Resilience During Covid

Annual Review of Psychology
Cultivating Resilience During

the COVID-19 Pandemic:
A Socioecological Perspective
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Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2022.73:575-598. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Ning Zhang,1 Shujuan Yang,2,4 and Peng Jia3,4

1
School of Public Health and the Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of
Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
2
West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University,
Chengdu 610041, China; email: [email protected]
3
School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China;
email: [email protected]
4
International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Epidemiology (ISLE), Wuhan University,
Wuhan 430072, China
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2022. 73:575–98 Keywords

First published as a Review in Advance on
COVID-19, resilience, behavioral science, social capital, socioecological
September 27, 2021
psychology
The Annual Review of Psychology is online at
psych.annualreviews.org Abstract
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-030221-
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic poses wide-ranging
031857
impacts on the physical and mental health of people around the world, in-
Copyright © 2022 by Annual Reviews.
creasing attention from both researchers and practitioners on the topic of
All rights reserved
resilience. In this article, we review previous research on resilience from the
past several decades, focusing on how to cultivate resilience during emerging
situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic at the individual, organizational,
community, and national levels from a socioecological perspective. Although
previous research has greatly enriched our understanding of the conceptu-
alization, predicting factors, processes, and consequences of resilience from
a variety of disciplines and levels, future research is needed to gain a deeper
and comprehensive understanding of resilience, including developing an in-
tegrative and interdisciplinary framework for cultivating resilience, develop-
ing an understanding of resilience from a life span perspective, and devel-
oping scalable and cost-effective interventions for enhancing resilience and
improving pandemic preparedness.
575
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
EMBRACING A SOCIOECOLOGICAL MODEL OF RESILIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Increasing Engagement in Health-Protective Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Cognitive and Emotional Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Enhancing Organizational Support During COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Taking Initiatives to Help Employees Maintain Their Emotional Well-Being . . . . . . 582
Providing Timely Support for Employees’ Career Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
COMMUNITY-LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

Increasing Social Capital of Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Fostering Meaning in Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

NATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Building Trust and Enhancing Solidarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Cultivating Resilient Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Coordinating Timely Mental Health Services for People in Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Fostering Prosocial Ventures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Addressing Mental Health Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
FUTURE DIRECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Understanding the Long-Term Downstream Consequences of and Developing
Adaptive and Flexible Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Developing an Integrative, Multilevel, and Multidisciplinary Framework
for Fostering Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Taking a Life Span Perspective on Cultivating Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Developing Scalable and Cost-Effective Interventions for Increasing Resilience . . . . 589
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
INTRODUCTION
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been the most severe public health
emergency in the twenty-first century ( Jia & Yang 2020). As of September 3, 2021, the COVID-
19 pandemic has infected more than 217 million people and caused more than 4.51 million deaths
globally. The COVID-19 pandemic not only has posed a big threat to public health safety but also
has brought unprecedented challenges to economic and social development around the world.
Infodemic:
a portmanteau of For example, the increasing number of infected patients has burdened healthcare systems in
information and both developed and developing countries, especially among low- and middle-income countries
epidemic; when where there was a shortage of healthcare resources before the outbreak of COVID-19 (Akande
information, especially & Akande 2020, Barnard 2020). Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has enormously disrupted
wrong or unverified
people’s everyday lives in terms of economics, sociality, health, and psychology, among other as-
information, spreads
quickly and widely, pects ( Jacobides et al. 2020, Jia 2021). Different from previous pandemics that happened before
much like a disease the information age, COVID-19 is the first pandemic to be viewed as an infodemic, in which
does during an misinformation, conspiracy theories, and rumors about COVID-19 spread quickly through social
epidemic media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, WeChat, Weibo) and induced and amplified panic and emotional
distress among the general public (Hao & Basu 2020). For example, studies conducted shortly
576 Zhang • Yang • Jia

after the outbreak of COVID-19 have revealed that exposure to COVID-19-related health mes-
sages on social media was significantly associated with the prevalence of depression and anxiety
symptoms among people in China during the early stage of COVID-19 (Gao et al. 2020, M. Liu
Posttraumatic
et al. 2020). growth (PTG):
In particular, COVID-19 has induced wide-ranging impacts on the mental health and well- positive changes
being of high-risk populations, including infected patients and patients with suspected infection; experienced as a result
frontline healthcare workers; people quarantining at home; and vulnerable groups such as older of the struggle with a
major life crisis or a
adults (age 65 and older), children and adolescents, patients with chronic diseases, and people with
traumatic event
disabilities and mental health issues (García-Fernández et al. 2020, Holmes et al. 2020, S. Liu et al.
2020, R.C. O’Connor et al. 2021, Tan et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a). Although the general public Resilience: the
process of adapting
are at a relatively lower risk of infection, widely applied containment measures such as quaran-
well in the face of
tine and social distancing have also significantly affected their mental health (Barzilay et al. 2020,
adversity, trauma,
Brooks et al. 2020, Daly et al. 2020, Ghebreyesus 2020, Lai et al. 2020, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020, tragedy, threats, or
Preti et al. 2020, Prime et al. 2020, Qiu et al. 2020, Song et al. 2020, Tian et al. 2020, Vindegaard even significant
& Benros 2020, Vinkers et al. 2020). In response to these wide-ranging impacts of COVID-19 sources of threat
on the mental health of people around the world, the director of the World Health Organization
(WHO), Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (2020), advocated addressing mental health needs
as an integral part of the response to COVID-19 in all affected countries and regions. Scholars
of relevant specialties, such as mental health, psychiatry, counseling and clinical psychology, and
public health, have also advocated the provision of timely mental health services for both at-risk
groups and the general public (Chen & Bonanno 2020, Holmes et al. 2020, Labrague 2021, S. Liu
et al. 2020, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020, Zhang 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a, Zhou 2020).
Despite the aforementioned negative impacts on people’s health and everyday lives, societies
have rebounded in the midst of the pandemic. For example, communities and societies around
the world have initiated prosocial and collaborative efforts (e.g., voluntary services to help older
adults and other vulnerable groups) to help contain the transmission of COVID-19 (Broomell et al.
2020, Campos-Mercade et al. 2020). In China alone, more than 42,000 healthcare professionals
from all over the country volunteered to help contain COVID-19 in Wuhan and other major
cities in Hubei during January–April 2020. China has also sent teams of healthcare experts to help
other countries improve their emergency healthcare services and infection control practices for
containing COVID-19. In addition, healthcare professionals working in hospitals have remotely
shared with their peers around the world (e.g., via teleconferencing and remote coordination)
their experiences in providing high-quality healthcare services to severely ill COVID-19 patients.
All such efforts contribute to positive psychological changes, also termed posttraumatic growth
(PTG) or, more broadly, resilience, which is defined as both a personal characteristic and a
dynamic process in response to stressful or challenging situations (Bonanno 2004, Chen &
Bonanno 2020, Fletcher & Sarkar 2013, Panter-Brick 2014). PTG denotes the ability to recover
and grow after experiencing traumatic events or stressful challenges (Ong et al. 2006, Tugade &
Fredrickson 2004, Tugade et al. 2004); resilience is the dynamic process by which people adapt
and move forward after experiencing major challenges or setbacks. The American Psychological
Association (Palmiter et al. 2012) defined resilience as “the process of adapting well in the face of
adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or even significant sources of threat.” Although the COVID-19
pandemic and the relevant containment measures constitute a longstanding source of stress for
many people around the world, which may have acute and chronic downstream consequences for
people’s physical and mental health (D.B. O’Connor et al. 2021), previous research has suggested
that resilience is usually the normative and modal response to traumatic experiences (Bonanno
et al. 2011, Chen & Bonanno 2020, PeConga et al. 2020).
www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 577

Previous research on mental and psychological health has documented multilevel factors (e.g.,
individual, family, organizational, community, and national levels) that influence the manifesta-
tion, development, and maintenance of resilience (Bryant 2015, Chen & Bonanno 2020, Duchek
Socioecological
psychology: an area 2020, Masten 2015, Zhou 2020), as well as multimodal, sometimes even unexpected, pathways
within psychology that to building resilience (Bonanno 2004) after experiencing traumatic events (e.g., natural disasters,
investigates the violence, severe illness) (Ho et al. 2004, Tedeschi & Calhoun 1996, Zhang et al. 2020b). Research
cognitive, emotional, conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic has indeed demonstrated that people experience pos-
and behavioral
itive changes such as PTG and enhanced meaning of life during COVID-19 (Chen et al. 2021,
adaptation of humans
to physical, Pietrzak et al. 2021, Shechter et al. 2020, Stallard et al. 2021). However, little research has been
interpersonal, conducted to understand the factors that may increase resilience among people experiencing pan-
economic, and political demics, including COVID-19. In this review, we provide an overview of the research on cultivating
environments resilience at multiple levels and from interdisciplinary perspectives, which could be critical for en-
hancing recovery and growth for those severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (Rosenberg
2020, Veer et al. 2020, Vinkers et al. 2020, Wang et al. 2021). We hope this review inspires and
facilitates more interdisciplinary and systematic work on cultivating resilience across multiple lev-
els and diverse perspectives, especially in the face of public health crises and collective challenges
such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
EMBRACING A SOCIOECOLOGICAL MODEL OF RESILIENCE

The accumulated research on the factors that may influence health behaviors and healthy living
has led to an increasing consensus that people’s engagement in health behaviors and their health
status are usually determined by multilevel factors, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, organi-
zational, and community-level factors, and public health policies (for reviews, see Glanz & Bishop
2010, Glass & McAtee 2006, Panter-Brick 2014). In psychology, Oishi and colleagues (Oishi 2014,
Oishi et al. 2019, Uskul & Oishi 2020) pioneered the research on the influence of socioecolog-
ical factors on psychological processes and launched socioecological psychology by elucidating
through an integrative and holistic approach the underlying mechanisms that link macro-level
environments (e.g., physical, economic, sociopolitical) and meso-level factors (e.g., organizational
processes) and micro-level psychological processes (e.g., personality, cognition, emotion, behav-
ior). Socioecological psychology contributes to the mission of psychological sciences to under-
stand the human mind and behavior from an objectivist perspective (Oishi 2014). It also enriches
comprehensive demonstration of the impacts of environments on human affect, cognition, and
behavior by connecting physical, interpersonal, economic, and political level factors, and illumi-
nates the psychological mechanisms underlying the links between multilevel environmental fac-
tors and the human mind and behavior (Oishi 2014). Furthermore, socioecological psychology
also attempts to elucidate how particular psychological processes induce niche construction of the
socioecological environments in which human beings reside (Oishi 2014, Uskul & Oishi 2020).
Given that health behaviors and health are usually influenced by multilevel determinants, such
as individual engagement in health behaviors (e.g., physical activity), interpersonal environment
(e.g., health behaviors among family, friends, and neighbors), community surroundings (e.g., safety
of outdoor activities, accessibility of health facilities), and economic (e.g., income inequality) and
political (e.g., political climate, welfare system, laws) environments, the socioecological perspec-
tive informs the development of comprehensive interventions for improving public health. During
the past several decades, public health researchers have been actively advocating the application
and implementation of the socioecological model in health interventions to increase their effec-
tiveness and socioecological validity for improving people’s health (Glanz & Bishop 2010, Glass
& McAtee 2006, Golden & Earp 2012, Golden et al. 2015, Reupert 2017).

