Resilience During Covid
Resilience During Covid
Resilience During Covid
575
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
EMBRACING A SOCIOECOLOGICAL MODEL OF RESILIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Increasing Engagement in Health-Protective Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Cognitive and Emotional Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Enhancing Organizational Support During COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Taking Initiatives to Help Employees Maintain Their Emotional Well-Being . . . . . . 582
Providing Timely Support for Employees’ Career Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
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INTRODUCTION
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been the most severe public health
emergency in the twenty-first century ( Jia & Yang 2020). As of September 3, 2021, the COVID-
19 pandemic has infected more than 217 million people and caused more than 4.51 million deaths
globally. The COVID-19 pandemic not only has posed a big threat to public health safety but also
has brought unprecedented challenges to economic and social development around the world.
Infodemic:
a portmanteau of For example, the increasing number of infected patients has burdened healthcare systems in
information and both developed and developing countries, especially among low- and middle-income countries
epidemic; when where there was a shortage of healthcare resources before the outbreak of COVID-19 (Akande
information, especially & Akande 2020, Barnard 2020). Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has enormously disrupted
wrong or unverified
people’s everyday lives in terms of economics, sociality, health, and psychology, among other as-
information, spreads
quickly and widely, pects ( Jacobides et al. 2020, Jia 2021). Different from previous pandemics that happened before
much like a disease the information age, COVID-19 is the first pandemic to be viewed as an infodemic, in which
does during an misinformation, conspiracy theories, and rumors about COVID-19 spread quickly through social
epidemic media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, WeChat, Weibo) and induced and amplified panic and emotional
distress among the general public (Hao & Basu 2020). For example, studies conducted shortly
adversity, trauma,
Brooks et al. 2020, Daly et al. 2020, Ghebreyesus 2020, Lai et al. 2020, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020, tragedy, threats, or
Preti et al. 2020, Prime et al. 2020, Qiu et al. 2020, Song et al. 2020, Tian et al. 2020, Vindegaard even significant
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& Benros 2020, Vinkers et al. 2020). In response to these wide-ranging impacts of COVID-19 sources of threat
on the mental health of people around the world, the director of the World Health Organization
(WHO), Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (2020), advocated addressing mental health needs
as an integral part of the response to COVID-19 in all affected countries and regions. Scholars
of relevant specialties, such as mental health, psychiatry, counseling and clinical psychology, and
public health, have also advocated the provision of timely mental health services for both at-risk
groups and the general public (Chen & Bonanno 2020, Holmes et al. 2020, Labrague 2021, S. Liu
et al. 2020, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020, Zhang 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a, Zhou 2020).
Despite the aforementioned negative impacts on people’s health and everyday lives, societies
have rebounded in the midst of the pandemic. For example, communities and societies around
the world have initiated prosocial and collaborative efforts (e.g., voluntary services to help older
adults and other vulnerable groups) to help contain the transmission of COVID-19 (Broomell et al.
2020, Campos-Mercade et al. 2020). In China alone, more than 42,000 healthcare professionals
from all over the country volunteered to help contain COVID-19 in Wuhan and other major
cities in Hubei during January–April 2020. China has also sent teams of healthcare experts to help
other countries improve their emergency healthcare services and infection control practices for
containing COVID-19. In addition, healthcare professionals working in hospitals have remotely
shared with their peers around the world (e.g., via teleconferencing and remote coordination)
their experiences in providing high-quality healthcare services to severely ill COVID-19 patients.
All such efforts contribute to positive psychological changes, also termed posttraumatic growth
(PTG) or, more broadly, resilience, which is defined as both a personal characteristic and a
dynamic process in response to stressful or challenging situations (Bonanno 2004, Chen &
Bonanno 2020, Fletcher & Sarkar 2013, Panter-Brick 2014). PTG denotes the ability to recover
and grow after experiencing traumatic events or stressful challenges (Ong et al. 2006, Tugade &
Fredrickson 2004, Tugade et al. 2004); resilience is the dynamic process by which people adapt
and move forward after experiencing major challenges or setbacks. The American Psychological
Association (Palmiter et al. 2012) defined resilience as “the process of adapting well in the face of
adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or even significant sources of threat.” Although the COVID-19
pandemic and the relevant containment measures constitute a longstanding source of stress for
many people around the world, which may have acute and chronic downstream consequences for
people’s physical and mental health (D.B. O’Connor et al. 2021), previous research has suggested
that resilience is usually the normative and modal response to traumatic experiences (Bonanno
et al. 2011, Chen & Bonanno 2020, PeConga et al. 2020).
