ABSTARCT

The population is increasing and so is the demand for transportation. The commonest of the
means of transportation has been the automobile. And while the automobile industry is
growing proportionally with population increase, there are still many problems with managing
with managing the cause of the pollution by automobiles. Hence, to cater for the needs of the
society and still and protect our environment, researchers have been seeking alternative
sources to power transportation with little or no harmful emission suggested forms of energy
for automobiles would be one that are sustainable over the years. There are various available
options of solar- powered vehicles which produces electricity through photovoltaic cells
without any form of harmful waste to the atmosphere. In developing solar cars in particular,
some discovery has been made in the aspect of effectively capturing, converting, and storing
the solar energy to make it competitive with the conventional fossil fuel drive vehicles. This
review covers the advancement and gaps in existing literature in the modulus operand of solar
cars.

1
 CHAPTER ONE

GENERL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Currently, one of the greatest engineering issues to tackle is the need for clean reliable energy

sources. The current world relies on mostly natural gasses(fossil fuel energy), coal, and nuclear

energy to produce electricity. Although these energy sources are in abundance, scientific data

has proven that they assist in global warming. So now, the world is now heading towards

renewable energy leaving behind fossil fuels energy for their harmful effects on environment.

One of the energy sources that has been under study is solar energy. As solar energy is

renewable and less harmful to the environment, it is gradually taking the place of fuels. To

make the optimum use of solar power we took the initiative to work on our project. Our solar

power hybrid car uses solar panel and batteries instead of using fossil fuels. So, it can be

considered as a fully eco-friendly vehicle which is the crying need of present situation of the

world. By considering these things, we have made our solar vehicle which is more effective

and efficient for regular transportation uses. Hopefully solar powered Electric car will be able

to replace the fuel vehicles and will play a major role in creating a safe and clean environment.

The motive force to a shaft by an electric motor which is run by solar energy after some

important conversion in electric vehicles instead of an internal combustion engine which is

environmental pollution free is the basic working principle of solar powered electric vehicles.

The electricity produced by photovoltaic (PV) cells using sunlight powers the electric motor

2
directly for driving of solar powered vehicles (SPEVs). During sun shining the electricity is

produced by PV cells otherwise, the vehicles use consuming energy in its batteries. The main

component of a solar car is its solar array, which collect the energy from the sun and converts

it into usable electrical energy. The solar cells collect the sun’s energy, direct the power straight

to an electric motor and store excess into the batteries of the solar car. Before that happens,

power trackers convert the energy collected from the solar array to the proper system voltage,

so that the batteries and the motor can use it. After the energy is stored in the batteries, it is

available for use by the motor & motor controller to drive the car. The motor controller adjusts

the amount of energy that flows to the motor to correspond to the throttle. The motor uses that

energy to drive the wheels.

1.2 Research Background

Photovoltaic technology and electric vehicles were first coupled in the late 1970s.

Engineers and environmentalists began searching for a substitute for oil under the pressure of

the oil crisis, and solar energy was ultimately discovered to be the greatest option.

Hans Tholstrup organized the World Solar Challenge (WSC), a 1,865-mile (3,000-kilometer)

race through the Australian outback in 1987 to raise awareness of and gauge public interest in

solar-powered transportation. Participants were selected from leading academic institutions and

business research organizations from around the world. With their Sunraycer vehicle, General

Motors (GM) easily won the competition, reaching speeds of over 40 mph.

In response to their achievement, GM proposed to hold the GM Sunraycer in 1990 in

conjunction with the US Department of Energy (DOE).

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With roughly the same duration as the WSC, Sunraycer is regarded as a more demanding event

because of the more diverse terrain, climatic conditions, bad road surfaces, and traffic

obstructions. American Solar Challenge was first held in the USA in 2001, followed by the

North American Solar Challenge in 2005. These competitions are currently held every two

years along various routes.

In 2005, a new record for the longest solar vehicle race was established, reaching 2460 miles

(or 3960 km) from Austin, Texas, in the United States to Calgary, Alberta, in Canada.

The construction of solar vehicles, which was first driven by research, is now referred to be a

"brain sport," with dozens of new models being created annually for competition only, not for

use in transportation. Engineers are able to investigate and create new technologies thanks to

solar car competitions.

These technologies continue to be a resource due to the distinctiveness of the solar community

and events.

Electric vehicles now offer more effective, efficient, and cost-effective alternatives to vehicles

powered by internal combustion engines because to significant advancements and attentive

technology.