National
Community
Organizational
Individual
Resilience
Figure 1
Strategies for cultivating resilience across the individual, organizational, community, and national levels from the socioecological
perspective.
Inspired by the socioecological perspective on health, we review and outline strategies for culti-
vating resilience both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic across individual, organizational,
community, and national levels based on current research on resilience (Bonanno 2004; Cai 2020;
Zautra et al. 2008a,b) and propose future directions for research on cultivating resilience in re-
sponse to global challenges of emerging infectious diseases and on enhancing pandemic prepared-
ness in the future (Figure 1). We believe that by examining the influence of both near and distal
predictors of resilience and delineating the multilevel environmental contingencies of resilience
from an interdisciplinary perspective, we can inform researchers and practitioners to work col-
laboratively on developing comprehensive interventions to foster resilience both during and after
the COVID-19 pandemic.
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL STRATEGIES
Increasing Engagement in Health-Protective Behaviors
Previous research highlights the importance of health-protective behaviors in response to pan-
demics of infectious diseases. Given the high infection rates of COVID-19 and that it may take
much longer than expected to reach herd immunity through population-wide vaccination, engag-
ing in health-protective behaviors, including wearing face masks while going out, washing hands
effectively with sanitizers or soap more frequently, and social distancing in public places, is pivotal
for reducing the transmission of the virus and containing the COVID-19 pandemic (Betsch 2020,
Bourassa et al. 2020, West et al. 2020, Zhang 2020). However, there have been great disparities
in the adoption of these health-protective behaviors. The following individual-level factors have

substantially affected the level of engagement in health-protective behaviors: prosociality, risk
perception of the pandemic, perceived effectiveness of the recommended containing strategies,
self-efficacy of engaging in health-protective behaviors, implicit theories of health, consideration
Intention–behavior
gap: the phenomenon of future consequences, psychological resilience, and emotional experiences during the pandemic
that people often fail (Abdelrahman 2020, Broomell et al. 2020, Campos-Mercade et al. 2020, Luceño-Moreno et al.
to behave in a way 2020, Zhang & Kou 2021, Zhang et al. 2021). Such disparities in the uptake of health-protective
they would like to behaviors have not only posed big threats to people’s physical health but have also made them vul-
despite existing, strong
nerable to emotional distress. Besides, the intention–behavior gap is a big challenge for promoting
intentions
health behavior changes (Sheeran & Webb 2016). What make matters worse is that partisan bias
has colored people’s beliefs about COVID-19 and has reduced engagement in health-protective
behaviors (Barrios & Hochberg 2020).
To combat these challenges, behavioral scientists advocated the application of behavioral
sciences–based strategies to enhance proactive engagement in health-protective behaviors for re-

ducing the risk for infection (Betsch 2020, Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020, Zhang 2020,
Zhang & Zhang 2020). For example, behavioral scientists gave advice based on the behavioral
change wheel (BCW), developed by Michie and colleagues (2011, 2014), to increase engagement
in health-protective behaviors and public adherence to containment measures initiated by govern-
ments and local communities (Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020). According to the BCW (Michie
et al. 2011, 2014), three conditions are necessary for behavioral change to happen: (a) capability,
(b) opportunity, and (c) motivation, as exemplified by the capability, opportunity, motivation, and
behavior model (Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020). Specifically, Michie and colleagues gave
tailored advice to promote recommended behavior change during the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g.,
practice developing the required skills for behavior change, establish routines and habits, make
the behavior change as easy as possible). Behavioral scientists also actively engaged in the efforts
to support pandemic responses by distilling relevant research findings on research topics such as
navigating threats, social and cultural influence on engagement in health-protective behaviors,
moral decision making, effective leadership, and stress and coping (D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020,
Van Bavel et al. 2020). For example, a field study conducted in hospitals in Norway found that
nudges emphasizing that using hand sanitizer is a local social norm could greatly increase compli-
ance with hand hygiene recommendations among hospital visitors during COVID-19 (Mobekk
& Stokke 2020). Research conducted by Lu and colleagues (2021) on mask use found that cultural
differences in collectivism were a significant predictor of mask use both within the United States
and around the world. Research from the social and behavioral sciences has indicated that behav-
ior change has implications for closing the disparities in engagement in health-protective behav-
iors across regions or countries with different cultural values, containment policies, and resource
availability.
Cognitive and Emotional Resilience

Research conducted during the pandemic also highlighted the importance of cognitive and emo-
tional factors in facilitating the development of resilience. For example, a large-scale survey on re-
silience conducted in Europe demonstrated that positive appraisal style was a significant predictor
of resilience and that it mediated the relationship between perceived social support and resilience
among Europeans (Veer et al. 2020). A systematic review of quantitative studies of the mental
health status of healthcare workers found that coping skills, psychological resilience, and social
support were protective factors of mental health (Labrague 2021). A recent large-scale online in-
tervention study conducted during the pandemic among more than 25,000 participants from 55
countries has provided preliminary evidence that a brief intervention on adaptive reappraisal as an

emotion regulation strategy could increase experiences of positive emotions and decrease experi-
ences of negative emotions (Wang et al. 2021). These results highlight the potential of increasing
experiences of positive emotions through brief interventions to increase resilience and reduce
Broaden-and-build
mental health symptoms in the face of emerging public health crises, including COVID-19. An- theory of positive
other online-registered experiment found that prosocial behaviors, such as purchasing COVID- emotions: proposes
19–related items for someone else, increased the experience of positive affect, meaningfulness, em- that positive emotions
pathy, and social connectedness (Varma et al. 2020). In Japan, initiatives have been implemented broaden one’s
thought-action
to maintain emotional connections and enhance experiences of positive emotions through virtual
repertoire and, over
social interactions (e.g., playing the game Animal Crossing: New Horizons, in which people can go time, build skills and
to each other’s house to engage in virtual social interactions; Yamaguchi et al. 2020). resources
According to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson 2004) and
the upward spiral theory of lifestyle change (Fredrickson 2013), positive emotions can broaden
our cognitive repertoire, enrich our psychological resources, and promote adherence to healthy
living. Therefore, the enhanced experience of positive emotions during COVID-19 is likely to be
beneficial for both personal and public mental health. Experiences of positive emotions also pro-
mote engagement in healthy lifestyles (e.g., healthy eating, physical activity) in everyday life and,
specifically, engagement in health-protective behaviors during COVID-19, which may in turn
improve physiological and psychological immune systems and build resilience among people (Van
Cappellen et al. 2018). Individuals and mental health professionals are encouraged to utilize the
tools (e.g., expressing gratitude, displaying self-compassion, using one’s character strengths, initi-
ating and maintaining positive interpersonal relationships) developed by positive psychologists to
buffer the traumatic impacts of COVID-19, bolster people’s mental health during COVID-19, and
build capacities for maintaining future mental health (Niemiec 2020, Waters et al. 2021). From the
perspective of positive psychology, focusing one’s attention on positive aspects and maintaining
positive emotional experiences through virtual or in-person high-quality interpersonal connec-
tions could be promising mental healthcare strategies to build resilience among individuals,
families, and communities (Chen & Bonanno 2020, Waters et al. 2021, Yamaguchi et al. 2020).
ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES

Enhancing Organizational Support During COVID-19
Organizational support is pivotal to facilitating resilience among employees during the COVID-
19 pandemic. Employees around the world have faced enormous pressure due to lost job opportu-
nities, reduced income, and heightened job insecurity caused by adoption of restrictive measures
(e.g., social distancing, quarantine) to control the spread of COVID-19 and the economic re-
cessions that have ensued. To confront the uncertainty and insecurity induced by the pandemic,
organizations have initiated measures to enhance or, at least, preserve employees’ trust as they deal
with work–life challenges by allowing employees to work remotely, treating employees fairly in
organizational decision making, and empowering employees by recognizing their contributions
to managing the impacts of the pandemic (Gillespie et al. 2020). In response to the emergent
containment measures for infection control, organizations (or employers) should provide flexible
working arrangements and organizational support (both formal and informal) to help their em-
ployees cope with challenging situations and improve their work performance and well-being.
A systematic review by Labrague (2021) highlighted the importance of providing timely and
comprehensive organizational support (e.g., provision of sufficient personal protective equipment
to prevent infection) to improve and preserve the mental health and psychological well-being
of healthcare workers. Effective leadership is also vital to creating and maintaining a safe and

resilient work environment to safeguard the mental health and psychological well-being of em-
ployees (Labrague 2021). With insights from evidence-based organizational research on boundary
management, Perrigino & Raveendhran (2020) proposed an assess-create-support framework to
Servant leadership:
a leadership help managers understand their employees’ needs, create and mobilize organizational resources,
philosophy in which and provide individualized and tailored support for their employees to effectively balance work–
the main goal of the life demands and work more productively from home.
leader is to serve
Taking Initiatives to Help Employees Maintain Their Emotional Well-Being