hancing recovery and growth for those severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (Rosenberg
2020, Veer et al. 2020, Vinkers et al. 2020, Wang et al. 2021). We hope this review inspires and
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facilitates more interdisciplinary and systematic work on cultivating resilience across multiple lev-
els and diverse perspectives, especially in the face of public health crises and collective challenges
such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Community
Organizational
Individual
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Resilience
Figure 1
Strategies for cultivating resilience across the individual, organizational, community, and national levels from the socioecological
perspective.
Inspired by the socioecological perspective on health, we review and outline strategies for culti-
vating resilience both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic across individual, organizational,
community, and national levels based on current research on resilience (Bonanno 2004; Cai 2020;
Zautra et al. 2008a,b) and propose future directions for research on cultivating resilience in re-
sponse to global challenges of emerging infectious diseases and on enhancing pandemic prepared-
ness in the future (Figure 1). We believe that by examining the influence of both near and distal
predictors of resilience and delineating the multilevel environmental contingencies of resilience
from an interdisciplinary perspective, we can inform researchers and practitioners to work col-
laboratively on developing comprehensive interventions to foster resilience both during and after
the COVID-19 pandemic.
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL STRATEGIES
Increasing Engagement in Health-Protective Behaviors
Previous research highlights the importance of health-protective behaviors in response to pan-
demics of infectious diseases. Given the high infection rates of COVID-19 and that it may take
much longer than expected to reach herd immunity through population-wide vaccination, engag-
ing in health-protective behaviors, including wearing face masks while going out, washing hands
effectively with sanitizers or soap more frequently, and social distancing in public places, is pivotal
for reducing the transmission of the virus and containing the COVID-19 pandemic (Betsch 2020,
Bourassa et al. 2020, West et al. 2020, Zhang 2020). However, there have been great disparities
in the adoption of these health-protective behaviors. The following individual-level factors have
Zhang & Zhang 2020). For example, behavioral scientists gave advice based on the behavioral
change wheel (BCW), developed by Michie and colleagues (2011, 2014), to increase engagement
in health-protective behaviors and public adherence to containment measures initiated by govern-
ments and local communities (Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020). According to the BCW (Michie
et al. 2011, 2014), three conditions are necessary for behavioral change to happen: (a) capability,
(b) opportunity, and (c) motivation, as exemplified by the capability, opportunity, motivation, and
behavior model (Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020). Specifically, Michie and colleagues gave
tailored advice to promote recommended behavior change during the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g.,
practice developing the required skills for behavior change, establish routines and habits, make
the behavior change as easy as possible). Behavioral scientists also actively engaged in the efforts
to support pandemic responses by distilling relevant research findings on research topics such as
navigating threats, social and cultural influence on engagement in health-protective behaviors,
moral decision making, effective leadership, and stress and coping (D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020,
Van Bavel et al. 2020). For example, a field study conducted in hospitals in Norway found that
nudges emphasizing that using hand sanitizer is a local social norm could greatly increase compli-
ance with hand hygiene recommendations among hospital visitors during COVID-19 (Mobekk
& Stokke 2020). Research conducted by Lu and colleagues (2021) on mask use found that cultural
differences in collectivism were a significant predictor of mask use both within the United States
and around the world. Research from the social and behavioral sciences has indicated that behav-
ior change has implications for closing the disparities in engagement in health-protective behav-
iors across regions or countries with different cultural values, containment policies, and resource
availability.