1.3 Problem Statement

Ocean levels have risen quickly as a result of Arctic ice melting more quickly than expected

and fast desertification in other sections of the planet's surface as a result of the continued

warming of the planet's climate.

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More than 70% of environmental pollution is created by cars that utilize conventional sources

of energy, according to research that takes into account the world's population growth and the

subsequent rise in the number of circulating vehicles [41].

The ongoing awareness generated by educational institutions, governmental agencies, and other

entities must be intensified and put into action now that the climate change crisis has become a

worldwide issue [42]. The development of electrical vehicles for both personal and professional

use is advancing quickly in the modern era because to the growing concern over greenhouse

emissions and environmental degradation.

Users of these vehicles must recharge the vehicle's battery during regular driving after running

out of power at a charging station.

Their car needs some time to charge completely.

Users are unable to operate their cars while charging, and the process disturbs the grid's balance

of electricity.

As a result, other grid users who are not connected to it experience poor power factor and power

net instability. Due to compatibility issues between some electric car batteries and charging

stations, some electric car owners still struggle to charge their vehicles at certain charging

stations.

As a result, the topic of how to charge electric automobiles using solar energy has emerged as

a crucial and essential connection to resolving these environmental problems.

5
1.4 Aim and Objective Statement

The major goal of this research project is to offer a system model that can be used to generate

creative answers to the research area's current difficulties as well as serve as an eye-opener for

future research design and development.

Additionally, it can offer a system based on photovoltaics, a superior renewable energy source

for recharging electric vehicles, that is efficient, effective, and sustainable. Our primary goal is

to develop a conceptual design for how solar energy from the sun (photovoltaic energy) can be

used to directly power electric car motors during sunny hours while the battery acts as a backup.

The placement of PV panels on electric car roofs as well as the selection of different parts to

transform and direct the captured solar energy to storage battery cell and motor were also

discussed.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Research

The goal of this research is to develop an off-grid solar system into an electric car design and

implementation. A solar-powered electric car for Ghanaian cities demonstrating the electrically

connected solar-powered vehicle's powertrain.

The mechanical framework, design, and installation process of the vehicle are not covered by

this research.

The simulation model of the electric car used as the prototype in this section will be created

using the MATLAB/SIMULINK software. It leaves out the actual building of the piece.

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1.6 Significance of the Research

• Unlike regular vehicles, solar powered Vehicles are able to utilize their full power

at any speed.

• Solar powered Vehicles do not require any expense for running.

• Solar Vehicles are quiet.

• Solar Vehicles require very low maintenance.

• A solar Vehicle produces no harmful emissions.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Electric vehicles are increasingly being considered as a way to lower transportation-related

carbon emissions.

The Nissan Leaf was the first totally electric vehicle that was mass produced.

On February 14th, 2013, 50,000 Leafs had been sold, and they had traveled more than 161

million miles overall (260 million km). [1] At an equal point in its market life, sales of battery

electric cars like the Leaf are outpacing those of the Toyota Prius, the first mass-produced

hybrid car. [2] The ability of electric vehicles to serve as a power source thanks to vehicle-to-

grid technology is regarded as a key selling feature for this technology. This method of using

vehicle batteries enables the use of the vehicles as localized buffers to reduce the burden on the

power grid during nighttime charging. The US Department of Defense is spending $20 million

to employ a fleet of electric vehicles to illustrate the idea, with the hope that doing so will make

up for the higher cost of purchasing electric vehicles.[3] The removal of emissions at the source,

which improves air quality in congested cities, is another benefit of battery electric vehicles.

Despite the sales figures, EV adoption has so far lagged behind projections. The primary causes

include perceived poor performance, limited range, and high cost.[5] The majority of

automobiles run on gasoline fuels. These automobiles emit dangerous gases. As a result, global

environmental contamination rises. Researchers have suggested using electric or hybrid

vehicles as a way to reduce pollution in recent years, and many nations have adopted this idea

8
as one of the best ways to do so. The battery and silent operation are to blame for the popularity.

The optimization of the best battery and charging is the current challenge.

2.2 Types of Electric Vehicles

Electric car basics were already described in the introduction. This part, however, will go

into greater detail on the subject. The majority of the main electric vehicle types are

divided into solar cars based on how much electricity is utilized as their energy source.

There are many different sorts of EVs, including fuel cell electric vehicles, hybrid electric

vehicles, and battery electric vehicles (FCEV)

2.2.1 Battery electric Vehicle (BEV)

Fully electric vehicles, or BEVs, are those that run exclusively on

electricity and do not have a gasoline engine, fuel tank, or exhaust pipe.

