ O ( 1 )=O ( 7 )=8

Let 2 ∈ Z 8

8 8
⇒ O ( 2 )= = =4
gcd (2 , 8) 2

Since inverse of 2 is 6

∴ O ( 2 ) =O ( 6 )=4

Let 3 ∈ Z 8

8 8
⇒ O ( 3 )= = =8
gcd (3 ,8) 1

Since inverse of 3 is 5

∴ O ( 3 ) =O ( 5 )=8

Let 4 ∈ Z 8

8 8
⇒ O ( 4 )= = =2
gcd (4 , 8) 4

Question : Show that G = { 1 ,−1 , i,−i } is an abilian group with respect to multiplication.. Hence find order of every element

in G

Solution : Composition table . 1 -1 i -i

1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
Since by the composition table I i -i -1 1 every element in the table is an element in G
-i -i i 1 -1
then (G, .) is satisfying closer

And associative properties

Identity property : Since multiple identity 1∈G , then (G, . ) is satisfying identity property

Inverse property : From the composition table, inverse of identity is it self i.e inverse of 1 is 1

Since (-1 ) (-1) = 1

∴ inverse of – 1 is – 1

Since i(-i) = (- i)i = 1

 ∴ inverse of i is –i together

∴ every element in G has a inverse with respect to multiplication

∴ ( G, .) is satisfying inverse property

Commutative property : From the composition table every row is identically equal with the corresponding column

∴ (G, . ) is satisfying commutative property

∴ (G, . ) is an abilian group

Now consider order of every element in G

Since 1 is an identity element in G

∴ O(1) = 1

Let −1 ∈G ⇒ (- 1) (- 1) = 1

⇒ (−1)2=1

∴ O(- 1) = 2

Let i∈ G⇒ ( i )( i )=−1

⇒ ( i ) (i ) ( i )=−i

⇒( i ) (i ) ( i )( i )=1

⇒ (i)4=1

∴ O(i) = 4

Since inverse of i is –i

∴ O(i) = O(-i) = 4

Multiplication modulo m: Let a, b are two integers and m is a +ve integer , r is the remainder when aXb is divide by m. then

We say that “a multiplication modulo m b” and it is denoted by a X m b=r

Ex : 5 X 4 7=3, 3 X 2 4=0 , 5 X 7 9=3

Question : Show that G = { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 } forms an abilian group with respect to multiplication modulo 5 and hence find order of

every Element

Solution : composition table

X5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
Home – work

1. Show that G = { 1 , 2, 3 , 4,5,6 } forms an abilian group with respect to multiplication 7 and hence find order of every
 Element .

2. Show that G = { 1 , 2 } forms an abilian group with respect to multiplication 3 and hence find order of every

Element .

3. Show that G = { 1 , 2, 3 , 4,5 } cannot forms a group with respect to multiplication 6

Note : Let G = { 1 , 2, 3,4,5 ,−−−−−−−−− p−1 } forms an abilian group with respect to Xp where p is prim. Hence

O(G) = p-1

Theorem : Let G be a group of even order then show that there exist at least one element other than identity element has

Own inverse i .e a=a−1 i. e a2=e∨O ( a ) =2 where a(≠ e)∈G

Solution : Let G be a group of even order and e is an identity element

Suppose O(G) = 2n where n is +ve integer

⇒ G= { e , a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ,−−−−−−−−−−a2 n−1 }

Now we have to prove that there exist at least one element other than identity has own inverse in G

If possible assume that there is no element other than identity in G has own inverse

Now identity element exclude from G then G has 2n – 1 number of elements

Let the elements in G can be write in the order pairs, each order pair containing an element and its inverse

But G has 2n – 1 number of elements

∴ it is contradiction

∴ our assumption is wrong i.e there is no element other than identity in G has own inverse is wrong

∴ There exist at least one element other than identity element in G has own inverse

⇒ ∃ a(≠ e) ∈G such that a=a−1

⇒ a 2=e i.e O(a) = 2

mn
Note : O(a) = m and O(b) = n then O(ab) =
gcd {m , n }

Theorem : Order of every element in a finite group is finite and it is less than or equal to order of the group

Sub – groups

Complex : Let G be a group and H is any non – empty subset of G then H is called a complex of G .

Ex : Let G={1 ,−1 ,i ,−i } and H = {1, - 1}

⇒ H is sub set of G

∴ H is a complex of G

Sub – group : Let G be a group and H is any non – empty sub set of G. Then H is said to be a sub group of G if H is itself is

A group with respect to the same binary operation in G and it is denoted by H ≤G

Trivial or improper sub groups : Let G be a group then G has two sub groups {e} and G itself then these two sub groups are

Called trivial sub groups

Non trivial or proper : A sub group H of G is said to be a non – trivial or improper sub group of G . If H ≠ { e }∧H ≠G

Ex : Let (Z, +) is group and (2Z, + ) is also a group

Since 2Z is sub set of Z and 2Z is a group with respect to same binary operation in Z

2Z is a sub group of Z

Since {0} and Z are proper sub groups of Z

Question : Find all sub groups of Z6

Solution : Let Z6 = {0,1,2, 3, 4, 5}

Since ¿ 0>¿ H 1 ={ 0 }

Let 1 ∈ Z6 ⇒< 1> ¿<5≥H 2={ 0 , 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }=Z 6

Let 2 ∈ Z6 ⇒<2>¿< 4>¿ {0 ,2 , 4 }

Let 3 ∈ Z 6 ⇒<3>¿ {0 ,3 }

∴ { 0 }∧Z 6 aretrivial groups of Z 6

∴ {0,2, 4} and {0, 3} are improper sub groups of Z6

One step sub group test :

Theorem : Let G be a group and H is a non – empty sub set of G. then H is sub group of G iff a b−1 ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H

Proof : Let G be a group i.e ( G, .) be a group

Since H ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆G

Now we have to prove that H is a sub group of G if and only if a b−1 ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H

Case(i) : Suppose H is a sub group of G

Now we have to prove that a b−1 ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H

Since H is sub group of G

⇒ H is itself is a group with respect to same binary operation in G

⇒ (H, .) is a group

Let a , b ∈ H

Since by the inverse property b−1 ∈ H ∀ b ∈ H

⇒ a , b−1 ∈ H

Since by the closer property a b−1 ∈ H

 −1
∴ a b ∈ H , ∀ a , b∈ H

Case(ii) : conversely suppose a b−1 ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

Now we have to prove that H is sub group of G

It is sufficient to prove that H is itself is a group with respect to the same binary operation in G

i.e (H, .) is group

Identity property : Let a , a ∈ H

⇒ a a−1 ∈ H ( since by (1))

⇒ e ∈ H ( since H ⊆ G⇒ a a−1 ∈G thena a−1=e ∈G )

∴e∈H

∴ ae=ea=a , ∀ a ∈ H ∃e ∈ H

∴ ( H, .) is satisfying identity property

Inverse property : Let e , a∈ H

⇒ e a−1 ∈ H ( since by (1))

⇒ a−1 ∈ H (since e is an identity element )

−1
∴ a ∈ H , ∀ a∈ H
−1 −1 −1
∴ a ∈ H ∃a ∈ H such that a a =a a=e , ∀ a ∈ H

∴ (H, .) is satisfying inverse property

Closer property : Let a , b ∈ H

⇒ a , b−1 ∈ H ( since by the inverse property ∈H )

⇒a (b¿¿−1)−1 ∈ H ( since by ( 1 ) ) ¿

⇒ab ∈ H

∴ ab ∈ H , ∀ a , b∈ H

∴ (H, .) is satisfying closer property

Associative property : Let a , b , c ∈ H

Since H⊆ G ⇒ a , b , c ∈G

⇒ a ( bc )= ( ab ) c

∴ a ( bc )=( ab ) c , ∀ a , b , c ∈ H

∴ (H, .) is satisfying associative property

∴ (H, .) is group

⇒ H is itself is a group with respect to same binary operation in G

 ∴ H is a sub group of G

Hence the theorem

Note : Let (G,+ ) is a group and H is any non – empty sub set of G. then H is sub group of G if and only if a−b ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H