our cognitive repertoire, enrich our psychological resources, and promote adherence to healthy
living. Therefore, the enhanced experience of positive emotions during COVID-19 is likely to be
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beneficial for both personal and public mental health. Experiences of positive emotions also pro-
mote engagement in healthy lifestyles (e.g., healthy eating, physical activity) in everyday life and,
specifically, engagement in health-protective behaviors during COVID-19, which may in turn
improve physiological and psychological immune systems and build resilience among people (Van
Cappellen et al. 2018). Individuals and mental health professionals are encouraged to utilize the
tools (e.g., expressing gratitude, displaying self-compassion, using one’s character strengths, initi-
ating and maintaining positive interpersonal relationships) developed by positive psychologists to
buffer the traumatic impacts of COVID-19, bolster people’s mental health during COVID-19, and
build capacities for maintaining future mental health (Niemiec 2020, Waters et al. 2021). From the
perspective of positive psychology, focusing one’s attention on positive aspects and maintaining
positive emotional experiences through virtual or in-person high-quality interpersonal connec-
tions could be promising mental healthcare strategies to build resilience among individuals,
families, and communities (Chen & Bonanno 2020, Waters et al. 2021, Yamaguchi et al. 2020).
anxiety among employees, which could be detrimental for employees’ job engagement and their
motivation to engage in prosocial behaviors within their organizations and communities (Hu et al.
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2020). Research conducted in China and the United States among employees from a variety of
industries has found that the endorsement of servant leadership by managers could mitigate neg-
ative impacts of mortality salience and anxiety induced by COVID-19 on job engagement and
prosocial behavior (Hu et al. 2020). Encouraging more organizational leaders to adopt a servant
leadership philosophy could be one promising strategy to help and empower employees to adapt
positively during COVID-19. Organizations can also help their employees manage loneliness dur-
ing COVID-19 by facilitating virtual social interactions; supporting employees’ voluntary work;
encouraging employees to create and pursue shared goals; and resuming organizational rituals to
help employees support each other and contribute to the containment of COVID-19 in their local
communities, organizations, and countries (Nault et al. 2020, Vinkers et al. 2020). Organizational
strategies that help employees improve their coping skills and enhance psychological resilience
could also help them better deal with the impacts of COVID-19 on mental health (Labrague
2021). In a systematic review of 31 quantitative studies conducted during the first stage of the
COVID-19 pandemic on psychological resilience, coping behaviors, and social support among
healthcare workers, Labrague (2021) found that resilience, positive coping behaviors, and social
support were associated with better mental and psychological health outcomes (e.g., lower levels
of traumatic stress, psychological distress, stress, symptoms of anxiety and depression). These re-
sults have implications for developing evidence-based interventions to improve mental health and
psychological well-being of healthcare workers. For example, hospital administrators could take
measures to increase the accessibility and affordability of mental health services for healthcare
workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.
COMMUNITY-LEVEL STRATEGIES
Increasing Social Capital of Communities
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Social capital, such as social support, is vital to enhancing resilience. Communities can take mea-
sures to foster resilience among their residents by promoting prosocial behaviors in local neigh-
borhoods and communities and strengthening community social support (Luo et al. 2021, Yu
et al. 2021). Research on happiness and well-being in times of crisis has suggested that commu-
nities and nations with better social capital (e.g., higher levels of social trust) responded to crises
more effectively and buffered the negative impacts of economic crises on people’s subjective well-
being more successfully (Delle Fave 2014, Helliwell et al. 2014). People living in communities and
nations where there is an established level of trust are more likely to engage in prosocial behav-
iors to help each other achieve a higher level of resilience during a time of crisis (Helliwell et al.
2014). When engagement in prosocial behaviors is the social norm, this could create an upward
spiral for people to support each other during difficult times and could improve mental health
among people, including both beneficiaries and benefactors (Levine et al. 2008, Schwartz et al.
2003, Weinstein & Ryan 2010). Experiences of COVID-19 can also inspire community residents
to take initiatives to help each other cope proactively and adaptively during the pandemic.
