Saha 2019 - Tropical Forest and Sustainability
Saha 2019 - Tropical Forest and Sustainability
Saha 2019 - Tropical Forest and Sustainability
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Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview, Fig. 1 Worldwide distribution of tropical rain forests
Introduction
Indonesia, Malaysia, Paraguay, Bolivia, Zambia, significant revenue for public institutions and
Angola, and elsewhere. governments. For instance, in Cameroon, forests
Most logging in the tropics selectively generate 25% of public revenue through timber
removes slow-growing trees of high timber value taxes and other fiscal instruments (OECD 2008).
that may take centuries to reach maturity and are Large areas of tropical forests, irrespective of
an important component of forest structure. whether protected or controlled by communities,
A large tree of the tropical forest is the home of are still being harvested unsustainably, if not ille-
many small plants and insects. Most logging oper- gally, through logging, hunting, or collection of
ations damage surrounding plants or trees, which non-timber forest products (Rashid and Mukul
are not felling, causing soil erosion, creating fire 2017; Nasi and Frost 2009). Corruption is gener-
risk, and disturbing new species to grow. Tropical ally widespread at all levels in natural resource
forest ecosystems are playing a key role in climate management.
regulation and the global carbon cycle, sequester- High timber consumption of the Global North
ing annually 2.2–2.7 Gt of carbon (Pan et al. and rampant poverty in the Global South are
2011). At the same time, tropical forests are still greatest threats to the attainment of sustainable
disappearing, releasing more carbon than these global development (Rahman 1998; Humphreys
ecosystems are sequestering, and forest degrada- 1996). Poverty in tropical forest countries is con-
tion is estimated to contribute up to 3% of annual tributing to deforestation due to increased demand
emission due to human activities, such as logging, for fuelwood and land for agriculture (Humphreys
shifting cultivation, and fuelwood harvest 1996). Rural poverty of the tropical forest coun-
(Baccini et al. 2017). tries is a great problem to face deforestation and to
take conservation initiatives. According to Fisher
Socioeconomic Perspectives et al. (2010), conservationists face three chal-
Forests are the sources of food, fuel, medicinal lenges: (i) making a better case for the long-term
plants, thatching materials, and income of the economic and social benefits of conservation;
global people. Billions of people use forest (ii) accounting for the real costs of some conser-
goods and services to meet their daily needs for vation activities to the poor; and (iii) recognizing
food, energy, and shelter (FAO 2014). Human biodiversity as a livelihood resource as well as a
populations are also indirectly benefiting from global public good.
forest services, such as climate regulation, carbon
sequestration, or water purification. Narrowing General Aspects of Management and Global
down to the forestry sector, more than 13 million Initiatives for Forest Conservation
people are employed in the formal forest sector About 5% of tropical forests were managed sus-
(i.e., production and sale of sawn wood). This tainably in 2005 (ITTO 2006). Most of the tropi-
number increases to 40–60 million people when cal forests were not managed properly because of
the informal sector (i.e., fuelwood and unrecorded the following reasons (Nasi et al. 2011): (i) lack of
minor forest products used for construction) is financial benefits from adopting improved forest
included, contributing to nearly 1% of global management versus conventional forest manage-
gross domestic products (GDP) in 2011 (FAO ment as well as consumers were unwilling to pay
2014). Beyond employment, where such data are the premium prices for timber from the well-
reliably available, the non-cash economic contri- managed forests or certified operations;
butions of forests to household and national eco- (ii) government policies for improved forest man-
nomics range between three and five times the agement were mostly biased and lacked serious
formally recognized cash contributions. Thus, for- governmental commitments to enforce forestry
est management for timber production in natural regulations, tenure security and clear use rights,
forests still plays an important role in the eco- and institutional capacity to reduce forest
nomic development strategies of many tropical encroachments; and (iii) inadequate understand-
countries, where the forestry sector generates ing of benefits from adopting improved forest
Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview 5
management, lack of trained staffs, and ineffi- (2011) have assessed the economical, governance,
ciency to reduce waste in the forest. and technical conditions that shape forest man-
A wide range of actors are concerned about the agement in tropical South America with regard to
deforestation issues and involved in activities for efforts to reduce forest-based carbon emissions.
reducing deforestation and increasing forest con- They have discussed about ways to improve forest
servation. They are the government department, management that achieve environmental objec-
international civil society, the United Nations tives while promoting local and national develop-
Environment Program (UNEP), FAO, ITTO, the ment and contributing to local livelihoods. They
Tropical Forestry Action Program (TFAP), the have argued that many management practices that
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change lead toward sustainability are only likely to be
(IPCC), and non-governmental organizations adopted where there is good governance backed
(NGOs), such as conservation and research by financial incentives for effective enforcement
groups, operating at international, national, and of management regulations. They have proposed
local levels. The International Union for Conser- some policy interventions designed to lower net
vation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Resources greenhouse gas emissions by decreasing rates of
Institute (WRI) are important international NGOs. forest degradation and increasing carbon stock
Local government structures, community institu- recovery in logged-over or otherwise degraded
tions, and traditional authorities may also be key forests. Implementation of REDD+ could provide
actors at the local level. Both reports from the critical compensation to forest users for improved
United Nations Fund for Population Activities management practices in the absence of or in
(UNFPA) and the United Nations Development combination with other economic incentives.