 Let ¿ is a group and H is any non- empty sub set of G. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if
a∗b−1 ∈ H , every a ,b ∈ H

Theorem : Two step sub group test:

Let G be a group and H is any non empty sub set of G . Then H is sub group of G if and only if
−1
ab ∈ H ,a ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H
+¿¿
Question : Show that nZ is sub group of (Z, +) where n∈ Z

Solution : Let (Z, + ) is group

Since nZ = { nx|x ∈ Z }

Now we have to prove that nZ is a sub group of Z

Since 0 ∈ Z ⇒ n ( 0 )=0 ∈ nZ

∴ 0 ∈nZ

∴ nZ ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆Z

Let a , b ∈ nZ

⇒ a=nx∧b=ny where x , y ∈ Z

Now consider a−b=nx−ny

= n ( x− y )

∴ a−b=n ( x− y )

Since x , y ∈ Z ⇒ x − y ∈ Z

⇒n ( x− y ) ∈nZ

⇒a−b ∈ nZ

∴ a−b ∈nZ , ∀ a , b ∈ nZ

∴ nZ is sub group of group (Z, +)

Question : Find all sub groups of G= {1 ,−1, i ,−i }

Solution : Let G= {1 ,−1, i ,−i } and (G, .) is an abilian group

Since 1 is an identity element in G

H 1 = {1 }

Let −1 ∈G
 ⇒←1>¿ H 1={ 1 ,−1 }

Let i∈ G

⇒¿ i >¿←i>¿ { 1 ,i ,−1 ,−i } ={ 1,−1 ,i ,−i }=G

∴ { 1 }∧G are proper groups ∧ {1 ,−1 } improper group of G

Normalization of an element : Let G be group and a ∈ G. Then the normalization of a is defined as { x ∈ G|ax=xa } and it

Is denoted by N(a ¿ .i.e N ( a ) ={ x ∈G|ax=xa }

Note : Let G is an abilian group then N(a) = G

Note : N(a) = N(a-1)

Question: Let G = { 1 ,−1 , i,−i, j ,− j , k ,−k } wherei 2= j 2 =k 2=−1∧i. j=− j .i =k , j . k=−k . j=i , k . i=−i . k= j

Is a group with respect to multiplication. Then find N(i), N(j) and N(k)

Solution: Let G = { 1 ,−1 , i,−i, j ,− j , k ,−k } where i 2= j 2 =k 2=−1∧i . j=− j .i=k , j . k=−k . j=i, k . i=−i . k= j

Since N ( a ) ={ x ∈G|ax=xa }

Since N(i) = {1, -1, i, - i} = N(- i)

Since N(j) = {1, - 1, j, - j } = N(- j)

Since N(k ) = {1, - 1, k, - k } = N(- k)

Question : Let G be a group and a ∈ G. Then show that N(a) is sub group of G

Solution : Let G be a group and a is an element in G

Since N ( a ) ={ x ∈G|ax=xa }

Now we have to prove that N ( a ) <G

Since G be a group ⇒e ∈ G

⇒ ae=ea

⇒ e ∈ N ( a)

∴ N ( a ) (≠ ∅ ) ⊆ G

Let x , y ∈ N ( a )

⇒ ax=xa−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

And ay = ya−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2 )

Now consider a ( xy )= ( ax ) y

= ( xa ) y ( since by ( 1 ) )

= x ( ay )
 = x ( ya ) ( since by ( 2 ) )

= ( xy ) a

∴ a ( xy )=( xy ) a

∴ xy ∈ N ( a ) , ∀ x , y ∈ N ( a )

Since by (1) ax=xa

⇒ a x−1=x −1 a

⇒ x−1 ∈ N ( a ) ∀ x ∈ N ( a )

∴ xy ∈ N ( a )∧x−1 ∈ N ( a ) , x , y ∈ N (a)

∴ N ( a ) <G

Question : Let G be a group and H = { a n|n ∈ Z } , where a ∈G . Then prove that H is a sub group of G

Solution : Let (G, .) be a group and e is an identity element

H = { a n|n ∈ Z }=¿ a> , where a∈ G

Since 0 ∈ Z

⇒ a0∈ H

∴e∈H

∴ H ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆G

Let x , y ∈ H

⇒ x=a n∧ y=am where n , m∈ Z

Now consider x y −1=a n ¿ ¿ ¿

=a n a−m

−1
∴xy = a n−m

Since n , m∈ Z then n−m∈ Z

⇒ a n−m ∈ Z

⇒ x y −1 ∈ H

−1
∴ x y ∈H ∀ x , y∈ H

∴ H is a sub group of G

Theorem: Show that inter section of two sub groups of a group G is again a sub group a sub group of G.

(or)

Let G be a group and H1, H2 are two sub groups of G . then Show that H 1 ∩ H 2is a sub group of G
Proof : Let G be a group and H 1 , H 2 are two sub groups of G

Now we have to prove that H 1 ∩ H 2<G

Since H 1 <G⇒ e ∈ H 1 and H 2 <G ⇒e ∈ H 2

⇒ e ∈ H1∩ H2

∴ H1∩ H2 (≠ ∅) ⊆ G

Let a , b ∈ H 1 ∩ H 2

⇒ a , b ∈ H 1∧a , b ∈ H 2

Since a , b ∈ H 1 and H 1 <G

−1
⇒ a b ∈ H 1−−−−−−−−−−−−− (1 )

Since a , b ∈ H 2 and H 2 <G

−1
⇒ a b ∈ H 2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2 )

−1
From (1) and (2) ⇒ a b ∈ H 1 ∩ H 2

−1
∴ a b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 , ∀ a , b ∈ H1 ∩ H2

∴ H 1 ∩ H 2 is a sub group of G

Note : union of two sub groups need not be a sub group

Ex : Let 3Z and 2Z is are two sub groups of( Z, +)

Since 3Z U 2Z = { x / x ∈ 3 Z∨x ∈2 Z }

Let 2∈2 Z and 3∈3 Z

⇒ 2,3 ∈2 Z U 3 Z

But 2 + 3 = 5 ∉2 Z U 3 Z

∴ 2 Z U 3 Z is not a subgroup of Z

Theorem: Show that union of two subgroups is again a subgroup if and if one is contained in other.

(or)

Let G be a group and H1, H2 are two subgroups of G. Then H1UH2 is subgroup of Gif and only if H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1 .

Proof : Let G be a group and H1, H2 are two subgroups G

Now we have to prove that H1U H2 is subgroup of G iff H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

Case (i) Let H1U H2 is a subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

 If possible assume H1 ⊈ H2 &H2 ⊈ H1

Let x ∈ H 1⇒ x ∉ H 2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

And y ∈ H 2⇒ y ∉ H 1−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2 )

⇒ x , y ∈ H1 ∪ H2

Since H 1 ∪ H 2 is subgroup of G

⇒ xy ∈ H 1 ∪ H 2

⇒ xy ∈ H 1∨xy ∈ H 2

Let xy ∈ H 2∧ y ∈ H 2

Since H 2 is a subgroup of G

⇒ ( xy ) y−1 ∈ H 2 ( Since H< Giff a b−1 ∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈ H )

⇒ x ( y y −1 ) ∈ H 2

⇒ xe ∈ H 2

⇒ x ∈ H2

This is contradiction to (1)

Similarly we can prove y ∈ H 1

This is contradiction to (2)

∴ our assumption is wrong

i.e H1 ⊈ H2 & H2 ⊈ H1 is wrong

∴ H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

Case(ii): Conversely suppose H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

Now we have to prove that H 1 ∪ H 2 is subgroup of G

Suppose H1 ⊆ H2 ⇒ H 1 ∪ H 2 =H 2

Since H 2 is a subgroup of G then H 1 ∪ H 2 is also a subgroup of G

Suppose H2 ⊆ H1 ⇒ H 1 ∪ H 2 =H 1

Since H 1 is subgroup of G then H 1 ∪ H 2 is also a subgroup of G

∴ H 1 ∪ H 2 is a subgroup of G

Hence the theorem

Note : Let H, K are two subgroups of group G then HK is a subgroup of G iff HK = KH

Theorem: Show that every sub group abilian group is abilian.