People with a disproportionately high risk for COVID-19 infection, including frontline health-
care workers, infected patients and patients with suspected infection, children, older adults, and
people with chronic respiratory diseases and mental illness, have had difficulty dealing with the
unprecedented impacts of the pandemic on their physical and mental health. For example, front-
line healthcare workers experienced a high level of mental distress due to high infection risk,
shortage of health-protective equipment, separation from families, and long working hours (Dai
et al. 2020, Lai et al. 2020, Tan et al. 2020). Inspired by the mission of protecting the health of
the people, hundreds of thousands of Chinese healthcare workers have sacrificed their Spring
Festival holiday plans to fully participate in the collective efforts to contain COVID-19 despite
the risk for infection. Such examples have inspired more senior high school students in China
to attend medical school after graduation in 2020 (Qu et al. 2020). Prosocial behaviors were ob-
served around the world during the COVID-19 pandemic (Van Brown 2020). For example, in the
United Kingdom more than 3 million people voluntarily participated in more than 4,000 mutual
aid groups to help those in need (Butler 2020). Psychological scientists also advocated the cul-
tivation of a “we” mindset during the pandemic to increase adherence to containment measures
and to build mutual aid groups (D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020). Recognizing the importance of so-
ciocultural factors in influencing the transmission of viruses among communities, social scientists
have recommended the adoption of a community-based sociocultural network approach to under-
stand and combat COVID-19 (Hannigan et al. 2020). Community-level strategies for promoting
proactive engagement in health-protective behaviors and building reciprocal support for those
United States, who usually show better health outcomes than non-Hispanic whites, despite disad-
vantages such as immigration and acculturation stress, poor educational and occupational oppor-
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tunities, and discrimination (Gallo et al. 2009). This Hispanic paradox in health outcomes could
be explained by the reserve capacity model (RCM), proposed by Gallo and colleagues (2009) as a
framework for delineating the protective role of positive cultural factors (e.g., familism, religious-
ness, supportive social resources). Recent research in health psychology also found that meaning
in life was positively associated with engagement in health behaviors (Brassai et al. 2015, Hooker
& Masters 2016, Rush et al. 2019, Zhang 2019) and better physical and mental health (Hart et al.
2006, Hill et al. 2019, Iani et al. 2020). This line of research has demonstrated that meaning of
life is a protective factor for mental health and a promising positive psychological resource for
maintaining a healthy lifestyle during challenging times. A survey of healthcare workers in New
York also found that 61% reported an increased sense of meaning and purpose since the COVID-
19 outbreak (Shechter et al. 2020). Future research is needed to provide empirical evidence of
understanding the community-level and cultural level factors (e.g., spiritual beliefs, community
support) that promote resilience and its underlying mechanisms and pathways, especially during
challenging times such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
incorporating social and behavioral sciences into national management strategies for public health
crises (Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020, Zhang 2020).
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sionals, patients infected with COVID-19, students, and the general population; psychological
assistance hotlines were established and online psychological counseling services were provided
24 hours a day, 7 days a week, by mental health professionals from mental health centers at
hospitals, universities, and professional societies (S. Liu et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a). The
no-contact, free psychological consultations provided by the Chinese government have increased
the accessibility of mental health resources for those in need and have played a key role in relieving
emotional distress among the general public (Dan 2020). These timely measures are the first
of their kind in China after an infectious disease pandemic and have greatly contributed to the
containment of the pandemic in China (Zhang et al. 2020a). The Canadian government offered
similar mental health support to its residents and provided easy-to-implement tips for fostering
resilience (Government of Yukon 2020). Mental health professionals in the United States also
advocated for reimbursement for the use of telehealth services in order to increase accessibility of
mental health services, especially for older adults (Lepkowsky 2020). Professional organizations
such as the American Psychological Association, British Psychological Society, and Chinese
Psychological Society also initiated programs to help those in need and made mental health
resources accessible to the general public. By working collaboratively, professional organizations,
mental health professionals, and national governments can coordinate available resources and
distribute them efficiently and in a timely manner to meet the needs of different groups of people.
around the world (Chui et al. 2021, Lawrence & Kisely 2010, Ngui et al. 2010, Public Health
England 2018), the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated containment mea-
sures, including lockdown, social distancing, and self-isolation, might exacerbate prepandemic in-
equalities in physical and mental health among vulnerable groups, especially those living in areas
deprived of employment opportunities, healthcare, or affordable housing (Davillas & Jones 2021,
Di Gessa et al. 2021, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020).