BEVs are also referred to as "plug-in" EVs since they charge their

batteries using an external electrical socket. Regenerative braking is

another method that BEVs use to refuel their batteries. Nissan Leaf and

Tesla Model S are two examples of BEVs.

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Figure 2.1 BEVs powertrain scheme. Source: (Edwards, et al., 2014)

A battery and an electric drive train power the entire operation of a plug-in electric

vehicle, commonly referred to as an all-electric or battery-electric car. Since it lacks an

ICE, it must be charged via connecting to the power grid.

In order to accelerate the electric car, one or more motors are powered by the charged

battery pack.

Compared to Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

(HEV), they are more efficient.

Electric motor, inverter, battery, controller module, and drive train make up a BEV.

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 Working Principles of BEV

• For the electric motor, DC battery cells are converted to AC power.

• The controller receives a signal from the accelerator pedals and changes

the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor to change

the speed of the vehicle.

• Through a cog, the motor is connected and turns the wheels.

• The motor transforms into an alternator when the brakes are used or the

electric vehicle slows down, producing power that is then returned to the

battery.

2.2.2 Hybrid electric Vehicle (HEV)

A hybrid is an electrified vehicle with either a gasoline or diesel engine, but the latter is

less common because diesel engines are more expensive to produce than patrols. The

wheels are propelled by this engine, which is supported by an electric motor powered by

a battery pack. The engine or when the automobile is slowed charges the batteries (either

by using engine braking or the car foots brake). Examples include the Kia Niro, the

Bentley Bantayga, and numerous other Toyota and Lexus cars. Compared to Plug-in

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) and Battery Electric Vehicles, HEV are less efficient

(BEV).

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 Figure 2.2 Schematic diagram of electric hybrid electric vehicle

2.2.3 Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

Due to the size of the battery pack, HEVs typically have an electric-only range of

only four miles. The electric-only range can be increased to more or less 30 miles by

installing larger batteries, and efficiency is improved by having a mains charger

available. These vehicles are known as plug-in hybrids, or PHEVs, and they fill the

gap between a traditional hybrid and a pure electric vehicle, or BEV. These

automobiles are therefore expensive, but during the past few years, with the release

of versions by BMW, Mercedes, Volvo, Volkswagen, and many others, they have

nonetheless grown much more prevalent.

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 Figure 2.3 Schematic diagram of (PHEV)

2.2.4 Range Extended Electric Vehicle (REEV)

These EVs can run on both gasoline and electricity. Extended-range electric

vehicles combine an internal combustion engine with an electric motor and a

plug-in battery pack. They differ from plug-in hybrids in that the internal

combustion engine serves as a generator to recharge the battery when it runs out

of power while the electric motor always powers the wheels. The Chevrolet Volt

is an example of a REEV available on the market.

13
 Figure 2.4 REEV powertrain scheme. Source: (Edwards, et al., 2014)

Solar Powered Electric Vehicle

The block diagrams of existing proposed solar powered electric vehicle having solar

charging and facility to interface with local grid for the charging and discharging is

presented in the following section.

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 Figure A Figure B

Figure 2.5 Block and functional diagram of existing proposed solar powered electric vehicle.

A generic diagram of an electric car with a solar charging option is shown in Fig. Due to

the lack of sunlight during the daytime hours, a large storage battery is required to match

the vehicle's capacity. The aforementioned model has been modified to offer grid-based

charging in addition to solar-powered charging, as shown in Fig. B. The vehicle's

secondary energy source is the sun.

Solar panels capture solar energy, which is then stored in batteries.

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 Figure 2.6 Charging stations of E-Vehicles

Summary of Existing Electric Vehicles

• Vehicle has to park at charging station for longer time without working.

• The vehicle has both solar and grid 50 % charging option.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The approach is essentially a modelled, organized depiction of real systems that illustrates the

many processes and elements needed to accomplish stated objectives. These designs also act as

a roadmap for comprehending the issues and, consequently, a road map for finding solutions.

Our design, which was comprised of 6 sub-systems (a solar panel, a power tracker, a battery

bank, a DC/DC converter, a motor controller, and a motor), is shown in the image below. It

demonstrates how each of these subsystems is interconnected, and in each subsystem, we

explicitly analyze the different product components and how our particular decisions were made

to accomplish our goal of using solar energy to power electric cars.