Proof : Let G is an abilian group

i.e xy= yx , ∀ x , y ∈ G

Let H is any sub group of G

Now we have to prove that H is abilian

Let a , b ∈ H

Since H is subgroup of G

⇒ a , b ∈G ( since H ⊆ G )

⇒ ab=ba ( G is an abilian group )

∴ ab=ba ∀ a ,b ∈ H

∴ H is an abilian for all subgroups H of G

∴ Every sub group of abilian group is an abilian

Note : Converse of above theorem need not be true i.e every sub group of a group G is abilian but G need not be an abilian

Ex : Let G = { 1 ,−1 , i,−i, j ,− j , k ,−k } where i 2= j 2 =k 2=−1∧i . j=− j .i=k , j . k=−k . j=i, k . i=−. k . i= j

Is non abilian group with respect to multiplication .

The sub groups G are

H 1= {1 } =¿ 1> ¿

H 2= {1 ,−1 }=←1>¿ , H 3= {1 ,−1, i ,−i }=¿ i>¿←i>¿

H 4 ={ 1 ,−1 , j ,− j }=¿ j >¿← j >¿, H 5= {1 ,−1, k ,−k } =¿ k >¿←k > ¿

Since H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , H 4 , H 5 are commutative but G is not a commutative group

Note : Let Zn be a group with respect to addition modulo n. then Zn has ( x 1 +1 )( x2 +1 ) ( x 3 +1 )−−−−( x m +1) number of

sub groups are exist

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 xm
Since n=p 1 p2 p3 p 4 p5 −−−−− pm where each p1 , p2 -------------pm are district prim numbers

And each xi is a +ve integer

∴ ∅ ( n )=n(1−
1
p1
1 1
)( 1− ) (1− ) 1−
p2 p3 (
1
p4 ) 1
−−−−−−−−−−−−(1− )
pm

Note : If n is prim then Zn has only two subgroups those are trivial subgroups.

Ex : Z5 has only two trivial subgroups i.e {0} and Z5 it self

Note : Since ∅ ( n )=number of integers which are related ¿ prim n such that 1 ≤ m≤ n∧gcd ( m, n )=1

Ex : Let n = 8

Since 8 = 23
 ( 12 )= 82 =4
∴ ∅ ( 8 )=8 1−

Note : If n is a prim then∅ ( n )=n−1

Question : Show that U(10) = { x|gcd ( x ,10 )=1 ,1 ≤ x ≤ 10 } forms an abilian group with respect to X10

Solution : Let U(10) = { x|gcd ( x ,10 )=1 ,1 ≤ x ≤ 10 }={1, 3 , 7 , 9 }

Complete solution is home work for students

Note : Let U(n) = { x|gcd ( x , n )=1 , 1≤ x ≤ n } is an abilian group with respect to Xn and hence its order is ∅ ( n )

Question: Find the subgroup <3> in U(20) . find order of every element in <3>

Co-sets and Lagrange’s theorem

Left co- set : Let G be a group and H is any subgroup of G , a ∈ Gthen aH = { ah|h ∈ H }=¿ a>¿ is called a left co- set of

H in G and it is generated by “a”

Right co-set : Let G be a group and H is any subgroup of G , a ∈ Gthen Ha= { ha|h ∈ H }=¿ a>¿ is called a right co- set of

H in G and it is generated by “a”

Note : Let (G, +) be a group then a+ H ={ a+ h|h ∈ H } =¿ a>¿ is left co-set and H +a={ h+ a|h ∈ H } =¿ a> is right

Co- set of H in G

Note : Let G is an abilian group then every right co-set of H in G is a left co-set of H in G i.e aH = Ha ∀ a ∈G

Note : Let G be group and H is a subgroup of G. Let e ∈ G theneH ={ eh|h ∈ H }=H i.e eH = H

i.e every subgroup is itself is a co-set

Question : Find all co- sets of 3Z in Z

Solution : Let (Z, +) is an abilian group

Since 3Z = {−−−−−−−9 ,−6 ,−3 , 0 , 3 , 6 , 9 ,−−−−−−−−−−−−}

Let 0 ∈ Z then 0+3 Z =¿ ¿

Let 1 ∈ Z then 1+3 Z=¿

Let 2 ∈ Z then 2+3 Z=¿

∴ 0+3 Z ∪1+ 3 Z ∪2+3 Z=Z

Note : Let H is a subgroup of group G and H, a 1 H , a 2 H , a 3 H , -------------a n−1 H n disjoint co-sets of H in G then

H ∪a1 H ∪ a 2 H ∪ a3 H ∪−−−−−−−−∪a n−1 H=G

Note : Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G then aH =a−1 H , ∀ a∈ G

Home – works

Question : Find all the co – sets of 4Z in Z

Question : Let Z8 be group and H = {0, 2, 4, 6} is a sub group of Z8 . then find all co-sets of H in Z8 .

Question : Let G = {1 ,−1, i ,−i} is a group and H = {1, -1} is sub group of G. then find all co – sets of H in G

Properties of co – sets: Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G and a , b ∈G then

(i) a ∈ aH , ∀ a ∈ G
(ii) aH =H=Ha iff a ∈ H
(iii) aH , bH are two co-sets of H in G such that either aH ∩bH =∅∨aH =bH
−1
(iv) aH =bH iff a b∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈G
(v) O(aH) = O(bH) ∀ a , b ∈G
(vi) aH is subgroup of G iff a ∈ H

Proof : Let G be a group and H is subgroup of G and a , b ∈G such that

aH ={ ah|h ∈ H }∧bH ={ bh|h ∈ H }

(i) To prove a ∈ aH , ∀ a ∈ G:
Since aH ={ ah|h ∈ H } and H is a subgroup of G
⇒ e ∈ H∧a∈ G
⇒ ae ∈ aH
⇒a ∈ aH
∴ a ∈aH ∀ a ∈G
(ii) To prove aH =H=Ha iff a ∈ H where a ∈ G:

Case (i) Suppose aH =H where a∈ G

Since a ∈ aH

⇒ a ∈ H (since aH =H )

∴a∈H

Case(ii): Conversely suppose a ∈ H

Now we have to prove that aH =H

Since a ∈ H ∧h ∈ H

By closer property ah ∈ H

∴ ah ∈ H , ∀ a ,h ∈ H

But ah ∈ aH , ∀ h ∈ H

∴ ah ∈aH ⇒ ah ∈ H ∀ ah ∈ aH

∴ aH ⊆H −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

Since a ∈ H ∃ a−1 ∈ H such that a a−1=a−1 a=e

Let h ∈ H

⇒ h=eh

⇒ h=( a a−1 )h
 ⇒ h=a( a¿¿−1 h)−−−−−−−−−( 2 ) ¿

Since a−1 ∈ H∧h ∈ H ⇒ a−1 h∈ H

−1
Suppose a h=h1 ∈ H−−−−−−−(3)

Substitute (3) in (2) ⇒ h=a h1 ∈aH

∴ h∈ aH , ∀ h∈ H

⇒ H ⊆aH −−−−−−−−−− ( 4 )

From (1) and (4) ⇒ aH =H

∴ aH =H =Haiff a ∈ H

Similarly we can prove that H = Ha

(iii) aH , bH are two co-sets of H in G such that either aH ∩bH =∅∨aH =bH :

Suppose aH ∩bH =∅ then nothing to prove

Suppose aH ∩bH ≠ ∅ now we have ¿ prove that aH =bH

Let x ,∈ aH ∩bH

⇒ x ∈ aH ∧x ∈bH

⇒ x=a h1∧x=b h2 where h1 ,h 2 ∈ H

⇒ a h1 =b h2

⇒ ( a h1) H =( b h2 ) H

⇒ a (h1 H )=b(h2 H )

