Science Summary Notes (4th Quarter) Mamimiss ko gumawa notes for y’all hahaha

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Topic 1: Heat and Temperature
• Heat is the total amount of energy of all the molecular motion inside that object
• Temperature is the measure of the thermal energy or average heat of the molecules in a
substance. It determines the hotness and coldness of the object

❖ Heat Capacity
• Amount of heat needed to change the temperature of a substance by 1° C.
• Objects of the same material may have different heat capacities depending on their mass.
• Directly proportional to mass
▪ Heavier object = larger heat capacity
▪ Lighter object = smaller heat object
• For example, 30 kg of silver has a larger heat capacity than 10 g of silver

❖ Phase Changes
• Occurs at constant temperature and pressure.
• The heat added during phase changes is used to break the bonds between the molecules
and not increase the kinetic energy and temperature of the molecules.
• For example, melting ice to water has a constant temperature of 0° C, and from water to
steam is a constant temperature of 100° C
• When a state of matter gains or loses heat, it undergoes a change
▪ Endothermic
o Gaining or absorbing heat
▪ Exothermic
o Releasing heat
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❖ Specific heat
• As heat capacity refers to the heat needed to raise 1° C of the entire mass of a substance,
specific heat refers to the unit mass’ (1 g) needed heat to raise 1° C of the substance.
• Amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1° C
• For example, by nature of substance, mercury has less specific heat capacity than water
Q
• C=
m∆T
• Q = Cm∆T

1. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of a 0.25 kg block of copper from 10 °C
to 100 °C? (Copper = 386 J/kg °C)

Given: Solution:
C = 386 J/kg °C Q = Cm∆T
Ti = 10 °C J
Q = 386 (0.25 kg)(100°C – 10°C)
Tf = 100 °C kg°C
m = 0.25 kg J
Q = 386 (0.25 kg)(90°C)
kg°C
Q = 8685 J

2. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 0.5 kg of water from 0 °C to 100 °C
(water = 4186 J/kg°C)

Given: Solution:
C = 4186 J/kg°C Q = Cm∆T
Ti = 0 °C J
Tf = 100 °C Q = 4186 (0.5 kg)(100°C – 0°C)
kg°C
m = 0.5 kg J
Q = 4186 (0.5 kg)(100°C)
kg°C
Q = 209,300 J

3. What is the specific heat of a 25.0 g substance that absorbs 493.4 J, and raises the
temperature from 12°C to 34°C.

Given: Solution:
Q = 493.4 J Q
Ti = 12 °C C=
m∆T
Tf = 34 °C 493.4 J
m = 25 g → 0.025 kg C=
(0.025 kg)(34°C−12 °C)
493.4 J
C=
(0.025 kg)(22 °C)
C = 897 J/kgC
≈ 900 J/kgC (Aluminum)
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❖ Coefficient of Linear Expansion

• Not all materials change in size at the same rate
• Formula: ∆L = Lo a ∆T
▪ ∆ L = Change in Length
▪ Lo = Original Length
▪ a = Coefficient of Linear Expansion
▪ ∆T = Change in temperature (Tf – Ti )
• Lf = Lo + ∆L
1. A 2.3 cm piece of iron is heated from 12°C to 78°C. What is the change in length?

Given: Solution:
Lo = 2.3 cm ∆L = Lo a ∆T
Ti = 12°C ∆L = (2.3 cm) (12 x 10−6 /°C)(78°C – 12°C)
Tf = 78°C ∆L = (2.3 cm) (12 x 10−6 /°C)(66°C)
a of iron = 12 x 10−6 /°C ∆L = 1.8 x 10−3 cm

2. A 2.3 cm piece of steel is heated from 12°C to 78°C. What is the final length?

Given: Solution:
Lo = 2.3 cm ∆L = Lo a ∆T
Ti = 12°C ∆L = (2.3 cm) (12 x 10−6 /°C)(78°C – 12°C)
Tf = 78°C ∆L = (2.3 cm) (12 x 10−6 /°C)(66°C)
a of steel = 12 x 10−6 /°C ∆L = 1.8 x 10−3 cm