Organizations can also take initiatives to improve employees’ emotional well-being during the
pandemic. The continuously increasing number of infections and deaths caused by COVID-19
around the world induced mortality salience among those exposed to the pandemic, as well as
anxiety among employees, which could be detrimental for employees’ job engagement and their
motivation to engage in prosocial behaviors within their organizations and communities (Hu et al.
2020). Research conducted in China and the United States among employees from a variety of
industries has found that the endorsement of servant leadership by managers could mitigate neg-
ative impacts of mortality salience and anxiety induced by COVID-19 on job engagement and
prosocial behavior (Hu et al. 2020). Encouraging more organizational leaders to adopt a servant
leadership philosophy could be one promising strategy to help and empower employees to adapt
positively during COVID-19. Organizations can also help their employees manage loneliness dur-
ing COVID-19 by facilitating virtual social interactions; supporting employees’ voluntary work;
encouraging employees to create and pursue shared goals; and resuming organizational rituals to
help employees support each other and contribute to the containment of COVID-19 in their local
communities, organizations, and countries (Nault et al. 2020, Vinkers et al. 2020). Organizational
strategies that help employees improve their coping skills and enhance psychological resilience
could also help them better deal with the impacts of COVID-19 on mental health (Labrague
2021). In a systematic review of 31 quantitative studies conducted during the first stage of the
COVID-19 pandemic on psychological resilience, coping behaviors, and social support among
healthcare workers, Labrague (2021) found that resilience, positive coping behaviors, and social
support were associated with better mental and psychological health outcomes (e.g., lower levels
of traumatic stress, psychological distress, stress, symptoms of anxiety and depression). These re-
sults have implications for developing evidence-based interventions to improve mental health and
psychological well-being of healthcare workers. For example, hospital administrators could take
measures to increase the accessibility and affordability of mental health services for healthcare
workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Providing Timely Support for Employees’ Career Development

Containment measures (e.g., social distancing, quarantine) for combating COVID-19 have greatly
reduced face-to-face interactions in organizations and have hindered opportunities for employ-
ees to learn from each other. This is especially challenging for healthcare professionals, because
implementing best practices in patient treatment and infection control requires healthcare pro-
fessionals to continuously learn from each other to avoid costly mistakes. Myers (2020) advised
governments and hospitals on how to create opportunities for healthcare professionals around
the world to learn to adapt to and share best practices for fighting COVID-19. Organizations
can also take initiatives to highlight situational cues, which could embody work meaningfulness
to help employees maintain a high level of occupational calling during this challenging time, as
observed among nurses working in intensive care units during the pandemic (Zhu et al. 2020).

Kalaitzaki and colleagues (2020) advocated the adoption of a salutogenic framework for mobiliz-
ing personal assets and available resources to help healthcare professionals maintain an optimal
level of health and well-being and rebound despite the experience of substantial mental health
Social capital: a set of
stress during COVID-19. When layoffs are deemed necessary by companies and other organiza- shared values that
tions to deal with financial setbacks due to COVID-19, the decisions and messages about layoffs allow individuals to
should be delivered tentatively and justly with respect and care to buffer the negative impacts on work together to
employees’ mental health and to safeguard their well-being (Bilotta et al. 2020). Organizations effectively achieve a
common purpose
can also mobilize available resources (e.g., job search assistance) to support laid-off employees as
they search for new jobs, reducing the effects of financial setbacks on employees’ mental health
and well-being.
COMMUNITY-LEVEL STRATEGIES
Increasing Social Capital of Communities
Social capital, such as social support, is vital to enhancing resilience. Communities can take mea-
sures to foster resilience among their residents by promoting prosocial behaviors in local neigh-
borhoods and communities and strengthening community social support (Luo et al. 2021, Yu
et al. 2021). Research on happiness and well-being in times of crisis has suggested that commu-
nities and nations with better social capital (e.g., higher levels of social trust) responded to crises
more effectively and buffered the negative impacts of economic crises on people’s subjective well-
being more successfully (Delle Fave 2014, Helliwell et al. 2014). People living in communities and
nations where there is an established level of trust are more likely to engage in prosocial behav-
iors to help each other achieve a higher level of resilience during a time of crisis (Helliwell et al.
2014). When engagement in prosocial behaviors is the social norm, this could create an upward
spiral for people to support each other during difficult times and could improve mental health
among people, including both beneficiaries and benefactors (Levine et al. 2008, Schwartz et al.
2003, Weinstein & Ryan 2010). Experiences of COVID-19 can also inspire community residents
to take initiatives to help each other cope proactively and adaptively during the pandemic.
People with a disproportionately high risk for COVID-19 infection, including frontline health-
care workers, infected patients and patients with suspected infection, children, older adults, and
people with chronic respiratory diseases and mental illness, have had difficulty dealing with the
unprecedented impacts of the pandemic on their physical and mental health. For example, front-
line healthcare workers experienced a high level of mental distress due to high infection risk,
shortage of health-protective equipment, separation from families, and long working hours (Dai
et al. 2020, Lai et al. 2020, Tan et al. 2020). Inspired by the mission of protecting the health of
the people, hundreds of thousands of Chinese healthcare workers have sacrificed their Spring
Festival holiday plans to fully participate in the collective efforts to contain COVID-19 despite
the risk for infection. Such examples have inspired more senior high school students in China
to attend medical school after graduation in 2020 (Qu et al. 2020). Prosocial behaviors were ob-
served around the world during the COVID-19 pandemic (Van Brown 2020). For example, in the
United Kingdom more than 3 million people voluntarily participated in more than 4,000 mutual
aid groups to help those in need (Butler 2020). Psychological scientists also advocated the cul-
tivation of a “we” mindset during the pandemic to increase adherence to containment measures
and to build mutual aid groups (D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020). Recognizing the importance of so-
ciocultural factors in influencing the transmission of viruses among communities, social scientists
have recommended the adoption of a community-based sociocultural network approach to under-
stand and combat COVID-19 (Hannigan et al. 2020). Community-level strategies for promoting
proactive engagement in health-protective behaviors and building reciprocal support for those

experiencing difficulties during COVID-19 are a precious opportunity for strengthening social
capital and enhancing solidarity in the face of adversity.
Reserve capacity
model (RCM): Fostering Meaning in Life
a framework for
Community initiatives can foster meaning in life among residents to enhance resilience during
understanding the
mechanisms that COVID-19. In a review on the Black–White paradox in health, especially in mental health, Keyes
underlie the (2009) found that in the United States black people, despite experiencing social inequalities and
relationships between discrimination, displayed a higher level of flourishing than their white counterparts. Potential
poverty/low factors that may promote mental resilience among black people include a greater concern for
socioeconomic status
generativity, more frequent religious attendance, and an ability to construct meaning in life in the
and poor health
face of adversity (Keyes 2009). A similar paradox is also observed among Hispanics living in the
United States, who usually show better health outcomes than non-Hispanic whites, despite disad-
vantages such as immigration and acculturation stress, poor educational and occupational oppor-
tunities, and discrimination (Gallo et al. 2009). This Hispanic paradox in health outcomes could
be explained by the reserve capacity model (RCM), proposed by Gallo and colleagues (2009) as a
framework for delineating the protective role of positive cultural factors (e.g., familism, religious-
ness, supportive social resources). Recent research in health psychology also found that meaning
in life was positively associated with engagement in health behaviors (Brassai et al. 2015, Hooker
& Masters 2016, Rush et al. 2019, Zhang 2019) and better physical and mental health (Hart et al.
2006, Hill et al. 2019, Iani et al. 2020). This line of research has demonstrated that meaning of
life is a protective factor for mental health and a promising positive psychological resource for
maintaining a healthy lifestyle during challenging times. A survey of healthcare workers in New
York also found that 61% reported an increased sense of meaning and purpose since the COVID-
19 outbreak (Shechter et al. 2020). Future research is needed to provide empirical evidence of
understanding the community-level and cultural level factors (e.g., spiritual beliefs, community
support) that promote resilience and its underlying mechanisms and pathways, especially during
challenging times such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
NATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES

Building Trust and Enhancing Solidarity
A public health emergency (e.g., COVID-19) tests whether a national government can handle a
crisis timely and effectively. A longitudinal survey of people’s social emotions during COVID-19
in China found that negative social emotions arose during the early stage of the pandemic and
then declined gradually as daily infected cases phased down in response to strict and effective
containment measures (Wang 2020). Also, a large-scale survey conducted across 58 countries,
with more than 100,000 participants, from late March to early April 2020 revealed that perceived
insufficiency of government response was associated with a higher level of emotional distress (e.g.,
worry and depressive symptoms) among the general public (Fetzer et al. 2020). This survey also
found that stringent restrictions by the government to contain COVID-19 reduced the perceived
insufficiency of government and public response, enhanced people’s trust of the government, and
in turn improved people’s mental health (e.g., a lower level of depressive symptoms).
Some studies also highlighted the importance of timely and decisive government responses
in managing the wide-ranging impacts of the emerging pandemic on the physical and mental
health of people around the world (Fan et al. 2020). For example, Prime Minister Boris Johnson
of the United Kingdom announced a national lockdown on the evening of March 23, 2020, after
which people’s perceptions of the appropriateness of government and public response increased
compared with their perceptions before the lockdown (Fetzer et al. 2020). In addition, people

trusted the government more after the lockdown and had a more accurate perception of their fel-
low citizens’ attitudes toward stringent containment measures, which is critical for coordinating
collective actions to contain COVID-19 (Fetzer et al. 2020). In an analysis of cultural variations in
Resilient leadership:
the effectiveness of containing COVID-19, Gelfand and colleagues (2021) found that government a new way of seeing,
efficiency and cultural tightness were two significant predictors of COVID-19 infection and mor- thinking, and leading
tality rates across different countries. Timely containment measures also reduced people’s worries that helps leaders
about the pandemic and lowered depressive symptoms among the public, thus improving men- navigate the hidden
dynamics of
tal health (Fetzer et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a). In Germany, behavioral scientists initiated the
organizations more
COVID-19 Snapshot Monitoring program to provide reliable and representative access to the effectively
public responses to COVID-19 and found that the mandatory policy on mask wearing was per-
ceived by the public as fair, socially responsible, and more effective at curbing the transmission
of airborne viruses (Betsch 2020, Betsch et al. 2020). These practices also highlight the value of
incorporating social and behavioral sciences into national management strategies for public health
crises (Michie et al. 2020, West et al. 2020, Zhang 2020).
Cultivating Resilient Leadership