Since h1 , h2 ∈ H ⇒ h1 H =H∧h 2 H=H ( since by ( ii ) )

⇒aH =bH

∴ aH ∩bH=∅∨aH =bH , ∀ a , b ∈G

Similarly we can prove right co-sets also i.e Ha∩ Hb=∅∨Ha=Hb ∀ a ,b ∈ G

(iv) To prove aH =bH iff a−1 b∈ H , ∀ a , b ∈G :

Case (i) : Suppose aH =bH

Pre multiplying a−1 on both sides

⇒ a−1 ( aH )=a−1 ( bH )

⇒ (a ¿¿−1 a) H=( a−1 b ) H ¿

⇒eH =( a−1 b ) H
 ⇒ H=( a−1 b ) H

⇒ a−1 b ∈ H (since aH =H= Haiff a ∈ H )

∴ aH =bH then a−1 b ∈ H , ∀ a ,b ∈ G

Case (ii) : Conversely suppose a−1 b ∈ H

⇒ (a ¿¿−1b) H=H ¿ (since aH =H=Ha iff a ∈ H )

⇒a−1 ( bH )=H

Pre multiplying with a on both sides

⇒ ( a a ) ( bH )=aH
−1

⇒e ( bH )=aH

⇒ bH =aH

∴ aH=bH

Similarly we can show that Ha=Hb iff a b−1 ∈ H

(v) To prove O(aH) = O(bH) ∀ a , b ∈G :

Now define a function f: aH → bH such that f ( ah )=bh for all ah ∈ aH
Let f(ah1) = f(ah2)
⇒ bh1 = bh2

⇒ h1 = h2

⇒ a h1 = a h2
∴ f ( a h1 ) =f ( a h2 ) then a h1=a h2 ∀ a h1 , a h2 ∈aH
∴ f is one−one
Since f: aH → bH be a function such that f ( ah )=bh for all ah ∈ aH

∴ F is onto

∴ f is bijection

∴|aH |=|bH | ∀ a , b ∈ H

Note: Let H is a subgroup of G then the number of left co-sets of H in G is equal to number of right co-sets of H in G

Lagrange’s theorem: Order every sub group of finite group G is divides the order of the group G

Proof: Let G be a finite group

Suppose O(G) = n

Let H is a subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that O(H) divides O(G)

Case (i) : Suppose H = {e}

 O(H) = 1

Since 1divides n

∴ O(H) divides O(G)

Case (ii) : Suppose H = G

⇒ O(H) = O(G) = n

∴ O(H) divides O(G)

Case (iii) : Suppose H≠ { e }∧H ≠G

Since G is finite group then H is also a finite group

Suppose O(H) = m and m < n

Since H is a subgroup of finite group G then H has finite number of left or right co-sets in G

Suppose H, a 1 H , a 2 H , a 3 H , - -- -- - - ------ a k−1 H are k number of disjoint co- sets of H in G

Where a 1 , a2 , a3−−−−a k−1 ∈G

⇒ H ∪a1 H ∪a 2 H ∪−−−−−−−−∪ ak−1 H =G

⇒ O( H ∪a1 H ∪a 2 H ∪−−−−−−−−∪ ak−1 H ¿=O(G)

⇒ O( H ) +O ( a1 H ) +O ( a2 H ) +−−−−−−−+O ( ak−1 H )=n

Since |aH|=|bH| ∀ a ,b ∈ G

⇒ m+m+m+−−−−−−+ m¿

⇒ k ( m )=n

⇒ m divides n

∴ O( H)/O ( G ) i.e O(H) divides O(G)

O(G)
i.e =k=number of co−sets ofH ∈G
O( H )

O(G)
Note: Let G be a finite group and H is subgroup of G then =k=number of co−sets ofH ∈G
O( H )

Index of H in G: Let G be a finite group and H is any subgroup of G. then the number of district co-sets of H in G is

Called index of H in G and it is denoted by [G: H] or Ig(G/H)

O(G)
∴[G: H] = =number of co−sets of H ∈G
O( H )

Question: Let H , K are two subgroups of a finite group G of order p, q respectively. If p, q are relatively primes then

Show that H ∩ K={e }.

Solution : Let G be a finite group and H, K are two subgroups such that O(H) = p and O(K) = q

Since p, q are relatively primes i.e gcd(p, q) = 1

Now we have to prove that H ∩ K={e }

Let H, K are two subgroups of G

Since intersection of two subgroups is again a subgroup

⇒ H ∩ K <G

Since H ∩ K ⊆H ∧H ∩ K ⊆ K

∴ H ∩ K is subgroup of H and K

Since H ∩ K < H

By Lagrange’s theorem O¿)/O(H)

⇒ O( H ∩ K ) / p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

Since H ∩ K < K

By Lagrange’s theorem O( H ∩ K )/ O(K)

⇒ O( H ∩ K )/q - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

From (1) and (2) ⇒ O( H ∩ K )/ gcd(p, q)

Since gcd (p, q) = 1

⇒ O( H ∩ K )/ 1

⇒ O( H ∩ K ) = 1

∴ H ∩ K={e }

Ex : O(H) = 12 and O(K) = 9 then find O( H ∩ K ) where H ∩ K is a subgroup of H and K

O( H ∩ K ¿/ O(H) i.e O( H ∩ K )/12

Since O( H ∩ K )/O(K) i.e O¿)/9 i.e O( H ∩ K )/gcd(12, 9) ⇒ O( H ∩ K )/3

O( H ∩ K ) = 1, 3

Question: Let G be a finite group and H, K are two subgroups of G such that O(H) = n and O(K) = p where n is +ve

Integer and p is prim (p < n ). Then show that O( H ∩ K ) = 1 or O( H ∩ K ) = p

Solution: Let G be a finite group and H, K are two subgroups such that O(H) = n and O(K) = p

Since n is +ve integer and p is prim

Now we have to prove that O ( H ∩ K )=1∨O ( H ∩ K )= p

Let H, K are two subgroups of G

Since intersection of two subgroups is again a subgroup

 ⇒ H ∩ K <G

Since H ∩ K ⊆H ∧H ∩ K ⊆ K

∴ H ∩ K is subgroup of H and K

Since H ∩ K < H

By Lagrange’s theorem O¿)/O(H)

⇒ O( H ∩ K ) / n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

Since H ∩ K < K

By Lagrange’s theorem O( H ∩ K )/ O(K)

⇒ O( H ∩ K )/p - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

From (1) and (2) ⇒ O( H ∩ K )/ gcd(n, p)

Since p is prim ⇒ gcd (n , p) = 1when p does not divides n

And gcd(n , p) = p when p divides n

⇒ O( H ∩ K )/ 1 or O( H ∩ K )/p

∴ O( H ∩ K ) = 1 or O( H ∩ K ) = p

Normal subgroups

Normal subgroup: Let G be a group and H is any subgroup of G. then H is normal subgroup of G if
−1
xh x ∈ H , ∀ x ∈ G∧h ∈ H and it is denoted by H⨞ G

Trivial and non trivial normal subgroups: Let G be a group, every group G has at least two normal subgroups say {e} and

G it self . then these two normal subgroups are called trivial or improper normal subgroups of G

If there exist normal subgroup H of G other than these two normal subgroups are called non trivial or

proper normal subgroup of G

Note; (i) Since H is a subgroup of G then xH x−1={ xh x−1|x ∈G , h ∈ H }

(ii) Let H is a subgroup of G then H is a normal subgroup of G iff xH x−1 ⊆ H ∀ x ∈G

(iii) Let H is a subgroup of G then H is a normal subgroup of G iff x−1 Hx ⊆ H ∀ x ∈G

Ex : Let G = { 1 ,−1 , i,−i, j ,− j , k ,−k } where i 2= j 2 =k 2=−1∧i . j=− j .i=k , j . k=−k . j=i, k . i=−. k . i= j

Is non abilian group with respect to multiplication.