Inequalities in mental health services and other relevant domains are likely a pressing chal-
lenge for countries to cultivate resilience during and after COVID-19. Coordinated efforts to
build resilience, other than taking measures to increase the accessibility of mental health services
for the general public, should pay special attention to address the needs of vulnerable groups
across domains (e.g., physical health, mental health, economic hardships, social support). For ex-
ample, although initiatives for digital mental health services greatly increase the accessibility of
mental health resources, specific arrangements should be implemented to address the barriers
to access faced by vulnerable groups. The research of Bonanno and colleagues (2007) after the
9/11 terrorist attack in New York revealed that demographics (e.g., gender, chronic diseases),
resources (e.g., income level, social support), and experiences of life stress (e.g., prior or recent
stressful events) were significant predictors of resilience and that strategies targeting changeable
risk factors across multiple levels are needed to foster resilience. Because people with preexist-
ing mental health issues are more likely to experience disruptions in multiple domains (Di Gessa
et al. 2021), comprehensive support programs should be carried out to address disparities in men-
tal health and other relevant domains. Charities (e.g., Center for Mental Health in the United
Kingdom) and professional organizations (e.g., American Psychological Association, Chinese Psy-
chological Society) have already appealed to governments to address racial and ethnic disparities in
mental health status and mental health care. Governments can also coordinate resources to train
qualified mental health professionals to provide culturally and linguistically competent services
to racial and ethnic minorities, to increase the availability of culturally appropriate services, and
to fund research to gain a deeper understanding of the predictors of resilience among racial and
ethnic minorities and develop culturally sensitive interventions to cultivate resilience among them.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
As research on resilience has accumulated during the past few decades, there is an increasing con-
sensus that an integrative approach, which includes affective, psychological, and social processes
across intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, community, and national levels and from the
With more than 217 million infections and more than 4.51 million deaths around the world,
the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are unprecedented and widespread, encompassing eco-
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nomic, health, psychological, and social domains and crossing all ages, genders, races, and ethnic-
ities (Holmes et al. 2020, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020). As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to
spread in many countries due to new variants of the SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syn-
drome coronavirus 2) virus and higher transmission rates, continuous efforts and resources must
be deployed to fully understand the far-reaching downstream consequences of the pandemic and
associated containment strategies. Specifically, more research is needed to capture the long-term
impacts of the pandemic on people’s physical and mental health, economic status, interpersonal
and intergroup relationships, and social inequalities and cohesion. As the stress induced by the
COVID-19 pandemic is likely to vary depending on the stage of the pandemic, the perceived risk
of infection, the severity of the pandemic in one’s community or country, the experience of eco-
nomic and health disruptions, and one’s health status, people’s responses to the pandemic should
also be adaptive and flexible. More research is also needed on how to develop and cultivate reg-
ulatory flexibility, as proposed by Bonanno & Burton (2013), in response to traumatic events,
including being sensitive to the sociocultural contexts in which one lives, developing a diverse
repertoire of regulatory strategies both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, being respon-
sive to feedback, and monitoring and modifying regulatory strategies accordingly in individual
and collective efforts to cope with the stress induced by COVID-19 and its associated disruptions
to people’s everyday lives.
have long-lasting and widespread impacts on individual mental health, family functioning, and
socioeconomic recovery, we need to take a life span perspective on cultivating resilience. Many
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people who have lost their jobs during the pandemic now face enormous economic hardship.
Such economic hardship has not only short-term psychological consequences, such as increasing
levels of emotional distress, but also long-term impact on interpersonal relationships, parenting
behaviors, family functioning, and intergenerational implications for the mental health of future
generations (Donnellan et al. 2009, Prime et al. 2020). Therefore, there is an urgent need to
mitigate the negative impacts of COVID-19 among people at different developmental stages
(e.g., children and adolescents, middle-aged adults, older adults) to improve adjustment and
foster resilience. Future research using longitudinal study designs would be valuable to test
more broadly the adaptive functions of positive psychology–based interventions (e.g., positive
emotions, character strengths) during COVID-19 on the basis of the broaden-and-build theory
developed by Fredrickson (2004, 2013) and the advancement of positive psychology (Waters et al.