A resilient leadership is the key to containing COVID-19 (Giustiniano et al. 2020). In China, Pres-
ident Xi Jinping advocated that all levels of government should prioritize safeguarding the health
of the people. The Chinese government has taken the lead in implementing the strictest contain-
ment measures for controlling the pandemic (Cai & Ye 2020). Since January 11, 2020, the National
Health Committee of China has issued a daily report on the status of the COVID-19 pandemic in
China. On January 23, 2020, when the lockdown policy was implemented in Wuhan to prevent the
spread of COVID-19 to other regions of China, both the central and local governments initiated
first-level public health emergency responses. The governments have also taken different kinds of
measures (e.g., national campaigns, community engagement) to encourage the public to partici-
pate in health-protective behaviors, including wearing face masks while going out, washing hands
more frequently and effectively, avoiding public gatherings, and avoiding travel to high-risk areas.
These reactive measures, of course, are important for initiating and promoting emergent manage-
ment strategies during this public health crisis. However, both reactive responses and proactive
measures are needed to contain COVID-19 and foster resilience among people around the world.
In the face of the enormous political challenges in initiating stringent containment strategies for
controlling COVID-19, President Xi advocated all countries to work together to create a com-
munity of shared future for human health. African countries, which generally have the weakest
healthcare systems in the world, have followed the strong leadership of South Africa’s president,
Cyril Ramaphosa, who has promoted collective action among African countries and enhanced
collective resilience across the African Union (Barnard 2020). However, in some developed coun-
tries, for example, the United States, leaders have tried to politicize the pandemic and have chosen
to ignore or even denigrate experts from leading public health institutions, such as the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the US Food and Drug
Administration, all of which could have helped better improve infection control and contain the
pandemic (according to the editors of the New England Journal of Medicine; NEJM 2020). A large-
scale survey conducted in the United States also found that political differences were the factors
that had most consistently influenced Americans’ engagement in health-protective behaviors and
their support of political measures in response to COVID-19 (Gadarian et al. 2021). Therefore,
some scholars have advocated that public health messages should transcend political divides to
inspire and enhance public support and engagement in prosocial health behaviors (Gadarian et al.
2021).

Coordinating Timely Mental Health Services for People in Need
Given the severity and continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic, measures should be taken to
monitor, understand, and mitigate both acute and chronic impacts of the pandemic on the mental
health of people around the world (Holmes et al. 2020). Examples from China suggest that timely
mental health services are important to mitigate the negative impacts on people’s mental health
(S. Liu et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a). Shortly after the outbreak of COVID-19, the Chinese
government initiated timely mental health services among the public, especially among infected
patients and patients with suspected infection, frontline healthcare workers, and vulnerable
populations (National Health Commission of China 2020a,b). For example, the National Health
Commission of China (2020a,b) released in late January 2020 guidelines for providing emergent
psychological crisis interventions and in early February 2020 guidelines for establishing and
maintaining psychological assistance hotlines. In response to these guidelines, online mental

health screenings and surveillance surveys were initiated around China for healthcare profes-
sionals, patients infected with COVID-19, students, and the general population; psychological
assistance hotlines were established and online psychological counseling services were provided
24 hours a day, 7 days a week, by mental health professionals from mental health centers at
hospitals, universities, and professional societies (S. Liu et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2020a). The
no-contact, free psychological consultations provided by the Chinese government have increased
the accessibility of mental health resources for those in need and have played a key role in relieving
emotional distress among the general public (Dan 2020). These timely measures are the first
of their kind in China after an infectious disease pandemic and have greatly contributed to the
containment of the pandemic in China (Zhang et al. 2020a). The Canadian government offered
similar mental health support to its residents and provided easy-to-implement tips for fostering
resilience (Government of Yukon 2020). Mental health professionals in the United States also
advocated for reimbursement for the use of telehealth services in order to increase accessibility of
mental health services, especially for older adults (Lepkowsky 2020). Professional organizations
such as the American Psychological Association, British Psychological Society, and Chinese
Psychological Society also initiated programs to help those in need and made mental health
resources accessible to the general public. By working collaboratively, professional organizations,
mental health professionals, and national governments can coordinate available resources and
distribute them efficiently and in a timely manner to meet the needs of different groups of people.
Fostering Prosocial Ventures

Management research has found that, even during difficult times such as after natural disasters,
prosocial ventures, especially those established by locals, can mobilize available resources to help
relieve suffering and build resilience in multiple ways (Williams & Shepherd 2016). Since the
outbreak of COVID-19 in China, community-based voluntary activities initiated by locals, non-
profit organizations, and social ventures have greatly contributed to the fight against COVID-19
by coproducing emergent services in alliance with government organizations (Miao et al. 2021).
In countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, a variety of prosocial ventures
were established by local community members to help vulnerable populations during the pan-
demic. People also voluntarily joined mutual aid groups to help those in need (Butler 2020, Van
Brown 2020). Prosocial ventures like these provide opportunities for people to show empathy and
compassion for others and to build an upward social spiral of positive acts and emotions. These
prosocial ventures greatly mitigated the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on many
people’s lives, especially vulnerable populations.

Addressing Mental Health Inequalities
As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to progress, a growing concern is that it might widen
preexisting inequalities in physical and mental health around the world (Mishra et al. 2021, D.B.
O’Connor et al. 2020). For example, research based on multiple longitudinal surveys conducted
in the United Kingdom found that those with prepandemic mental health issues were more likely
to experience healthcare disruptions (e.g., delays in accessing medication), economic disruptions
(e.g., loss of income and unemployment), and clusters of disruptions across domains (Di Gessa
et al. 2021). Another line of research using the UK Household Longitudinal Study to compare
socioeconomic inequality among those experiencing psychological distress during the first wave
of the COVID-19 pandemic found that the mental health impacts of COVID-19 are unequally
distributed: Preexisting inequalities in chronic health conditions, housing conditions, and neigh-
borhood characteristics increasingly contributed to socioeconomic inequalities in psychological

distress (Davillas & Jones 2021). Given the prepandemic inequalities in mental health services
around the world (Chui et al. 2021, Lawrence & Kisely 2010, Ngui et al. 2010, Public Health
England 2018), the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated containment mea-
sures, including lockdown, social distancing, and self-isolation, might exacerbate prepandemic in-
equalities in physical and mental health among vulnerable groups, especially those living in areas
deprived of employment opportunities, healthcare, or affordable housing (Davillas & Jones 2021,
Di Gessa et al. 2021, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020).
Inequalities in mental health services and other relevant domains are likely a pressing chal-
lenge for countries to cultivate resilience during and after COVID-19. Coordinated efforts to
build resilience, other than taking measures to increase the accessibility of mental health services
for the general public, should pay special attention to address the needs of vulnerable groups
across domains (e.g., physical health, mental health, economic hardships, social support). For ex-
ample, although initiatives for digital mental health services greatly increase the accessibility of
mental health resources, specific arrangements should be implemented to address the barriers
to access faced by vulnerable groups. The research of Bonanno and colleagues (2007) after the
9/11 terrorist attack in New York revealed that demographics (e.g., gender, chronic diseases),
resources (e.g., income level, social support), and experiences of life stress (e.g., prior or recent
stressful events) were significant predictors of resilience and that strategies targeting changeable
risk factors across multiple levels are needed to foster resilience. Because people with preexist-
ing mental health issues are more likely to experience disruptions in multiple domains (Di Gessa
et al. 2021), comprehensive support programs should be carried out to address disparities in men-
tal health and other relevant domains. Charities (e.g., Center for Mental Health in the United
Kingdom) and professional organizations (e.g., American Psychological Association, Chinese Psy-
chological Society) have already appealed to governments to address racial and ethnic disparities in
mental health status and mental health care. Governments can also coordinate resources to train
qualified mental health professionals to provide culturally and linguistically competent services
to racial and ethnic minorities, to increase the availability of culturally appropriate services, and
to fund research to gain a deeper understanding of the predictors of resilience among racial and
ethnic minorities and develop culturally sensitive interventions to cultivate resilience among them.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
As research on resilience has accumulated during the past few decades, there is an increasing con-
sensus that an integrative approach, which includes affective, psychological, and social processes
across intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, community, and national levels and from the

life span and transgenerational perspectives, is needed to draw a complete picture of resilience
(Ong et al. 2009, Zautra et al. 2008b). Similar to a multilevel and holistic approach, which is needed
for understanding the determinants, facilitators, underlying mechanisms, and consequences of
resilience, a holistic, multimodal, and interdisciplinary perspective is needed to develop cultur-
ally sensitive, population-targeted, locally implementable, scalable, and sustainable interventions
to foster resilience among both the general population and vulnerable groups during and after
COVID-19. Below, we highlight some priorities for future research on cultivating resilience in
response to pandemics of emerging infectious diseases.
Understanding the Long-Term Downstream Consequences of and Developing