The sub groups G are

H 1= {1 } =¿ 1> ¿

H 2= {1 ,−1 }=←1>¿ , H 3= {1 ,−1, i ,−i }=¿ i>¿←i>¿

 H 4 ={ 1 ,−1 , j ,− j }=¿ j>¿← j >¿, H 5= {1 ,−1, k ,−k } =¿ k >¿←k > ¿

Since , H 2 , H 3 , H 4 , H 5 are non trivial normal subgroups of G

H 1 and G are proper normal subgroups of G

Theorem: Let H is a subgroup of group G. then H is normal subgroup of G if and only xH x−1=H ∀ x ∈G

Proof : Let G be a group and H is subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that H is normal subgroup of G if and only xH x−1=H ∀ x ∈G

Case(i) : Let H is normal subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that xH x−1=H ∀ x ∈G

Since H is normal subgroup of G

⇒ xH x−1 ⊆ H ∀ x ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Since H is normal subgroup of G

⇒ x−1 Hx ⊆ H , ∀ x ∈G

Free Multiplying x on both sides

⇒ x ( x −1 Hx ) ⊆ xH

⇒ ( x x −1) ( Hx ) ⊆ xH

⇒e ( Hx ) ⊆ xH

⇒ Hx ⊆ xH

Post Multiplying x−1 on both sides

⇒( Hx ) x−1 ⊆ xH x−1

⇒ H ( x x−1 ) ⊆ xH x −1

⇒ He ⊆ xH x−1

⇒ H ⊆ xH x−1

∴ H ⊆ xH x−1 ∀ x ∈ G−−−−−−−−−−(2)
−1
From (1) and (2) ∴ xH x =H , ∀ x ∈G

Case (ii) : Conversely suppose xH x−1=H , ∀ x ∈ G

⇒ xh x−1 ∈ xH x −1 , ∀ x ∈G

⇒ xh x−1 ∈ H , ∀ x ∈ G ( since xH x −1 =H )

⇒ xh x−1 ∈ H , ∀ x ∈ G, ∀ h ∈ H
 ∴ H is a normal subgroup of G

Theorem: Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G. then H is normal subgroup of G iff every left co-set of H in G is

A right co – set of H in G i.e xH=Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Proof : Let G be a group and H is subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that H is normal subgroup of G ⇔ xH =Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Case (i) Let H is normal subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that xH =Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Since H is normal subgroup of G iff xH x−1=H , ∀ x ∈ G

Post Multiplying with x on both sides

⇒ ( xH x−1 ) x =Hx

⇒( xH ) ( x−1 x ) =Hx

⇒ ( xH ) ( e )=Hx

⇒ xH =Hx

∴ H is normal subgroup of G then xH=Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Case (ii): Conversely suppose xH =Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Now we have to prove that H is a normal subgroup of G

Since xH =Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Post multiplying with x−1on the both sides

⇒ xH x−1=(Hx) x−1

⇒ xH x−1=H (x x −1)

⇒ xH x−1=He

⇒ xH x−1=H
−1
∴ xH x =H , ∀ x ∈G

∴ H is normal subgroup of G

∴ H is normal subgroup of G ⇔ xH=Hx , ∀ x ∈ G

Note : Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G. Then H is normal subgroup of G iff product of every right(left)

Co-sets of H in G is again a right(left) co- set of H in G i.e ( xH ) ( yH )=( xy )H , ∀ x , y ∈ G

Question: Let H is a subgroup of G of index 2. Then show that H is normal subgroup of G

Solution: Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G

 Since index of H in G is two

⇒ H has two district co-sets in G

⇒ H, xH or H, Hx for any x ∈ G

Since H, xH are two left co-sets of H in G

⇒ H ∪ xH=G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Since H, Hx are two right co-sets of H in G

⇒ H ∪ Hx=G−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

From (1) and (2) ⇒ H ∪ xH=H ∪ Hx

⇒ xH =Hx

∴ xH=Hx , ∀ x ∈G

∴ H is a normal subgroup of G

Question: Let M, N are two normal subgroups of G and M∩ N ={ e } . Then every element in M is commute with

Every element in N.

Solution: Let G be a group and M, N are two normal subgroups of G

Since M is normal subgroup of G then xm x −1 ∈ M , ∀ x ∈ G∧m ∈ M −−−−−−(1)

Since N is a normal subgroup of G then yn y−1 ∈ N , ∀ y ∈G∧n ∈ N−−−−−−−(2)

Now we have to prove that mn = nm ∀ m∈ M ∧∀ n∈ N

Let m∈ M ∧n ∈ N

⇒ m−1 ∈ M ∧n ∈G ( since M, N are two normal subgroups of G)

Since M is a normal subgroup of G

⇒ n m−1 n−1 ∈ M ( since by ( 1 ) )

Since m∈ M ,n m−1 n−1 ∈ M and M is a normal subgroup of G

⇒ mn m−1 n−1 ∈ M

∴ mn m−1 n−1 ∈ M −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 3 )

Let m∈ M ∧n ∈ N

⇒ m∈ G , n∈ N (since M is normal subgroup of G)

Since N is a normal subgroup of G

⇒ mn m−1 ∈ N (since by (2))

 Since n ∈ N then ∃ n−1 ∈ N (since N is a normal subgroup of G)

Since mn m−1 ∈ N ∧n−1 ∈ N

⇒ mn m−1 n−1 ∈ N
−1 −1
∴ mnm n ∈ N−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(4)

From (3) and (4)

⇒mn m−1 n−1 ∈ M ∩ N

But M ∩ N ={e }

⇒ mn m−1 n−1=e

⇒mn (nm)−1=e ( since ( ab )−1=b−1 a−1 , ∀ a , b∈ G)

⇒ mn=((nm)¿¿−1)−1 ¿

⇒ mn=nm

∴ mn=nm ∀ m∈ M ∧n ∈ N

Quotient set : Let H is a normal subgroup of group G. Then the collection of set of all co-sets of H in G is called quotient

G
Set and it is denoted by
H

G
∴ = { xH |x ∈ H }
H

G
Quotient group: Let H is a normal subgroup of group G. Then quotient set ={ xH|x ∈G } forms a group with respect
H

To multiplication

Proof: Let G be a group and H is a normal subgroup of G

G
The quotient set ={ xH |x ∈G }
H

G
Since ( xH ) ( yH )= ( xy ) H , ∀ xH , yH ∈ where x , y ∈G
H

G
NOTE :Let (G +) is a group H is a normal subgroup of G then ={ x+ H|x ∈G } and addition of co- sets
H

G
(x+H) +(y +H) = (x+y) +H ∀ x+ H , y + H ∈
H

Question: Construct Cayley;s table of Z/3Z

Solution : Let (Z, +) is an abilian group

 Since 3Z = {−−−−−−−9 ,−6 ,−3 , 0 , 3 , 6 , 9 ,−−−−−−−−−−−−} is normal subgroup of Z

Let 0 ∈ Z then 0+3 Z =¿ ¿

Let 1 ∈ Z then 1+3 Z=¿

Let 2 ∈ Z then 2+3 Z=¿

∴ 0+3 Z , 1+ 3 Z ,2+3 Z are district co- sets of 3Z in Z

Z
∴ ={3 Z ,1+3 Z , 2+3 Z }
3Z

Cayley’s table:

+ 3Z 1+3Z 2+3Z
3Z 3Z 1+3Z 2+3z
1+3Z 1+3z 2+3z 3z
2+3Z 2+3z 3z 1+3z
Note : O ( GH )= OO (( GH )) where G is a finite group
Note : Let G is an abilian group then G/H is also an abilian group

i.e xy = yx ∀ x , y ∈G

G
Let xH , yH ∈ where x , y ∈G
H

Now consider ( xH ) ( yH )= ( xy ) H

= ( yx ) H

= ( yH ) ( xH )

G
∴ ( xH )( yH )=( yH ) ( xH ) , ∀ xH , yH ∈
H

G
∴ is an abilian group
H

Center of G : Let G be a group then the set{ x ∈ G|xy= yx ∀ y ∈G } is called center of the group G. and it is denoted by

Z(G) i.e Z(G) = { x ∈ G|xy= yx ∀ y ∈G }

Note : If G is abilian group then Z(G) = G

Simple group: A group G is said to be a simple group if it has only trivial normal subgroups i.e G has no non – trivial

Normal subgroups

Ex : Z5 = {0,1, 2, 3, 4 }

{0} is a normal subgroup of Z5

<1> = <4> = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} = Z5

<2> = <3> = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} = Z5

 ∴ Z5 has only proper normal subgroups

∴ Z5 is a simple group

Theorem: Every group of prim order is simple group .