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 sun

DC/DC converter
PV modules
DC motor
m

Power tracker
Battery bank
(MPPT)

Figure3.1 Structure diagram of proposed system

3.2 Criteria for component Selection and Sizing

3.2.1 Solar PV Module

Figure 3.2 Cell type; monocrystalline

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 We have selected Sun Power Semi Flexible Monocrystalline 350w solar panels as our

solar panels. These light-weight panels have roughly 20% cell efficiency, a limited

power tolerance, and a less sensitive temperature coefficient, as shown in table 1.

Manufacturer datasheet for selected PV module.

Table 3.1 Electrical characteristics

Maximum Power (Pmax) 350W Module Efficiency (%) 18.03%

Maximum Power Voltage(Vmp)39.11V Size of Module (mm) 1956x992x40mm

Maximum Power Current(Imp) 8.95A Cells temperature 25

Open Circuit Voltage(Voc)V 47.24V Number of Cell (72 in series

Short Circuit Current(Isc) 9.56A Weight (KG) 22kg

Cell Efficiency (%) 19.9% Power Tolerance 0~+3%

Temp. coefficient of voltage -0.142V Area 1000W/𝑚2

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3.2.2 BATTERY BANK

Figure 3.3

As a backup, battery banks are used to power and run the motor's load. Because they

are more dependable and stable sealed maintenance free batteries, we chose to install

long life deep cycle Lead Acid batteries. We go with marine batteries since they provide

a balance between beginning batteries and deep-cycle batteries as well as vibration

resistance. They use AGM technology, which differs from conventional flooded lead

acid batteries.

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 Table 3.2 Parameters of selected battery

Battery type Deep cycle lead acid

Rated voltage 12V

Rated current 100Ah

Nominal power 1.2Kwh

weight 28.2kg

3.2.3 DC MOTOR

Figure 3.4 Brushless dc motor 36v/100Ah/2000kw

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A DC motor serves as the primary source of power for electric vehicles. We chose a

brushless DC motor because of its high efficiency and high output power to size ratio,

which allowed us to operate at a wider speed range while producing less electric noise.

the capacity to exert fine control.

total maintenance is reduced.

ability to function efficiently with rated load at all speeds.

Table 3.3 Parameters of selected motor

Motor type Brushless dc motor

Motor power 2000kw

Motor voltage 36V

Motor current 100Ah

Motor weight 12kg

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 3.2.4 DC/DC CHARGE CONVERTER:

Figure 3.5

The DC/DC charge converter stabilizes the output dc output and controls the output dc power.

Despite being a single device, the buck-boost dc/dc converter was taken into consideration due

to its ability to step up or down depending on the input power and load output requirements.

Additionally, it provides a wider range of input and output voltages while having a reduced

duty cycle and improved efficiency.

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 Table 3.4 Electrical characteristics of the selected dc/dc converter

Converter type Buck - boost Rated voltage 36V

Rated current 30A efficiency 99

temperature -40 to 70 Rated power 720w

3.2.5 MTTP CHARGE CONTROLLER

Figure 3.6

The system uses the maximum power point tracker (MPPT) charge controller to monitor the

PV modules' maximum power. Because MPPT charge controllers are more effective and

continuously monitor and adjust PV voltages to create the greatest electricity, regardless of the

time of day or weather, we chose them.

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 Figure 3.7 MPP interpretation graph

3.3 Mathematics Modelling

breq = (1)

Breq= (2)

𝑐1battery= (3)

Total number of batteries required = (4)

B series = (5)

bgiven = c1 battery × Bparallel (6)

Bparallel = (7) )

Bgiven = (8)

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Sreq = (9)

Areq = (10)

A´req = Areq × 1.2 (11)

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡= A´req × Number of panels per kW installation × Area of 1 panel in 𝑚2 (12)

Where,

breq: Required battery bank capacity in Ah

Uday: Usable battery storage required per day in kWh

Vsystem: System voltage in V

Breq: Required battery bank capacity in kWh c1 battery: Capacity of 1 battery

in Ah

C2 battery: Capacity of 1 battery in kWh

Vnominal: Nominal voltage of 1 battery in V

Bseries: Number of batteries in series

Bparallel: Number of parallel strings of the batteries

bgiven: Provided battery capacity in Ah

Bgiven: Provided battery capacity in kWh

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Sreq: Required solar array

capacity in kWh

h: Average number of full sun

hours per day

Areq: Required solar array capacity in kW

A´req: Required solar array capacity after DC oversizing in kW

Areainst: Area required for installation in m

3.4 Advantages of Solar Powered Electric Vehicle

• Unlike regular vehicles, solar powered Vehicles are able to utilize their full power

at any speed.