Adaptive and Flexible Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic
With more than 217 million infections and more than 4.51 million deaths around the world,
the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are unprecedented and widespread, encompassing eco-
nomic, health, psychological, and social domains and crossing all ages, genders, races, and ethnic-
ities (Holmes et al. 2020, D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020). As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to
spread in many countries due to new variants of the SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syn-
drome coronavirus 2) virus and higher transmission rates, continuous efforts and resources must
be deployed to fully understand the far-reaching downstream consequences of the pandemic and
associated containment strategies. Specifically, more research is needed to capture the long-term
impacts of the pandemic on people’s physical and mental health, economic status, interpersonal
and intergroup relationships, and social inequalities and cohesion. As the stress induced by the
COVID-19 pandemic is likely to vary depending on the stage of the pandemic, the perceived risk
of infection, the severity of the pandemic in one’s community or country, the experience of eco-
nomic and health disruptions, and one’s health status, people’s responses to the pandemic should
also be adaptive and flexible. More research is also needed on how to develop and cultivate reg-
ulatory flexibility, as proposed by Bonanno & Burton (2013), in response to traumatic events,
including being sensitive to the sociocultural contexts in which one lives, developing a diverse
repertoire of regulatory strategies both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, being respon-
sive to feedback, and monitoring and modifying regulatory strategies accordingly in individual
and collective efforts to cope with the stress induced by COVID-19 and its associated disruptions
to people’s everyday lives.
Developing an Integrative, Multilevel, and Multidisciplinary Framework

for Fostering Resilience
Although research on resilience has increased during the past few decades, there remains a lack of
consensus on the conceptualization and measurement of resilience and an integrative framework
for understanding multilevel factors that may influence the development and maintenance of re-
silience during challenging times (Bonanno et al. 2007, Luthar et al. 2000). With the advancement
of research on resilience in psychology, mental health, and psychiatry, individual-level predictors
(e.g., demographics, coping styles) of resilience are relatively well understood; however, research
on resilience at the family, organizational, community, national, or population level is relatively
rare (Bonanno et al. 2007, 2010; D.B. O’Connor et al. 2020). Given that researchers from multiple
disciplines, including developmental psychology (Luthar et al. 2000), personality psychology
(Ong et al. 2009), clinical psychology and mental health (Bonanno 2004, Holmes et al. 2020,
Tedeschi & Calhoun 1996, Zautra et al. 2008b), community development (Zautra et al. 2008a),
and business and management (Williams & Shepherd 2016), have provided insights into the
factors that may enhance or impede resilience, an integrative and multidisciplinary framework

for cultivating resilience is needed in future research to accommodate findings on resilience
from different levels and fields (Holmes et al. 2020, Kola et al. 2021, D.B. O’Connor et al.
2020) and also to provide opportunities for cross-fertilization among different lines of research
on resilience. Such a framework for understanding resilience would also help us gain a deeper
and more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms of resilience. Advances
in this direction will have implications for informing the development and implementation of
integrative and multidisciplinary evidence-based public health practices to foster resilience in
families, organizations, and communities around the world.
Taking a Life Span Perspective on Cultivating Resilience

As the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to coexist with human beings for a long time, as well as
have long-lasting and widespread impacts on individual mental health, family functioning, and
socioeconomic recovery, we need to take a life span perspective on cultivating resilience. Many
people who have lost their jobs during the pandemic now face enormous economic hardship.
Such economic hardship has not only short-term psychological consequences, such as increasing
levels of emotional distress, but also long-term impact on interpersonal relationships, parenting
behaviors, family functioning, and intergenerational implications for the mental health of future
generations (Donnellan et al. 2009, Prime et al. 2020). Therefore, there is an urgent need to
mitigate the negative impacts of COVID-19 among people at different developmental stages
(e.g., children and adolescents, middle-aged adults, older adults) to improve adjustment and
foster resilience. Future research using longitudinal study designs would be valuable to test
more broadly the adaptive functions of positive psychology–based interventions (e.g., positive
emotions, character strengths) during COVID-19 on the basis of the broaden-and-build theory
developed by Fredrickson (2004, 2013) and the advancement of positive psychology (Waters et al.
2021). Future research is also needed to explore how lifestyle changes induced by COVID-19 may
be related to different sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, race, ethnicity, health
status). For example, researchers advocated protecting the health of older adults by integrating a
life course model into societies’ responses and communities’ rebuilding efforts both during and
after the pandemic ( Jowell et al. 2020).
Developing Scalable and Cost-Effective Interventions for Increasing Resilience

There is a growing need for scalable and cost-effective interventions that enhance people’s re-
silience, especially during emerging situations and challenging times. Given that the target pop-
ulations of resilience-enhancing interventions are likely to vary across developmental stages and
sociocultural backgrounds and that the pathways to resilience are usually multimodal, a systematic
approach is needed to develop precise interventions at all levels, from individual, organizational,
and community levels to national and global levels (Kola et al. 2021). Although some small-scale
resilience-enhancing interventions have been developed and evaluated across different cultural
backgrounds (Leve et al. 2009, Wolchik et al. 2009, Zautra et al. 2008b), future efforts should coor-
dinate insights from different perspectives and disciplines to increase the synergistic effects of mul-
tilevel mechanistically driven intervention programs. As the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic
on people’s physical and mental health continue to unfold, ecological momentary assessment tech-
niques could help researchers understand the processes underlying resilience at the individual level
and when, where, and under what context resilience is demonstrated (Shiffman et al. 2008). With
advantages for data collection, realism, experimental control, adaptability, and mobility, virtual
reality could also be used as a research tool to develop and evaluate strategies for cultivating re-
silience among people with different demographic and psychological characteristics in a variety of

social environments (Martingano & Persky 2021). Further improvements to technological tools
such as ecological momentary assessment, virtual reality, and digital technologies for providing re-
mote mental health services would be promising for increasing ease of use and service availability,
reducing cost, and improving efficiency and efficacy of resilience interventions. Of course, efforts
should also be made to reduce existing disparities in accessing services for cultivating resilience.
CONCLUSIONS
During the past several decades, research on resilience has increased attention from scholars
across many research areas, including developmental psychology, personality psychology, clini-
cal psychology, positive psychology, community development, organizational management, and
public health. Findings from different disciplines have enriched our understanding of the defi-
nition, influential factors, and consequences of resilience across multiple levels. However, with
the widespread impact of pandemics on people’s physical and mental health, as well as the new
impact of infodemics, there is an urgent call for more in-depth research to enhance resilience
among people, especially through the use of cross-disciplinary approaches to understand complex
underlying mechanisms of resilience and advanced technologies to develop scalable and effective
interventions. For example, there is an increasing demand for developing resilience interventions
tailored to a target population, context, and sociocultural background. To achieve this goal, we
must take an interdisciplinary perspective on resilience development and take initiatives to im-
prove resilience across multiple levels using a systematic approach. Coordinated efforts are not
only essential for dealing with emerging challenges (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic) in the short
term but also pivotal for increasing pandemic preparedness, improving psychological well-being,
and promoting social harmony in the long term.
SUMMARY POINTS
1. Although the COVID-19 pandemic has widely affected people’s physical and mental
health around the world, past research indicates that resilience would likely be the modal
response among the majority of the population.
2. As resilience is predicted by multiple levels of predictors, from individual and organi-
zational levels to community and national levels, the socioecological perspective is in-
formative for developing and implementing comprehensive interventions to cultivate
resilience among people during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
3. Individual-level strategies to build resilience include increasing engagement in and ad-
herence to health-protective behaviors and harnessing the power of behavioral sciences–
based practices to promote behavior change and cognitive and emotional resilience
through positive psychology–based interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic.
4. Organizational level strategies to cultivate resilience include mobilizing organizational
resources to enhance organizational support, taking initiatives to improve and maintain
employee well-being, and providing timely support for employees’ career development.
5. Strengthening social capital, enhancing solidarity, and fostering meaning in life from a
sociocultural perspective are community-level strategies for building resilience.
6. National level strategies to foster resilience include building trust and enhancing soli-
darity, cultivating resilience leadership, providing timely mental health services to those
in need, fostering prosocial ventures, and addressing mental health inequalities in the
responses to COVID-19.

FUTURE ISSUES
1. With the accumulation of research on resilience during the past few decades, there is
an increasing need for an integrative approach, which includes affective, psychological,
and social processes across intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, community, and
national levels and from the life span and transgenerational perspectives, to draw a more
complete picture of resilience.
2. More research is needed to further understand both the short-term and the long-term
downstream consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and to develop
adaptive and flexible responses to COVID-19.
3. As the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic continue to unfold, future research should
take a life span perspective to mitigate the negative impacts of COVID-19 among people
at different developmental stages to improve adjustment and foster resilience.
4. With the advancement of research on resilience from relevant disciplines, a holistic,
multilevel, and interdisciplinary perspective is needed to develop culturally sensitive,
population-targeted, locally implementable, cost-effective, scalable, and sustainable in-
terventions to foster resilience among both the general population and vulnerable groups
during and after COVID-19.
5. Future research should also take advantage of the advancements in digital technolo-
gies to develop, deliver, and evaluate strategies for cultivating resilience among peo-
ple with different demographic and psychological characteristics in a variety of social
environments.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Epidemiology (ISLE) for research sup-
port, the Hundred Talents Program Research Initiation Fund from Zhejiang University, the Lead-
ing Innovative and Entrepreneur Team Introduction Program of Zhejiang (2019R01007), and Mr.
Anran Wang for his assistance with editing the references.
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PS73_Front_Matter ARjats.cls November 10, 2021 11:46
Annual Review of
Psychology
Volume 73, 2022
Contents
Recollecting What We Once Knew: My Life in Psycholinguistics
Lila R. Gleitman and Claire Gleitman p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1

Memory and Reward-Based Learning: A Value-Directed Remembering

Perspective
Barbara J. Knowlton and Alan D. Castel p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p25
Normative Principles for Decision-Making in Natural Environments
Christopher Summerfield and Paula Parpart p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p53
Speech Computations of the Human Superior Temporal Gyrus
Ilina Bhaya-Grossman and Edward F. Chang p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p79
Cognitive, Systems, and Computational Neurosciences
of the Self in Motion
Jean-Paul Noel and Dora E. Angelaki p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 103
Exploring Cognition with Brain–Machine Interfaces
Richard A. Andersen, Tyson Aflalo, Luke Bashford, David Bjånes,
and Spencer Kellis p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 131
Brain Mechanisms Underlying the Subjective Experience
of Remembering
Jon S. Simons, Maureen Ritchey, and Charles Fernyhough p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 159
Neurophysiology of Remembering
György Buzsáki, Sam McKenzie, and Lila Davachi p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 187
The Basis of Navigation Across Species
Cody A. Freas and Ken Cheng p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 217
Computational Psychiatry Needs Time and Context
Peter F. Hitchcock, Eiko I. Fried, and Michael J. Frank p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 243
Persistence and Disengagement in Personal Goal Pursuit
Veronika Brandstätter and Katharina Bernecker p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 271
Social Motivation at Work: The Organizational Psychology of Effort for,
Against, and with Others
Adam M. Grant and Marissa S. Shandell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 301
vi
Attitudes, Habits, and Behavior Change