Proof: Let G be group of prim order

Suppose O(G) = p where p is a prim integer

Now we have to prove that G is simple

Suppose H is any normal subgroup of G

⇒ H is a subgroup of G

By Lagrange’s theorem

O(H)/O(G)

⇒ O(H)/p

Since p is prim then O(H) = 1 or O(H) = p

If O(H) = 1 and H is subgroup of G

⇒ H = {e }

Suppose O(H) = p and H is subgroup of G

⇒ H =G

∴ H is normal subgroup of G then H = {e} or H = G for every normal subgroup H of G

∴ G has only trivial normal subgroups

∴ G is a simple group i.e every group of prim order is simple

Theorem: Every subgroup of abilian group G is normal subgroup of G.

Proof: Let G is an abilian group

ab=ba ∀ a , b ∈G−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Suppose H is any subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that H is a normal subgroup

Let h ∈ H ∧x ∈G ⇒ h ∈G , x ∈ G (since H is a subgroup of G)

Now consider xh x−1=x (h x−1)

= x ( x −1 h )

= ( x x −1) h

= eh
 =h
−1
∴ xh x =h

Since h ∈ H

⇒ xh x−1 ∈ H

∴ xh x −1 ∈ H ∀ x ∈G∧h ∈ H

∴ H is normal subgroup of G for every subgroup H of G

∴ Every subgroup of abilian group G is normal

Note: Converse of above theorem is need not be true i.e every subgroup of group G is normal but G is need not be

An abilian.

Ex: Let G = { 1 ,−1 , i,−i, j ,− j , k ,−k } where i 2= j 2 =k 2=−1∧i. j=− j .i=k , j . k=−k . j=i, k . i=−. k . i= j

Is non abilian group with respect to multiplication.

The normal sub groups G are

H 1= {1 } =¿ 1> ¿

H 2= {1 ,−1 }=←1>¿ , H 3= {1 ,−1, i ,−i }=¿ i>¿←i>¿

H 4 ={ 1 ,−1 , j ,− j }=¿ j >¿← j >¿, H 5= {1 ,−1, k ,−k } =¿ k >¿←k > ¿

Since H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , H 4 , H 5 are normal subgroups of G but G is not a commutative group

Home- work

1. Construct the composition table of Z/4Z

2. Construct the Cayley’s table of Z36/<18>
3. Show that Z6 is not a simple group

Permutation groups

Permutation: Let S is any non – empty set if there exist bijection function f : S → S. Then the bijection function f is called

Permutation on S

Ex : f : Z → Z such that f(x) = 2x +3

Symbol of permutation: Let Sn = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 −−−−−x n } be non – empty set of n symbols then permutation

f=
( x 1 x2 x 3 x 4 x n
f ( x1 ) f (x 2) f ( x 3) f (x 4) f ( x n) )
Ex : Let S4 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f = (13 2 34
2 41 )
Product of two permutations: Let Sn = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 −−−−−x n } be non – empty set of n symbols then permutation
 f=
( x 1 x2 x 3 x 4 x n
f ( x1 ) f (x 2) f ( x 3) f (x 4) f ( x n) )
And

g=
( x1 x2 x3 x4 xn
g( x 1 ) g( x 2 ) g( x3 ) g (x 4) g(x n ) )
Since fog ( x )=f [ g ( x ) ]

fog=
( x1 x2 x3 x4 xn
f [ g ( x 1) ] f [ g ( x2 ) ] f [ g ( x3 ) ] f [ g ( x 4 ) ] f [g ( x n ) ] )
Ex : Let S4 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f = (13 2 34
2 41 )
and g =
1 2 34
2 1 43 ( )
fog= (12 2 34
3 14 )
Where fog(1) = f[g(1)] = f(2) = 2

fog(2) = f[g(2)] = f(1) = 3

fog(3) = f[g(3)] = f(4) = 1

fog(4) = f[g(4)] = f(3) = 4

Similarly gof = (12 2 3 4 1 2 34

1 4 3 3 2 41 )( )
gof = (14 2 34
1 32 )
Note: fog ≠ gof

Question : Find fog where f = (12 2 34

3 14
and g = )
1 2 34
4 1 32 ( )
fog= (12 2 3 4 1 2 34
3 1 4 4 1 32 )( )
= ( 14 2 34
2 13 )
Identity permutation: Let Sn = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 −−−−−x n } be non – empty set of n symbols then permutation

I=
( x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x n
x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x n )
is called identity permutation.

Order of the permutation: Let f is any permutation on Sn . If there exist a least +ve integer n such that f n=I then the

Least +ve integer n is called order of the permutation. i.e O(f) = n

Ex : Find order of the permutation f = (12 2 34
3 14 )
Since f =
2
( 12 )(
2 34 1 2 3 4
3 14 2 3 1 4 )
= (13 2 34
1 24 )
Since f =
3
( 13 )(
2 34 1 2 3 4
1 24 2 3 1 4 )
= (11 2 34
2 34
=I )
∴ f 3=I

∴ O(f) = 3

f2020 = f2 = (13 2 34
1 24 )
Inverse of the Permutation: Let Sn = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 −−−−−x n } be non – empty set of n symbols and permutation

f=
( x 1 x2 x 3 x 4 x n
f ( x1 ) f (x 2) f ( x 3) f (x 4) f ( x n) )
then inverse of the f is denoted by f −1

And it is defined as f =
−1
( f −1 ( x1 ) f −1 (x 2 ) f −1 (x 3) f (x 4 ) f −1 (x n)
x1 x2 x3 x4 xn )
Ex : f= (13 2 34
1 24 )
(
f −1= 3 1 2 4 = 1 2 3 4
1 2 34 2 3 14 )( )
Note: f −1 f =f f −1=I

Permutation group: Let Sn = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 −−−−−x n } be non – empty set of n symbols. Then the set of all

Permutations on Sn forms a group with respect to composition of the functions of order n!

Ex: S3 = {1, 2, 3}

I= (11 2 3
2 3 )
(12 )(
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , , ,
1 3 2 3 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 3 1 2 )( )( )( )
There four O(S3) = 3! = 6

Ex : O(S4) = 4! = 24
Cyclic permutation: Let f = ( )
x 1 x 2 x3 x 4 x 5−−−−x k−1 x k x k+1 x n
x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6−−−−x k x 1 x k+1 x n
be a permutation

On Sn = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 −−−−−x n } . Then permutation f can written as

f = ( x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4−−−x k ) ( x k +1 ) — −−−−−( x n ) =( x 1 x 2 x3 x 4−−−x k ) is called cyclic permutation

of length k

Ex : Let f = (13 )
2 3 4 5 6 = (1 3 2 4 5 ) ( 6 ) =(1 3 2 4 5)
4 25 1 6

Ex : Let f = (13 2 34 5 6
4 15 6 2 )
=( 1 3 ) (2 4 5 6)

Note : Every permutation can be expressed as product of disjoint cyclic permutation.