Program (UNDP) suggest that net financial trans-
fers from South to North and other global ineq-
uities contribute to poverty (Humphreys 1996). Bangladesh Forests as a Case
Eradication of poverty is thus now the most
important policy of the global communities, not Bangladesh has a population of about 160 million
just for forests but also for development and with the highest population density in the world.
environment. The country is considered as highly vulnerable to
WRI and IUCN have collaborated with the climate change (CCG 2014). The rural poor peo-
World Bank on biodiversity conservation. They ple of Bangladesh heavily depend on forest
have also collaborated with UNEP, in consultation resources for their sustenance causing over-
with FAO and the United Nations Educational, exploitation. According to the information of the
Scientific, and Cultural Organization Bangladesh Forest Department, the total forest
(UNESCO), in the preparation of the Global Bio- area in the country was 2.60 million hectares in
diversity Strategy. Initially forest-dependent com- 2013, which is only 17.62% of the total land area
munities of the tropical countries might be of the country (Mukul et al. 2014a). The forests of
suffering due to these initiatives. the country classified on the basis of topography
Therefore, it is essential to develop systems as hill forests (0.67 million hectares), mangrove
that foster sustainable forest management through littoral forests (0.60 million hectares), coastal
achieving both forest conservation and socioeco- afforestation (0.19 ha), plain land Sal
nomic development (FAO 2017; Kanowski et al. (deciduous) forest (0.12 million hectares), fresh-
2011). The successful inclusion of sustainable water swamp forests (0.02 million hectares), and
forest management in Reducing Emissions from some privately owned forest (FIP 2017).
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) The deforestation rate in Bangladesh between
is needed for shifting toward better practices in 2006 and 2014 was 0.75% (Reddy et al. 2016). If
tropical forestry as well as for ensuring better the forest cover loss continues, then the potential
environmental and socioeconomic conditions of for the forest to sequester carbon will be reduced
the relevant stakeholders. However, Nasi et al. over time (FIP 2017). The loss of 23.5% of the
6 Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview
dense forests recorded between 1975 and 2014 ensure food security, environmental amelioration,
indicate increased threats to high-biomass carbon and carbon sequestration, meeting the basic needs
forest ecosystems in Bangladesh (Reddy et al. of the vulnerable people and ensuring their well-
2016). Based on a study of Reddy et al. (2016) being. Bangladesh is not an exception. The forests
between 1975 and 2014, the major drivers of of Bangladesh were considered as sources of rev-
deforestation in the country were conversion of enue from very ancient times (Choudhury 2005,
forest land to agricultural land (25%) and scrub Saha 1998, GOB 1992, Mustafa 2002; Pant
land (58%). However, this study also found that in 1989). Forest Policy 1994 included forestation,
the recent period, about 34% of the deforested conservation of forests, and improvement of envi-
land was converted to agricultural land and 35% ronment as well as emphasis on the importance of
to scrub land. Based on 2000 data, IUCN reports people’s participation in forestry (Mustafa 2002;
that among the 895 varieties of inland and resident GOB 1996; Saha 1998). The Forest Act 1927 was
vertebrates of the country, 13 species have been revised in 1989 and 2000. The 1989 amendments
extinct, and 201 species are threatened (Mukul strengthened the provisions for protection of for-
et al. 2018; GED 2015). According to IUCN ests. In 2000, the revisions incorporated some
2003 report, 23% of the resident vertebrates are relaxations for privately owned forest products
threatened with extinction (GED 2015). and accommodated some aspects of social for-
According to the report of the Bangladesh estry (Biswas and Choudhury 2007).
National Herbarium in 2013, there were 3,885 In Bangladesh, forest policy is especially
vascular plants in the country, of which 5.81% dependent on international donors’ projects due
were threatened (GED 2015). to the forest sector not being a viable economic
The forest sector accounts for about 3% of the sector; this is mainly due to the imposition of
country’s GDP and 2% of the country’s total labor logging ban on natural forests for industrial and
force (FIP 2017). These figures, however, are an commercial purposes to regain forest cover since
underestimate of the overall socioeconomic 1989 (Giessen et al. 2016; Sarker et al. 2011; Saha
importance of the forest. The GDP figure does 1998).
not cover large quantities of fuelwood, fodder, In order to ensure proper utilization, preserva-
small timber, poles, thatching grass, medicinal tion, and management of natural resources of pro-
herbs, and other forest produces, extracted legally tected areas, the government introduced a
and illegally. If the value of non-timber forest co-management system to ensure the active
products, the value of recreation, and carbon involvement of all parties through the forest
locking are considered, the forestry sector contri- department, small ethnic minorities living in the
bution to the GDP could be as high as 6.4% in forest, and the participation of local people in
2014–2015 (FIP 2017). The role of forest in pov- 2004. REDD+ shall be among the main objectives
erty alleviation is also crucial. In 2015, employ- of the future forestry programs of Bangladesh. In
ment in forestry sector was about 1.5 million full- this context, the government of Bangladesh has
time equivalents, of which 0.60 million were undertaken programs relating to reducing defor-
women. There are at least 19 million people estation and forest degradation and enhancing tree
depending on forests directly for their livelihoods cover to conserve biodiversity, promote resilience
in Bangladesh. The similar number of people is to climate change, and enhance ecosystem ser-
indirectly dependent on forests for their liveli- vices, including carbon stocks.
hoods. According to the National Conservation Out of 64 districts of Bangladesh, 28 districts
Strategy Report, 2016, the contribution of pri- had no public forest in the past (Mukul et al.
vately owned village forests to the total household 2014b). Based on the implementation of the
income varied from 8.9% to 18.6% (FIP 2017). Social Forestry Program through people’s partic-
Traditionally, tropical forest deforestation cuts ipation, about 0.40 million hectares of outside
off the ability to manage various domains of sus- forest land has been brought under tree cover
tainability, for example, to reduce poverty and (GED 2015). Moreover, efforts have been made
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