Bas Verplanken and Sheina Orbell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 327
Childhood Antisocial Behavior: A Neurodevelopmental Problem
Stephanie H.M. van Goozen, Kate Langley, and Christopher W. Hobson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 353
Human Cooperation and the Crises of Climate Change, COVID-19,
and Misinformation
Paul A.M. Van Lange and David G. Rand p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 379
Diversity Training Goals, Limitations, and Promise: A Review of the
Multidisciplinary Literature
Patricia G. Devine and Tory L. Ash p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 403
Psychology and Indigenous People

Roberto González, Héctor Carvacho, and Gloria Jiménez-Moya p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 431

Psychology Within and Without the State
H. Clark Barrett p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 461
Personality Psychology
Brent W. Roberts and Hee J. Yoon p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 489
Personal Values Across Cultures
Lilach Sagiv and Shalom H. Schwartz p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 517
Educational Psychology Is Evolving to Accommodate Technology,
Multiple Disciplines, and Twenty-First-Century Skills
Arthur C. Graesser, John P. Sabatini, and Haiying Li p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 547
Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic:
A Socioecological Perspective
Ning Zhang, Shujuan Yang, and Peng Jia p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 575
What Are the Health Consequences of Upward Mobility?
Edith Chen, Gene H. Brody, and Gregory E. Miller p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 599
The Social Effects of Emotions
Gerben A. van Kleef and Stéphane Côté p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 629
Catching Up on Multilevel Modeling
Lesa Hoffman and Ryan W. Walters p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 659
Optimizing Research Output: How Can Psychological Research Methods
Be Improved?
Jeff Miller and Rolf Ulrich p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 691
Replicability, Robustness, and Reproducibility in Psychological Science
Brian A. Nosek, Tom E. Hardwicke, Hannah Moshontz, Aurélien Allard,
Katherine S. Corker, Anna Dreber, Fiona Fidler, Joe Hilgard,
Melissa Kline Struhl, Michèle B. Nuijten, Julia M. Rohrer, Felipe Romero,
Anne M. Scheel, Laura D. Scherer, Felix D. Schönbrodt, and Simine Vazire p p p p p p p p p 719
Contents vii
Quantum Cognition
Emmanuel M. Pothos and Jerome R. Busemeyer p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 749
Indexes
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 63–73 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 779

Cumulative Index of Article Titles, Volumes 63–73 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 784
Errata
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology articles may be found at

http://www.annualreviews.org/errata/psych
viii Contents
Related Articles
From the Annual Review of Anthropology, Volume 50 (2021)

Doing Fieldwork Without Knowing It

Renato Rosaldo
Slippage: An Anthropology of Shamanism
Bruce Grant
Music, Language, Aurality: Latin American and Caribbean Resoundings
Amanda Minks and Ana María Ochoa Gautier
Syndemics: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Complex Epidemic
Events Like COVID-19
Merrill Singer, Nicola Bulled, Bayla Ostrach, and Shir Lerman Ginzburg
Desiring Bureaucracy
Tess Lea
Food Insecurity, Nutritional Inequality, and Maternal–Child Health:
A Role for Biocultural Scholarship in Filling Knowledge Gaps
Barbara A. Piperata and Darna L. Dufour
Transgressing Time: Archaeological Evidence in/of the Anthropocene
Matt Edgeworth
Political Theology/Theopolitics: The Thresholds and Vulnerabilities
of Sovereignty
Carlota McAllister and Valentina Napolitano
The Earliest South African Hominids
Ronald J. Clarke, Travis Rayne Pickering, Jason L. Heaton, and Kathleen Kuman
Human Evolution in Asia: Taking Stock and Looking Forward
Sang-Hee Lee and Autumn Hudock
Rethinking the Landscape: Emerging Approaches to Archaeological
Remote Sensing
Jesse Casana
Peirce and Archaeology: Recent Approaches
Joanne P. Baron
Touch and Social Interaction
Asta Cekaite and Marjorie H. Goodwin
ix
Conversation and Culture

Simeon Floyd
Language and the Military: Necropolitical Legitimation, Embodied Semiotics,
and Ineffable Suffering
Janet McIntosh
The Human Sleep Paradox: The Unexpected Sleeping Habits of Homo sapiens
David R. Samson
Intersectional Ecologies: Reimagining Anthropology and Environment
Sarah E. Vaughn, Bridget Guarasci, and Amelia Moore
Postcolonial Semiotics
Angela Reyes
The Political Economy of Attention

Morten Axel Pedersen, Kristoffer Albris, and Nick Seaver
Constructed Languages
Christine Schreyer
Feminism in the House of Anthropology
Lilith Mahmud
Pidgins and Creoles: Debates and Issues
Christine Jourdan
Archaeoprimatology: The Longue Durée Interface Between Humans
and Nonhuman Primates
Bernardo Urbani
Recent Research on the Archaeology of War and Violence
Andrew K. Scherer
The Evolution of Human Infancy: Why It Helps to Be Helpless
Karen R. Rosenberg
From the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 17 (2021)

Smoking Treatment: A Report Card on Progress and Challenges
Timothy B. Baker and Danielle E. McCarthy
Network Analysis of Psychopathology: Controversies and Challenges
Richard J. McNally
Developing and Validating Clinical Questionnaires
Anthony J. Rosellini and Timothy A. Brown
The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A Quantitative
Nosology Based on Consensus of Evidence
Roman Kotov, Robert F. Krueger, David Watson, David C. Cicero,
Christopher C. Conway, Colin G. DeYoung, Nicholas R. Eaton, Miriam K. Forbes,
Michael N. Hallquist, Robert D. Latzman, Stephanie N. Mullins-Sweatt,
Camilo J. Ruggero, Leonard J. Simms, Irwin D. Waldman, Monika A. Waszczuk,
and Aidan G.C. Wright
x Related Articles
History and Status of Prolonged Grief Disorder as a Psychiatric Diagnosis

Sophia Kakarala, Holly G. Prigerson, James Gang, and Paul K. Maciejewski
Violence, Place, and Strengthened Space: A Review of Immigration Stress,
Violence Exposure, and Intervention for Immigrant Latinx Youth and Families
Sarah A. Jolie, Ogechi Cynthia Onyeka, Stephanie Torres, Cara DiClemente,
Maryse Richards, and Catherine DeCarlo Santiago
Social Behavior as a Transdiagnostic Marker of Resilience
Ruth Feldman
Mental Health and Wealth: Depression, Gender, Poverty, and Parenting
Megan V. Smith and Carolyn M. Mazure
Ketamine and the Future of Rapid-Acting Antidepressants

Lace M. Riggs and Todd D. Gould
Intimate Relationships and Depression: Searching for Causation

in the Sea of Association
Mark A. Whisman, David A. Sbarra, and Steven R.H. Beach
Saving Lives: Recognizing and Intervening with Youth at Risk for Suicide
Alejandra Arango, Polly Y. Gipson, Jennifer G. Votta, and Cheryl A. King
Early Environmental Upheaval and the Risk for Schizophrenia
Vincent Paquin, Mylène Lapierre, Franz Veru, and Suzanne King
DSM-5 Level of Personality Functioning: Refocusing Personality Disorder
on What It Means to Be Human
Carla Sharp and Kiana Wall
Developmental Perspectives on the Study of Persons with Intellectual Disability
Jacob A. Burack, David W. Evans, Natalie Russo, Jenilee-Sarah Napoleon,
Karen J. Goldman, and Grace Iarocci
Clinical and Translational Implications of an Emerging Developmental
Substructure for Autism
John N. Constantino, Tony Charman, and Emily J.H. Jones
Conduct Disorders and Empathy Development
Paul J. Frick and Emily C. Kemp
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for the Eating Disorders
W. Stewart Agras and Cara Bohon
Child Sexual Abuse as a Unique Risk Factor for the Development of
Psychopathology: The Compounded Convergence of Mechanisms
Jennie G. Noll
Clinical Neuroscience of Addiction: What Clinical Psychologists Need to Know
and Why
Lara A. Ray and Erica N. Grodin
Virtual Reality Therapy in Mental Health
Paul M.G. Emmelkamp and Katharina Meyerbröker
Related Articles xi
Resilience in Development and Psychopathology: Multisystem Perspectives

Ann S. Masten, Cara M. Lucke, Kayla M. Nelson, and Isabella C. Stallworthy
Designing Evidence-Based Preventive Interventions That Reach More People,
Faster, and with More Impact in Global Contexts
Mary Jane Rotheram-Borus
Pathology in Relationships
Susan C. South
From the Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, Volume 3 (2021)

A Conversation with Michael Rutter
Michael Rutter and Janet F. Werker

Clinical Staging for Youth Mental Disorders: Progress in Reforming Diagnosis

and Clinical Care
Patrick D. McGorry and Cristina Mei
Neurodevelopmental Preparedness for Language in the Neonatal Brain
Caroline Nallet and Judit Gervain
Interactive Development of Adaptive Learning and Memory
Catherine A. Hartley, Kate Nussenbaum, and Alexandra O. Cohen
Achievement Motivation: What We Know and Where We Are Going
Allan Wigfield, Katherine Muenks, and Jacquelynne S. Eccles
Personality Assessment of Children and Adolescents
Rebecca L. Shiner, Christopher J. Soto, and Filip De Fruyt
Executive Functions in Social Context: Implications for Conceptualizing,
Measuring, and Supporting Developmental Trajectories
Yuko Munakata and Laura E. Michaelson
Young Children’s Interactions with Objects: Play as Practice and Practice as Play
Jeffrey J. Lockman and Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda
Contributions of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study
to Child Development
Sarah James, Sara McLanahan, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
Early Childhood Obesity: A Developmental Perspective
Megan H. Pesch and Julie C. Lumeng
Asthma as a Developmental Disorder
Fernando D. Martinez
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience in the Era of Networks and Big Data:
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
Damien A. Fair, Nico U.F. Dosenbach, Amy H. Moore, Theodore Satterthwaite,
and Michael P. Milham
xii Related Articles