Question: Find the product of cyclic permutations ( 1 3 ) (2 4 5 6)

= (13 )(
2 3 4 5 6 1 2 34 5 6
2 1 4 5 6 1 4 35 6 2 )
= (13 2 34 5 6
4 15 6 2 )
Transposition of permutation: A cyclic permutation of length 2 is called transposition of permutation or 2 cycles.

Ex : (1 2) (3 4)

Note : Every permutation can expressed as product of transpositions

Ex : (13 2 34 5 6
4 15 6 2 )
=( 13 )( 2 4 5 6 )=( 1 3 )( 2 6 )( 2 5 ) ( 2 4 )

Note: The number of transposition = Length of cycle (>2) – 1

Even permutation : A permutation can be expressed as product of even number of transpositions. Then the permutation

is called Even permutation

Ex : (13 2 34 5 6
4 15 6 2 )
=( 13 )( 2 4 5 6 )=( 1 3 )( 2 6 )( 2 5 ) ( 2 4 )

Odd permutation: A permutation can be expressed as product of odd number of transpositions. Then the permutation is

called odd permutation

Ex : (13 2 34 5 6
4 51 6 2 )
=( 13 5 6 2 4 )=( 1 4 )( 1 2 ) (1 6 ) ( 1 5 ) (13)

Note : (i) Product of two even permutations is again a even permutation.

(ii) Product of two odd permutations is even permutation.

 (iii) Product of one even and one odd permutations is an odd permutation.

(iv) Identity permutation is always even permutation.

n! n!
(v) Let G be a permutation group on n symbols. Then G has exactly even permutations and exactly odd
2 2

Permutations

Alternative group: Set of all even permutations of permutation group Sn forms a group. Then this group is called

n!
Alternative group and it is denoted by An and O(An) =
2

Stabilizer of an element: Let G be a permutation group stabilizer of an element is defined

SatG(i) = { μ ∈G|μ ( i )=i }

Orbit of an element: Let G be a permutation group Orbit of an element is defined

OrbG(i) = { μ(i)|μ ∈G }

1. Question: Let G={ (1), (12)(34),(1234)(56),(13)(24), (1432)(56),(56)(13), (14)(23), (24)(56) } find

(i) Find the stabilizer of 1 and the orbit of 1
(ii) Find the stabilizer of 3 and the orbit of 3
(iii) Find the stabilizer of 5 and the orbit of 5

Solution : Let G={ (1), (12)(34),(1234)(56),(13)(24), (1432)(56),(56)(13), (14)(23), (24)(56) }

SatG(i) = { μ ∈G|μ ( i )=i }

SatG(1) = {(1), (24)(56)}

OrbG(i) = { μ(i)|μ ∈G }

OrbG(1) = {1, 2, 3,4}

SatG(3) = {(1), (24)(56)}

OrbG(3) = {1, 2, 3,4}

Note : O(SatG(i)).O(OrbG(i)) = O(G)

Cyclic groups

Cyclic group: Let G be a group such that G = { a n|n ∈ Z } where a ∈ G. Then the group G is called cyclic group which

Generated by an element a and the element a is called generator of G and it is denoted by <a>

G= { a |n ∈ Z }=¿ a>¿
n

Ex : G = {1,- 1, i, - i}

Let i∈ G∧ {i , i2 , i3 , i 4 }= { 1,−1 ,i ,−i }=G=¿ i> ¿←i> ¿

∴ G is cyclic group and i, - i are generators of G

 Ex: (Z, +) is infinite cyclic group and 1, -1 are generators of Z

Note : Let G be a finite cyclic group and a is generator of G iff O(G) = O(a)

Question: Show that Z6 is cyclic group. Hence find all generators of Z6

Solution: Let Z6= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Since (Z6, +6) is an abilian group

Let 1∈ Z 6

<1> = {1, 2(1), 3(1), 4(1), 5(1) 0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} =<5> = Z6

∴ Z 6 is cyclic group which is generated by 1, 5

Note: Let G be a group and a ∈ G is a generator of G iff O(a) = O(G) , a−1 is also a generator of G

i.e <a> = < a−1> ¿= G

Note: Let G be a group and a is an element in G then O(a)/O(G)

Note : Let (Zn, +n) is an cyclic group then Zn has ∅ (n) number of generators and an element a in Zn is generator of Zn

Iff gcd(a, n) = 1

Question: Find all generators of Z12

Solution: Let Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}

Since (Z12, +12) is cyclic group

Let 12 = 22.3

( 12 )( 1− 13 )=4
⇒ ∅ ( 12 )=12 1−

∴ Z12 has 4 number of generators

Since gcd(1, 12) = 1

Since gcd(2, 12) = 2

Since gcd(3, 12) = 3

Since gcd(4, 12) = 4

Since gcd(5, 12) = 1

Since gcd(6, 12) = 6

Since gcd(7, 12) = 1

Since gcd(8, 12) = 4

Since gcd(9, 12) = 3

Since gcd(10, 12) = 2

 Since gcd(11, 12) = 1

∴ The set of generators of Z12 = { 1, 5, 7, 11}

Theorem: Every subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof: Let G be a cyclic group

G = <a > where a ∈ G

Suppose H = { a n|n ∈ Z } where a ∈ G is a subgroup of G

Now we have to prove that H is cyclic group

If possible assume that a n ∈ H there exist a lest +ve integer n

Let m is +ve integer , by division algorithm m = nd + r----(1) there exist unique +ve integers d, r such that

0 ≤ r <n−−−−−−−−−(2)

Since m∈ Z then am ∈ H

Since n , d ∈ Z thennd ∈ Z

⇒ a nd ∈ H

Since H is a subgroup of G then a−nd ∈ H

m −nd
∴ a ∈ H ∧a ∈H

⇒a m a−nd ∈ H

Since m = nd +r

⇒ a nd+r a−nd ∈ H
r
∴a ∈H

From (2) r < n

But a n ∈ H ∃least + ve integer n

⇒r=0

Now substitute r = 0 in (1)

⇒ m = nd

⇒ a m=a nd=(an )d =¿ an >¿

∴ am =¿ an > ∀ am ∈ H

∴ H is a cyclic subgroup of G for every subgroup H of G

∴ Every subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic

Note: Converse of this is need not be prove i.e every subgroup of group G is cyclic but G need not be a cyclic
Note: Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z

Note: Every Finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn

Note: If d/O(G) then G has ∅ (d) number of elements of order d

Question: Show that U(10) ≅ Z4

Solution: Let U(10) = { x|gcd ( x ,10 )=1 ,1 ≤ x ≤ 10 }

= {1, 3, 7, 9}

∴(U ( 10 ) , X 10) is an abilian group

Let Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}and (Z4, +4) is an abilian group

Since O(0) = 1, O(1) = 4 = O(3), O(2) = 2

Now find order of every element in U(10)

Let 1 ∈U (10)

⇒ O(1) = 1

Let 3 ∈U ( 10)

⇒ 32=9≠ 1

⇒ 33=9 X 3=7 ≠ 1

⇒ 3 4=7 X 3=1

∴ O ( 3 ) =4

Since inverse of 3 is 7

We know that O ( a )=O ( a−1 )

∴ O ( 3 ) =O ( 7 )=4

Let 9∈U (10)

2
⇒ 9 =1

∴ O(9) = 2

∴ O ( U ( 10 ) ) =O ( Z 4 )

∴ Number of elements of order 1 in U(10) = number of elements of order 1 in Z4 = 1

∴ Number of elements of order 2 in U(10) = number of elements of order 2 in Z4 = 1

∴ Number of elements of order 4 in U(10) = number of elements of order 4 in Z4 = 2

∴ U (10 ) ≅ Z 4

Fundamental theorem of finite Abelian groups

Direct product of two groups: Let G1 and G2 be two groups . Then direct product of two groups is defined as

G1 ⊕ G 2 ={(a , b)|a ∈G1∧b ∈ G2 } with the binary operation

(a, b)⊕ (c, d) = (ac, bd) ∀ ( a , b ) ,(c , d) ∈G 1 ⊕ G2

Note : Direct product of groups is again a group

Question: Find Z3 ⊕Z 4 and find order of an element (1,2) in Z3 ⊕ Z 4

Solution: Let Z3 = {0,1,2} and Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}