2021). Future research is also needed to explore how lifestyle changes induced by COVID-19 may
be related to different sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, race, ethnicity, health
status). For example, researchers advocated protecting the health of older adults by integrating a
life course model into societies’ responses and communities’ rebuilding efforts both during and
after the pandemic ( Jowell et al. 2020).
CONCLUSIONS
During the past several decades, research on resilience has increased attention from scholars
across many research areas, including developmental psychology, personality psychology, clini-
cal psychology, positive psychology, community development, organizational management, and
public health. Findings from different disciplines have enriched our understanding of the defi-
nition, influential factors, and consequences of resilience across multiple levels. However, with
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the widespread impact of pandemics on people’s physical and mental health, as well as the new
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impact of infodemics, there is an urgent call for more in-depth research to enhance resilience
among people, especially through the use of cross-disciplinary approaches to understand complex
underlying mechanisms of resilience and advanced technologies to develop scalable and effective
interventions. For example, there is an increasing demand for developing resilience interventions
tailored to a target population, context, and sociocultural background. To achieve this goal, we
must take an interdisciplinary perspective on resilience development and take initiatives to im-
prove resilience across multiple levels using a systematic approach. Coordinated efforts are not
only essential for dealing with emerging challenges (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic) in the short
term but also pivotal for increasing pandemic preparedness, improving psychological well-being,
and promoting social harmony in the long term.
SUMMARY POINTS
1. Although the COVID-19 pandemic has widely affected people’s physical and mental
health around the world, past research indicates that resilience would likely be the modal
response among the majority of the population.
2. As resilience is predicted by multiple levels of predictors, from individual and organi-
zational levels to community and national levels, the socioecological perspective is in-
formative for developing and implementing comprehensive interventions to cultivate
resilience among people during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
3. Individual-level strategies to build resilience include increasing engagement in and ad-
herence to health-protective behaviors and harnessing the power of behavioral sciences–
based practices to promote behavior change and cognitive and emotional resilience
through positive psychology–based interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic.
4. Organizational level strategies to cultivate resilience include mobilizing organizational
resources to enhance organizational support, taking initiatives to improve and maintain
employee well-being, and providing timely support for employees’ career development.
5. Strengthening social capital, enhancing solidarity, and fostering meaning in life from a
sociocultural perspective are community-level strategies for building resilience.
6. National level strategies to foster resilience include building trust and enhancing soli-
darity, cultivating resilience leadership, providing timely mental health services to those
in need, fostering prosocial ventures, and addressing mental health inequalities in the
responses to COVID-19.
3. As the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic continue to unfold, future research should
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take a life span perspective to mitigate the negative impacts of COVID-19 among people
at different developmental stages to improve adjustment and foster resilience.
4. With the advancement of research on resilience from relevant disciplines, a holistic,
multilevel, and interdisciplinary perspective is needed to develop culturally sensitive,
population-targeted, locally implementable, cost-effective, scalable, and sustainable in-
terventions to foster resilience among both the general population and vulnerable groups
during and after COVID-19.
5. Future research should also take advantage of the advancements in digital technolo-
gies to develop, deliver, and evaluate strategies for cultivating resilience among peo-
ple with different demographic and psychological characteristics in a variety of social
environments.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Epidemiology (ISLE) for research sup-
port, the Hundred Talents Program Research Initiation Fund from Zhejiang University, the Lead-
ing Innovative and Entrepreneur Team Introduction Program of Zhejiang (2019R01007), and Mr.
Anran Wang for his assistance with editing the references.
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Annual Review of
Psychology
Contents
Recollecting What We Once Knew: My Life in Psycholinguistics
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Contents vii
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Quantum Cognition
Emmanuel M. Pothos and Jerome R. Busemeyer p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 749
Indexes
Errata
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