From the Annual Review of Law and Social Science, Volume 17 (2021)
Law and/or/as Civility
Keith J. Bybee
Social Theory and Legal Theory: Contemporary Interactions
Roger Cotterrell
Hobbling: The Effects of Proactive Policing and Mass Imprisonment
on Children’s Education
Benjamin Justice
Governance by Data
Fleur Johns
Truth Commission Impact on Policy, Courts, and Society

Onur Bakiner
Legal Responsibility Among the Young and the Elderly
Eve M. Brank and Lindsey E. Wylie
Gender Inequalities in Markets
Tamar Kricheli-Katz
The Reasonable Person Standard: Psychological and Legal Perspectives
Mark D. Alicke and Stephanie H. Weigel
Business and Human Rights: Alternative Approaches to Transnational Regulation
Surya Deva
Protecting Basic Legal Freedoms: International Legal Complexes, Accountability
Devices, and the Deviant Case of China
Terence C. Halliday, Shira Zilberstein, and Wendy Espeland
The Impact of Experienced and Expressed Emotion on Legal Factfinding
Jessica M. Salerno
Street-Level Meta-Strategies: Evidence on Restorative Justice
and Responsive Regulation
John Braithwaite
Transitional Justice and Property: Inextricably Linked
Helena Alviar García
Replicability in Empirical Legal Research
Jason M. Chin and Kathryn Zeiler
Water Security and International Law
Philippe Cullet, Lovleen Bhullar, and Sujith Koonan
What Is Cultural Cognition, and Why Does It Matter?
Jeffrey J. Rachlinski
Contract Schemas
Roseanna Sommers
Algorithms and Decision-Making in the Public Sector
Karen Levy, Kyla E. Chasalow, and Sarah Riley
Related Articles xiii

Parole Board Decision Making and Constitutional Rights

Amelia Courtney Hritz
Infrastructures and Laws: Publics and Publicness
Benedict Kingsbury and Nahuel Maisley
Advancing Socioeconomic Rights Through Interdisciplinary Factfinding:
Opportunities and Challenges
Sarah Knuckey, Joshua D. Fisher, Amanda M. Klasing, Tess Russo,
and Margaret L. Satterthwaite
Philanthrocapitalism and the Separation of Powers
Linsey McGoey
Constitutional Dictatorships, from Colonialism to COVID-19

Jens Meierhenrich
Black Lives Matter in Historical Perspective

Megan Ming Francis and Leah Wright-Rigueur
Women’s Rights After War: On Gender Interventions and Enduring Hierarchies
Marie E. Berry and Milli Lake
On the Interdependence of Liberal and Illiberal/Authoritarian Legal Forms
in Racial Capitalist Regimes…The Case of the United States
Michael McCann and Filiz Kahraman
From the Annual Review of Neuroscience, Volume 44 (2021)

Sources of Individual Differences in Pain
Jeffrey S. Mogil
Current Status of and Perspectives on the Application of Marmosets
in Neurobiology
Hideyuki Okano
Astrocytes and Behavior
Paulo Kofuji and Alfonso Araque
A Common Space Approach to Comparative Neuroscience
Rogier B. Mars, Saad Jbabdi, and Matthew F.S. Rushworth
Parkinson’s Disease Genetics and Pathophysiology
Gabriel E. Vázquez-Vélez and Huda Y. Zoghbi
Neural and Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Embedding of Social Interactions
Ian M. Traniello and Gene E. Robinson
Smartphones and the Neuroscience of Mental Health
Claire M. Gillan and Robb B. Rutledge
Integrated Patterning Programs During Drosophila Development Generate
the Diversity of Neurons and Control Their Mature Properties
Anthony M. Rossi, Shadi Jafari, and Claude Desplan
xiv Related Articles

Consolidating the Circuit Model for Addiction

Christian Lüscher and Patricia H. Janak
Ensheathment and Myelination of Axons: Evolution of Glial Functions
Klaus-Armin Nave and Hauke B. Werner
Neocortical Layer 1: An Elegant Solution to Top-Down and Bottom-Up
Integration
Benjamin Schuman, Shlomo Dellal, Alvar Prönneke, Robert Machold,
and Bernardo Rudy
Human Representation Learning
Angela Radulescu, Yeon Soon Shin, and Yael Niv
Dense Circuit Reconstruction to Understand Neuronal Computation:

Focus on Zebrafish
Rainer W. Friedrich and Adrian A. Wanner

The Role of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Moderating Neural Representations
of Self and Other in Primates
Masaki Isoda
Inferring Macroscale Brain Dynamics via Fusion of Simultaneous EEG-fMRI
Marios G. Philiastides, Tao Tu, and Paul Sajda
Ion Channel Degeneracy, Variability, and Covariation in Neuron
and Circuit Resilience
Jean-Marc Goaillard and Eve Marder
Oxytocin, Neural Plasticity, and Social Behavior
Robert C. Froemke and Larry J. Young
Physiology and Pathophysiology of Mechanically Activated PIEZO Channels
Ruhma Syeda
The Geometry of Information Coding in Correlated Neural Populations
Rava Azeredo da Silveira and Fred Rieke
The Cortical Motor Areas and the Emergence of Motor Skills:
A Neuroanatomical Perspective
Peter L. Strick, Richard P. Dum, and Jean-Alban Rathelot
Perceptual Inference, Learning, and Attention in a Multisensory World
Uta Noppeney
Adaptive Prediction for Social Contexts: The Cerebellar Contribution to Typical
and Atypical Social Behaviors
Catherine J. Stoodley and Peter T. Tsai
Neurophysiology of Human Perceptual Decision-Making
Redmond G. O’Connell and Simon P. Kelly
How Cortical Circuits Implement Cortical Computations: Mouse Visual Cortex
as a Model
Cristopher M. Niell and Massimo Scanziani
Related Articles xv
Spatial Transcriptomics: Molecular Maps of the Mammalian Brain

Cantin Ortiz, Marie Carlén, and Konstantinos Meletis
From the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior,
Volume 8 (2021)
Reflections on a Career Studying Individual Differences in the Workplace
Paul R. Sackett
Workplace Envy
Michelle K. Duffy, KiYoung Lee, and Elizabeth A. Adair
The Science of Workplace Instruction: Learning and Development Applied
to Work
Kurt Kraiger and J. Kevin Ford

Balancing the Scales: A Configurational Approach to Work-Life Balance

Nancy P. Rothbard, Arianna M. Beetz, and Dana Harari
The Lazy or Dishonest Respondent: Detection and Prevention
Winfred Arthur Jr., Ellen Hagen, and Felix George Jr.
Emotion Work: A Work Psychology Perspective
Dieter Zapf, Marcel Kern, Franziska Tschan, David Holman, and Norbert K. Semmer
Chief Executive Officer Succession and Board Decision Making: Review and
Suggestions for Advancing Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Human
Resources Management, and Organizational Behavior Research
Anthony J. Nyberg, Ormonde R. Cragun, and Donald J. Schepker
Trait Activation Theory: A Review of the Literature and Applications to Five
Lines of Personality Dynamics Research
Robert P. Tett, Margaret J. Toich, and S. Burak Ozkum
Theory and Technology in Organizational Psychology: A Review of Technology
Integration Paradigms and Their Effects on the Validity of Theory
Richard N. Landers and Sebastian Marin
Overqualification at Work: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature
Berrin Erdogan and Talya N. Bauer
Putting People Down and Pushing Them Out: Sexual Harassment
in the Workplace
Lilia M. Cortina and Maira A. Areguin
The Science and Practice of Item Response Theory in Organizations
Jonas W.B. Lang and Louis Tay
From the Annual Review of Political Science, Volume 24 (2021)

Measuring Liberalism, Confronting Evil: A Retrospective
Ira Katznelson
Presidential Unilateral Power
Kenneth Lowande and Jon C. Rogowski
xvi Related Articles

Violence Against Civilians During Armed Conflict: Moving Beyond the

Macro- and Micro-Level Divide
Laia Balcells and Jessica A. Stanton
The Causes of Populism in the West
Sheri Berman
Networks of Conflict and Cooperation
Jennifer M. Larson
Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know
Harris Mylonas and Maya Tudor
Party and Ideology in American Local Government: An Appraisal
Sarah F. Anzia
Social Protection and State–Society Relations in Environments of Low

and Uneven State Capacity
Arthur Alik-Lagrange, Sarah K. Dreier, Milli Lake, and Alesha Porisky
The Continuing Dilemma of Race and Class in the Study of American
Political Behavior
Fredrick C. Harris and Viviana Rivera-Burgos
Conflict-Related Sexual Violence
Ragnhild Nordås and Dara Kay Cohen
Secrecy in International Relations and Foreign Policy
Allison Carnegie
How Do Electoral Gender Quotas Affect Policy?
Amanda Clayton
Who Enters Politics and Why?
Saad Gulzar
Ethics of Field Experiments
Trisha Phillips
The Persistence of Racial Cues and Appeals in American Elections
LaFleur Stephens-Dougan
What Can We Learn from Written Constitutions?
Zachary Elkins and Tom Ginsburg
The Rise of Local Politics: A Global Review
Patrick Le Galès
External Validity
Michael G. Findley, Kyosuke Kikuta, and Michael Denly
Machine Learning for Social Science: An Agnostic Approach
Justin Grimmer, Margaret E. Roberts, and Brandon M. Stewart
The Backlash Against Globalization
Stefanie Walter
Related Articles xvii