Lf = Lo + ∆L
Lf = 2.3 cm + 1.8 x 10−3 cm
Lf = 2.3018 cm

3. A copper rod is 3.0 m long at 15°C. What is its length when the temperature rises to 85°C?

Given: Solution:
Lo = 3.0 m ∆L = Lo a ∆T
Ti = 15°C ∆L = (3.0 m) (18 x 10−6 /°C)(85°C – 15°C)
Tf = 85°C ∆L = (3.0 m) (18 x 10−6 /°C)(70°C)
a of copper = 18 x 10−6 /°C ∆L = 3.78 x 10−3 m
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• Buildings, roads, and bridges are all exposed under the heat of the sun. It is common
knowledge that when objects are heated, the transferred energy causes an object’s molecule
to vibrate more therefore causing an increase in size of the object.

That is why gaps are important in said infrastructures so even when said expansion occurs,
there will be minimal damage that can cause danger to the individuals who will use these
infrastructures. Including gaps in construction of buildings, roads, bridges are important to
assure safety, allow expansion of these infrastructures with minimal damage and less
cracking, save financially, and overall durability and longevity. To reiterate, these gaps in
the said infrastructures allow the materials, for example, concrete and steel to move and
expand freely.

Boiling happens at 100°C

Melting happens at 0°C

1. In a water distilling store, 1 L of boiling water is to be change to steam. How much heat
will be needed to do that?

Given: Solution:
m = 1 kg → 1 L Q = mLvaporization
Lv = 2.26 x 106 J/kg Q = 1 kg (2.26 x 106 J/kg)
Q = 2.26 x 106 J
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2. How much heat is needed to totally change 1.50 L of water from tap water at 28.0°C to
steam at 112°C.

Given: Solution: Boiling point of water

m = 1.50 L → 1.50 kg Q = Cm∆T
Ti = 28°C J
Q = 4186 (1.50 kg)(100°C – 28°C)
TF = 112°C kg°C
C of steam = 2010 J/kg°C J
Q = 4186 (1.50 kg)(72°C)
C of water = 4186 J/kg°C kg°C
Lv = 2.26 x 106 J/kg Q = 4.52 x 105 J

Q = mLv
Q = (1.50 kg)( 2.26 x 106 J/kg)
Q = 3.4 x 106 J

Total Heat: Boiling point of water

(4.52 x 105 J) + (3.4 x 106 J) + (3.6 x 104 J) Q = Cm∆T
= 3.9 x 106 J J
Q = 2010 (1.50 kg)(112°C – 100°C)
kg°C
J
Q = 2010 (1.50 kg)(12°C)
kg°C
Q = 3.6 x 104 J

3. A freeze motor can remove 520 Kj of heat from water at 0°C. How much water will turn
to ice?
Solution:
Given: Q = mLfusion
m = 520 Kj → 520,000 J Q
Lf = 3.35 x 105 J/kg m=
Lf
520,000 J
m=
3.35 x 105 J/kg
m = 1.6 kg

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Note that:
• Latent Heat of Fusion
▪
Used when the object melts or solidifies
▪
Between solids & liquids
• Latent Heat of Vaporization
▪ Used when the object evaporates/boils or sublimates or condensates
▪ Between solids & gas and liquids & gas
______________________________________________________________________________
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4. How much heat (in calories) is lost when 150 g of water is cooled from 80°C to 25°C?

Given: Solution:
m = 150 g Q = Cm∆T
Ti = 80°C cal
TF = 25°C Q = 1.0 (150 g)(25°C – 80°C)
g°C
C = 1.0 cal/g°C cal
Q = 1.0 (150 g)(-55°C)
g°C
Q = -8250 cal

5. How much heat is needed to hate 5 g of ice at 0°C to water that is 10°C?

Given: Solution:
m = 5 g → 0.005 kg Q = mLf
Ti = 0°C Q = (0.005 kg)( 3.35 x 105 J/kg)
TF = 10°C Q = 1675 J
C = 4186 J/kg°C
Lf = 3.35 x 105 J/kg Q = Cm∆T
J
Q = 4186 (0.005 kg)(10°C – 0°C)
Total Heat: kg°C
(1675 J) + (209.3 J) J
Q = 4186 (0.005 kg)(10°C)
= 1884.3 J kg°C
Q = 209.3 J