Since G 1 ⊕G 2 ={(a , b)|a ∈G 1∧b ∈ G2 }

∴ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4 ={ ( 0,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0,3 ) , ( 1 , 0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 1,2 ) , (1 , 3 ) , ( 2, 0 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 2,2 ) , ( 2,3 ) }

Since (0, 0) is an identity element in Z3 ⊕Z 4

Since ( 1,2 ) ∈ Z3 ⊕ Z 4

2(1,2) = (2, 0)

⇒3(1, 2) = (0, 2)

⇒4(1,2) = (1, 0)

⇒ 5(1,2) = (2, 2)

⇒6(1, 2) = (0,0)

∴O( (1, 2) ) = 6

Note: (a , b) ∈G1 ⊕G2 then O( (a, b)) = Lcm ( O(a), O(b) )

Question: Find order of every element in Z3 ⊕Z 4

Solution: Let Z3 = {0,1,2} and Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}

Since O(0) = 1, O(1)= 3, O(2) = 3 in Z3

Since O(0) = 1, O(1) = O(3) = 4, O(2) = 2 in Z4

Since G1 ⊕G 2 ={(a , b)|a ∈G 1∧b ∈ G2 }

∴ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4 ={ ( 0,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0,3 ) , ( 1 , 0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 1,2 ) , (1 , 3 ) , ( 2, 0 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 2,2 ) , ( 2,3 ) }

Since (0, 0) is an identity element in Z3 ⊕Z 4

∴ O((0,0)) = 1

(a , b) ∈G1 ⊕G2 then O( (a, b)) = Lcm ( O(a), O(b) )

O((0, 1)) = lcm (O(0), O(1)) = lcm (1, 4) = 4

Since inverse of (0, 1) is (0, 3)

∴ O((0,1)) = O((0, 3)) = 4

 Let (0, 2) ∈ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4

O((0, 2)) = lcm (1, 2 ) = 2

O ((0, 2)) =2

Let (1, 0)∈ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4

O((1, 0)) = lcm( 3, 1) = 3

Since inverse of (1, 0) is (2, 0)

∴ O((1, 0)) = O((2, 0)) = 3

Let (1, 1) ∈ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4

O((1, 1)) = lcm (3, 4) = 12

Since inverse of (1, 1) is (2,3)

∴ O((1,1)) = O((2, 3)) = 12

Let (1, 2) ∈ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4

O((1, 2)) = lcm (3, 2)) = 6

Since inverse of (1, 2) is (2, 2)

∴ O((1, 2)) = O((2, 2)) = 6

Let (1, 3) ∈ Z 3 ⊕ Z 4

Since O((1, 3)) =lcm(3, 4) = 12

Since inverse of (1, 3) is (2, 1)

∴ O((1, 3)) = O((2, 1)) = 12

Question: Find the number of elements of order 5 in Z10 ⊕Z 25

Solution: Let Z10 ⊕ Z 25= {(a , b)|a ∈ Z 10 ,b ∈ Z 25 }

Let (a , b)∈ Z 10 ⊕ Z 25 such that

|(a , b)|=lcm (|a| ,|b|)

But |(a , b)|=lcm (|a|,|b|)=5

We get 3 cases (i) |a|=5∧|b|=5

(ii) |a|=1∧|b|=5

(iii) |a|=5∧|b|=1

Case (i) : |a|=5∧|b|=5

Since a ∈ Z 10∧|a|=5 , 5/ |Z 10|

 ∴ Z10 containing ∅ ( 5 )=4 number of elements of order 5

Since b ∈ Z 25∧|b|=5 ,5/ |Z 25|

∴ Z25 containing ∅ ( 5 )=4 number of elements of order 5

∴ Z10 containing 4 number of elements and Z25 containing 4 number of elements

In this case totally 4X4 = 16 number elements in Z10 ⊕ Z 25

Case (ii) |a|=1∧|b|=5

Since a ∈ Z 10∧|a|=1 ,

∴ Z10 containing 1number of elements of order 1

Since b ∈ Z 25∧|b|=5 ,5/ |Z 25|

∴ Z25 containing ∅ ( 5 )=4 number of elements of order 5

∴ Z10 containing 1 number of elements and Z25 containing 4 number of elements

In this case totally 1X4 = 4 number elements in Z10 ⊕ Z 25 of order 5

Case (iii) |a|=5∧|b|=1

Since a ∈ Z 10∧|a|=5 , 5/ |Z 10|

∴ Z10 containing ∅ ( 5 )=4 number of elements of order 5

Since b ∈ Z 25∧|b|=1 ,

∴ Z25 containing 1 number of elements of order 1

∴ Z10 containing 4 number of elements and Z25 containing 1 number of elements

In this case totally 4X1 = 4 number elements in Z10 ⊕ Z 25 of order 5

Total = 16 + 4 +4 = 24

∴ Z10 ⊕Z 25 containing 24 number of elements of order 5

Question: Find the number of elements of order 10 in Z10 ⊕ Z 30

Isomorphic class of finite abelian groups

Let Z16 is isomorphic to one of the followings

Z4⊕ Z4

Z2 ⊕ Z 8

Z2 ⊕ Z 2 ⊕ Z 4

Z2 ⊕ Z 2 ⊕ Z 2 ⊕ Z 2
 These are called isomorphic class of Z16

Fundamental theorem on finite abelian groups :

Every finite abelian group G of order n is isomorphic to isomorphic class of Z n

Question: Let G={1,8,12,14,18,21,27,31,34,38,44,47,51,53,57,64} be a group under multiplication modulo 65.

Find isomorphic class of G

Solution: Let G={1,8,12,14,18,21,27,31,34,38,44,47,51,53,57,64} be a group under multiplication modulo 65

Since |G|=16

∴ G is isomorphic to one of the following

Z16

Z4⊕ Z4

Z2 ⊕ Z 8

Z2 ⊕ Z 2 ⊕ Z 4

Z2 ⊕ Z 2 ⊕ Z 2 ⊕ Z 2

Now find order of every element in G

Let 1 ∈G

O(1) = 1

Let 8 ∈G

⇒ 82 =64 ≠ 1

⇒ 83 =57 ≠1
4
⇒ 8 =57 X 65 8=1

∴O(8) = 4

Since inverse of 8 is 57

∴O(8) = 4 = O(57)

Let 12 ∈G

⇒ 122=14 ≠ 1

⇒ 123=38 ≠ 1
4
⇒ 12 =38 X 65 12=1

∴ O(12) = 4

Since inverse 12 is 38
∴ O(12) = 4 = O(38)

Let 14∈G

⇒ 14 2=1

O(14) = 2

Let 18 ∈G

⇒ 182=64 ≠1

⇒ 183=47 ≠ 1
4
⇒ 18 =47 X 65 18=1

O(18) = 4

Since inverse of 18 is 47

O(18) = O(47) = 4

21 ∈G

⇒ 212=51 ≠1

⇒ 213=31 ≠ 1
4
⇒ 21 =31 X 65 21=1

O(21) = 4

Since inverse of 21 is 31

∴ O(21) = O(31) = 4

27 ∈G

⇒ 272 =14 ≠1

⇒ 273 =53≠ 1
4
⇒ 27 =53 X 65 27=1

O(27) = 4

Since inverse of 27 is 53

O(27) = O(53) = 4

34 ∈G

⇒ 34 2=51≠ 1

⇒ 34 3=44 ≠1
4
⇒ 34 =44 X 65 34=1
 O(34) = 4

Since inverse of 34 is 44

O(34) = O(44) = 4

51 ∈G

⇒ 512=1

O(51) = 2

64 ∈G

⇒ 64 2=1

O(64) = 2

∴ G has 12 number of elements of order 4

∴ G is isomorphic to Z 4 ⊕ Z 4