The Politics of the Black Power Movement

James Lance Taylor
Populism, Democracy, and Party System Change in Europe
Milada Anna Vachudova
From the Annual Review of Public Health, Volume 42 (2021)
Climate Change Disinformation and How to Combat It
Stephan Lewandowsky
Considerations for Developing an Agenda for Gun Violence Prevention Research
Mark Rosenberg
Influenza Virus: Tracking, Predicting, and Forecasting

Sheikh Taslim Ali and Benjamin J. Cowling
Prediabetes and What It Means: The Epidemiological Evidence

Justin B. Echouffo-Tcheugui and Elizabeth Selvin
Reproducible Research: A Retrospective
Roger D. Peng and Stephanie C. Hicks
A Critical Review of the Social and Behavioral Contributions to the Overdose
Epidemic
Magdalena Cerdá, Noa Krawczyk, Leah Hamilton, Kara E. Rudolph,
Samuel R. Friedman, and Katherine M. Keyes
Early Childhood Adversity, Toxic Stress, and the Impacts of Racism on the
Foundations of Health
Jack P. Shonkoff, Natalie Slopen, and David R. Williams
Expanding Implementation Research to Prevent Chronic Diseases
in Community Settings
Stephanie Mazzucca, Elva M. Arredondo, Deanna M. Hoelscher, Debra Haire-Joshu,
Rachel G. Tabak, Shiriki K. Kumanyika, and Ross C. Brownson
Understanding and Responding to Health Literacy as a Social Determinant
of Health
Don Nutbeam and Jane E. Lloyd
Vaccine Hesitancy, Acceptance, and Anti-Vaccination: Trends and Future
Prospects for Public Health
Ève Dubé, Jeremy K. Ward, Pierre Verger, and Noni E. MacDonald
Air Quality in Africa: Public Health Implications
Asmamaw Abera, Johan Friberg, Christina Isaxon, Michael Jerrett, Ebba Malmqvist,
Cheryl Sjöström, Tahir Taj, and Ana Maria Vargas
At the Water’s Edge: Coastal Settlement, Transformative Adaptation,
and Well-Being in an Era of Dynamic Climate Risk
William Solecki and Erin Friedman
Climate Change, Food Supply, and Dietary Guidelines
Colin W. Binns, Mi Kyung Lee, Bruce Maycock, Liv Elin Torheim, Keiko Nanishi,
and Doan Thi Thuy Duong
xviii Related Articles
Environmental Health Threats to Latino Migrant Farmworkers

Federico Castillo, Ana M. Mora, Georgia L. Kayser, Jennifer Vanos, Carly Hyland,
Audrey R. Yang, and Brenda Eskenazi
Environmental Influences on the Human Microbiome and Implications for
Noncommunicable Disease
Jiyoung Ahn and Richard B. Hayes
Extreme Weather and Climate Change: Population Health and Health
System Implications
Kristie L. Ebi, Jennifer Vanos, Jane W. Baldwin, Jesse E. Bell, David M. Hondula,
Nicole A. Errett, Katie Hayes, Colleen E. Reid, Shubhayu Saha, June Spector,
and Peter Berry

Green Infrastructure and Health
Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen
Addressing Social Needs in Health Care Settings: Evidence, Challenges,
and Opportunities for Public Health
Matthew W. Kreuter, Tess Thompson, Amy McQueen, and Rachel Garg
Benchmarking as a Public Health Strategy for Creating Healthy Food
Environments: An Evaluation of the INFORMAS Initiative (2012–2020)
Gary Sacks, Janelle Kwon, Stefanie Vandevijvere, and Boyd Swinburn
Cash Transfers and Health
Sicong Sun, Jin Huang, Darrell L. Hudson, and Michael Sherraden
Declining Life Expectancy in the United States: Missing the Trees for the Forest
Sam Harper, Corinne A. Riddell, and Nicholas B. King
Enhancing Community Engagement by Schools and Programs of Public Health
in the United States
Mindi B. Levin, Janice V. Bowie, Steven K. Ragsdale, Amy L. Gawad, Lisa A. Cooper,
and Joshua M. Sharfstein
Progress in National Policies Supporting the Sustainable Development Goals:
Policies that Matter to Income and Its Impact on Health
Amy Raub and Jody Heymann
Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Reduction Policies: Progress and Promise
James Krieger, Sara N. Bleich, Stephanie Scarmo, and Shu Wen Ng
Improving Access to Care: Telemedicine Across Medical Domains
William Barbosa, Kina Zhou, Emma Waddell, Taylor Myers, and E. Ray Dorsey
The Effects of Home Care Provider Mix on the Care Recipient: An International,
Systematic Review of Articles from 2000 to 2020
Norma B. Coe, R. Tamara Konetzka, Melissa Berkowitz, Emily Blecker,
and Courtney H. Van Houtven
Trends in Abortion Policies in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Pascale Allotey, T.K. Sundari Ravindran, and Vithiya Sathivelu
Related Articles xix

From the Annual Review of Sociology, Volume 47 (2021)

La Sociología de las Emociones en América Latina
Marina Ariza
From Physics to Russian Studies and on into China Research: My Meandering
Journey Toward Sociology
Martin King Whyte
Living Sociology: On Being in the World One Studies
Michael Burawoy
Ethnography, Data Transparency, and the Information Age
Alexandra K. Murphy, Colin Jerolmack, and DeAnna Smith
Rethinking Culture and Cognition

Karen A. Cerulo, Vanina Leschziner, and Hana Shepherd

The Influence of Simmel on American Sociology Since 1975
Miloš Broćić and Daniel Silver
Whatever Happened to Socialization?
Jeffrey Guhin, Jessica McCrory Calarco, and Cynthia Miller-Idriss
A Retrospective on Fundamental Cause Theory: State of the Literature and Goals
for the Future
Sean A.P. Clouston and Bruce G. Link
The Sociology of Emotions in Latin America
Marina Ariza
Negative Social Ties: Prevalence and Consequences
Shira Offer
The (Un)Managed Heart: Racial Contours of Emotion Work in Gendered
Occupations
Adia Harvey Wingfield
The Society of Algorithms
Jenna Burrell and Marion Fourcade
Trust in Social Relations
Oliver Schilke, Martin Reimann, and Karen S. Cook
New Directions in the Study of Institutional Logics: From Tools to Phenomena
Michael Lounsbury, Christopher W.J. Steele, Milo Shaoqing Wang,
and Madeline Toubiana
The Civil Rights Revolution at Work: What Went Wrong
Frank Dobbin and Alexandra Kalev
University Governance in Meso and Macro Perspectives
Christine Musselin
Populism Studies: The Case for Theoretical and Comparative Reconstruction
Cihan Tuğal
xx Related Articles
Recent Trends in Global Economic Inequality

Ho-fung Hung
The Sharing Economy: Rhetoric and Reality
Juliet B. Schor and Steven P. Vallas
Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring:
The Rise of Field Experiments
Lincoln Quillian and Arnfinn H. Midtbøen
Gender, Power, and Harassment: Sociology in the #MeToo Era
Abigail C. Saguy and Mallory E. Rees
Black Men and Black Masculinity
Alford A. Young Jr.

The “Burden” of Oppositional Culture Among Black Youth in America

Karolyn Tyson and Amanda E. Lewis
New Destinations and the Changing Geography of Immigrant Incorporation
Chenoa A. Flippen and Dylan Farrell-Bryan
Social Inequality and the Future of US Life Expectancy
Iliya Gutin and Robert A. Hummer
Markets Everywhere: The Washington Consensus and the Sociology of Global
Institutional Change
Sarah Babb and Alexander Kentikelenis
Women’s Health in the Era of Mass Incarceration
Christopher Wildeman and Hedwig Lee
Social Issues in Contemporary Russia: Women’s Rights, Corruption,
and Immigration Through Three Sociological Lenses
Marina Zaloznaya and Theodore P. Gerber
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xxii Related Articles

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Annual Review of Psychology

Cultivating Resilience During

Ning Zhang,1 Shujuan Yang,2,4 and Peng Jia3,4

Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2022. 73:575–98 Keywords

COMMUNITY-LEVEL STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

Fostering Meaning in Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

576 Zhang • Yang • Jia

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 577

EMBRACING A SOCIOECOLOGICAL MODEL OF RESILIENCE

578 Zhang • Yang • Jia

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 579

sciences–based strategies to enhance proactive engagement in health-protective behaviors for re-

Cognitive and Emotional Resilience

580 Zhang • Yang • Jia

ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 581

Taking Initiatives to Help Employees Maintain Their Emotional Well-Being

Providing Timely Support for Employees’ Career Development

582 Zhang • Yang • Jia

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 583

NATIONAL LEVEL STRATEGIES

584 Zhang • Yang • Jia

Cultivating Resilient Leadership

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 585

maintaining psychological assistance hotlines. In response to these guidelines, online mental

Fostering Prosocial Ventures

586 Zhang • Yang • Jia

borhood characteristics increasingly contributed to socioeconomic inequalities in psychological

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 587

Understanding the Long-Term Downstream Consequences of and Developing

Developing an Integrative, Multilevel, and Multidisciplinary Framework

588 Zhang • Yang • Jia

Taking a Life Span Perspective on Cultivating Resilience

Developing Scalable and Cost-Effective Interventions for Increasing Resilience

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 589

590 Zhang • Yang • Jia

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 591

592 Zhang • Yang • Jia

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 593

594 Zhang • Yang • Jia

and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement. Sci. 6:42

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 595

demic. Am. Psychol. 75:631–43

596 Zhang • Yang • Jia

www.annualreviews.org • Cultivating Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic 597

598 Zhang • Yang • Jia

Volume 73, 2022

Lila R. Gleitman and Claire Gleitman p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1

Memory and Reward-Based Learning: A Value-Directed Remembering

Attitudes, Habits, and Behavior Change

Psychology and Indigenous People

Roberto González, Héctor Carvacho, and Gloria Jiménez-Moya p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 431

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 63–73 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 779

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology articles may be found at

From the Annual Review of Anthropology, Volume 50 (2021)

Doing Fieldwork Without Knowing It

Conversation and Culture

The Political Economy of Attention

From the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 17 (2021)

History and Status of Prolonged Grief Disorder as a Psychiatric Diagnosis