❖ Heat Transfer
• Conduction
▪ Heat transfer is solids through molecular collision without a net movement of the body
▪ During collision, these molecules transfer some of their kinetic energy to their less
energetic and colder neighboring molecules.
▪ Thermal conductivity – Ability of a material to conduct heat
o Conductors
> Allow for charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.
> Has high thermal conductivity
> Ex: Metal, Aluminum, Mercury
o Insulators
> Impede the free flow of electrons from atom to atom
> Has low thermal conductivity
> Ex: Rubber, Plastic, Air
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• Convection
▪ Heat transfer by actual movement of fluid (convection fluid)
▪ Primary mechanism of heat transfer for fluids
o Natural Convection
> Caused by natural means such as buoyancy effect – Rise of warmer fluids, sink of
cooler fluids.
o Forced Convection
> Cuased by a force that manipulates the fluid to flow over a surface by external means
such as pumps and blowers.

• Radiation
▪ Heat transfer by electromagnetic waves – propagates in vacuums and carries energy, that
when absorbed, has the same effect as heat.
o Emissivity
> The fraction of radiant energy absorbed by a body.
o Albedo
> The fraction of radiant energy reflected by a body.
o Blackbody
> Are good emitters and absorbers of radiant energy
> Emissivity = 1 ; Albedo = 0
> Blackbodies absorb most visible light which is why they appear dark in color
> Blackbodies tend to be hotter as it absorbs more radiant energy
o Whitebody
> Are good reflectors of radiant energy
> Emissivity = 0 ; Albedo = 1
> Whitebodies reflect most visible light which is why they appear light in color
> Whitebodies are cooler as it reflects majority of radiant energy

1. Assuming an albedo of 0.30, find, for Earth

a. The power of the sunlight received

P P W
Psun = 1375 W/m2 Intensity = I= →
A A m2
Area of a circle = πr 2
Earth’s area = 6.378 x 106 m P = IA
Albedo = 0.30 (30%) P = (0.70)(1735 W/m2 )(π)(6.378 x 106 m)2
Emissivity = 0.70 (70%) P = (0.70)(1735 W/m2 )(1.28 x 1014 m2 )
P = 1.23 x 1017 W
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b. The predicted temperature due to the sunlight reaching it

P = 1.23 x 1017 W P = AσT 4

A = 1.28 x 1014 m2 P
σ = 5.67 x 10−8 J/m2 × s × K 4 T4 =
σA
e = emissivity does not need to be (1.23 x 1017 W)
T4 =
included as it is considered already in (5.67 10−8 J/m2 × s × K4 )(1.28 x 1014 m2 )
solving for power (P)
T 4 = 1.694 x 1010 K 4
4 4
√T 4 = √1.694 𝑥 1010 K 4
T = 361 K or 88 °C

2. A sphere of radius 3.0 m is heated up to a temperature of 4500 K.

a. Find the rate at which it should be emitting black-body radiation.

σ = 5.67 x 10−8 J/m2 × s × K 4 E = AσT 4

T = 4500 K E = (4 π[3]2 )(5.67 x 10−8 J/m2 × s × K 4 )(4500 K )4
r=3m E = 2.6 x 109 W

b. If the emissivity of the sphere is 0.65, What is the actual power being radiated by
it?
P = eAσT 4
T = 4500 K P = (0.65)(4 π[3]2 )(5.67 x 10−8 J/m2 × s × K 4 )(4500 K )4
r=3m E = 1.7 x 109 W
σ = 5.67 x 10−8 J/m2 × s × K 4
e = 0.65

• Intensity
▪ Is the rate energy is being transmitted per unit area and is measured in (Wm−2 or Wm2 )
▪ Example:

1. The sun radiates energy at a rate of 3.90 x 1026 W. What is the rate of which energy
from the sun reaches the Earth, if our orbital radius is 1.5 x 1011 m?
P
P = 3.90 x 1026 W Intensity =
A = 4πr 2 (Sphere) A

3.90 x 1026 W
I=
4π(1.5 x 1011 m)2
I = 1380 W/m2
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2. The sun radiates energy at a rate of 3.90 x 1026 W. What is the rate at which energy
from the sun reaches Mercury if its orbital radius is 57,900,000 km?
P
P = 3.90 x 1026 W Intensity =
A
R = 5.8 x 107 km → 5.8 x 1010 m
3.90 x 1026 W
I=
4π(5.79 x 1010 m)2
I = 9528 W/m2

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Topic 2: Electricity
• Electricity is the energy generated from the transfer of
electrons.
• Electrons are located on the outside of atoms and can
easily move in or out of atoms.

• When objects have no loss or gain of electrons, they

can be considered “neutral” .
• When an object gains electrons, it becomes
“negatively” charged.
• When an object loses electrons, it becomes
“positively” charged.

❖ Law of Electric Charges

• “Like charges repel one another, and unlike charges attract one another.”
• An object with opposite charges will attract each other
• A charged object and a neutral object will attract each other
• Same charged objects repel each other
• Neutral objects have no effect on each other

❖ Types of Electricity
• There are 2 main forms of electricity:
▪ Static electricity refers to when electrons are built up on an object.
▪ Current electricity refers to a flow of electrons.
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❖ Conductors vs Insulators
• Conductors are materials that allow electrons to flow freely through them (metals)
• Insulators are materials that do not allow easy flow of electrons (rubber, plastics)

❖ Electrostatics
• Electrostatics refers to the ability for something to hold onto electrons, the study of static
electricity.
• Something with a greater hold on electrons can “steal” electrons from something with a
weaker hold

❖ Coulomb’s Law
• Charles – Agustine De Coulomb (1736 – 1806)
▪ Described 2 charges using a torsion balance (parts):
o Torsion Fiber
> Made of glass/silk fiber under tension, twisted above its axis
o Charged Pitch Balls
> Styrofoam balls
> Detects small electric charges
o Scale
> Measures small amount of electric charge

• Charges q1 and q2 have the same sign; Electric force is REPULSIVE

• Charges q1 and q2 have opposite signs; Electric force is ATTRACTIVE

• Formula:
Kq1 q2
▪ F=
r2
o F = Force (Newtons [N])
o K = Constant (9 x 109 K * m2 /C2 )
o q1 q 2 = Electric Charges (Coulomb [C])
o r 2 = distance (Meters [m])

• !!! Answer is always in absolute value therefore, THE ANSWER IS ALWAYS

POSITIVE !!!
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• Examples:

1. 1 Charge of 20 C is 1.5 m away from a -3 C charge. Determine the force they exert
on each other.
Solve:
Given: Kq1 q2
q1 = 20 F=
r2
q 2 = -3 C (9 x 109 K ∗m2 /C2 )(20 C)(−3 𝐶)
r 2 = 1.5 m F=
K = 9 x 109 K * m2 /C2 (1.5m)2
11
F = ┃- 2.4 x 10 N┃
F = 2.4 x 1𝟎𝟏𝟏 N

2. A negative charge of 200 µC (micro-Coulomb) and a positive charge of 800 µC with

the distance of 30 cm. What is the force between the 2 charges?

Given: Solve:
q1 = -200 µC → -200 x 10−6 C Kq1 q2
F=
q 2 = 800 µC → 800 x 10−6 C r2
r 2 = 30 cm → 0.3 m F=
K = 9 x 109 K * m2 /C2 (9 x 109 K ∗m2 /C2 )(−200 x 10−6 C) (800 x 10−6 C)
(0.3m)2
4
F = ┃- 1.6 x 10 N┃
F = 1.6 x 1𝟎𝟒 N

3. How far apart are the two charges one magnitude 3 µC and the other magnitude of 5
µC. If the force between them is 20 N, what is the distance?

Given: Solve:
q1 = 3 µC → 3 x 10−6 C Kq1 q2
q 2 = 5 µC → 5 x 10−6 C F=
r2
F = 20 N Kq 1 q2
K = 9 x 109 K * m2 /C2 r2 =
F
Kq q
√r 2 = √ F1 2
Kq q
r = √ F1 2

(9 x 109 K ∗ m2 /C2 ) (3 x 10−6 C)(5 x 10−6 C)

r=√
20 N
r = ┃0.08 m┃
r = 0.08 m