• Solar powered Vehicles do not require any expense for running.

• Solar Vehicles are quite.

• Solar Vehicles require very low maintenance.

• A solar Vehicle produces no harmful emissions.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

To evaluate the effectiveness of the EV and power flow of the created system, the results of

simulation and hardware implementation are addressed.

4.2 Simulation Result

Three case studies have been done to confirm the resilience of the produced system.

Three deep cycle batteries, a PV panel, a 1.5 HP DC motor, and a DC/DC converter

make up the designed system. The golf cart is an example of EV and was produced in

2008 by E-Z-Go. 360 kg is the total weight of the EV, and the 1.5 kW, 36 V, and 42

Ah electrical characteristics of the DC motor load. The primary energy source is a PV

panel with a 350 W, 38.7 V, and 9.04 A rating. When the PV system is disconnected,

the deep cycle battery bank is charged using the output energy from the PV system.

The battery banks have electrical ratings of 36 V, 100 Ah, and 3.6 kWh.

Using MPPT with the IC method, a DC/DC buck-boost converter is employed to

extract the most power possible from the PV.

Prior to experimental applications, the created system is first simulated using computer

assistance software. Thus, the MPPT algorithm, dynamic response of the load, and PV charging

process are all examined using Matlab/Simulink. Fig. 1 displays a screenshot of the system.

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Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the developed system of EV using Matlab/Simulink software

4.2.1 PV with MTTP Algorithm

When solar irradiation is 1 kW/m2, the simulation model's PV panel may produce a

maximum output of 400 W. 38.7V and 9.04A, respectively, are the voltage and current

readings at MPP. The MPPT algorithm is used to modify the MPP when the solar

irradiation varies during the day. Fig. 2 depicts the PV panel's characteristics at various

solar irradiance levels. The MPPT algorithm's function is to follow the MPP for various

sun irradiances. As a result, the duty cycle signal is adjusted to control the DC/DC

converter's switching signals.

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 Figure 4.2

The following factors affect how a PV panel behaves when used to charge an electric vehicle's

battery banks: (a) changes in solar irradiance throughout the day; (b) output power under

various irradiances; and (c) battery voltage performance. Calculations are made to determine

the real solar irradiation. The validity of the MPPT approach and the charging kinetics of the

battery are next examined using computer-aided software simulations of the solar irradiation.

For the sake of simplicity, one interval second of the simulation software corresponds to each

hour of the chosen day. Fig. 2(a) (a). displays the solar irradiation during the day's eleven hours

of daylight. The system's solar irradiation ranges from 150 W/m2 in the morning to 80 W/m2

at night. As shown in Fig. 2, the PV panel's output power varies according to changes in solar

irradiation (b). When the voltage is 35.8 V, the battery's initial SOC is 50%. The solar irradiation

is nearly zero in the first second, and the PV system is not recharging the batteries. The sun

irradiation increases and the PV power rises after the first second. Thus, as seen in Fig. 6, the

battery's SOC and voltage are raised (c). The battery's SOC is raised from 50% to 98% while

the voltage is raised from 35.8 V to 36.7 V. This charging process takes place while the solar

irradiance and power are actually being measured on the chosen day of the year. So the battery

30
can be charged during the day using roughly 1.8 kW from the PV system. The battery's rating

is 98% fulfilled by this power.

4.2.2 Motor Dynamics

Matlab/Simulink is used to simulate the dynamic outcomes of the DC motor load.

With varying speeds and loads' torques at t=3, 6, 8, and 12 seconds, the effectiveness

of charging battery banks with a PV system has been evaluated.

The PV panel charges the battery banks with 350 W at 1 kW/m2 before the EV starts.

Due to the EV's halt, the motor's torque and speed are both zero.

As shown in Fig. 7, the PV and batteries divide the power to the load during the high

demand on the motor's torque. The motor is started at maximum speed with no torque

at time t=3 seconds, resulting in a speed of 300 rad/sec. Due of the near zero torque at

this time, the PV panel is still charging the battery. The fluctuation in load torque from

beginning values of 20 Nm, 40 Nm, and 60 Nm at times t=6, 9, and 12 seconds,

respectively, is depicted in Fig. 2 (b). The battery banks supply the load demand with

400, 1000, or 1600 W at different torques because the motor's load required more

power than the PV's output power during the high torque. During the charging phase,

when the load is off, the battery's SOC is seen to be rising. However, Fig. 7

demonstrates that the SOC is dropping as the motor's load increases. The SOC is

inversely proportional to the torque value at various torques. Battery SOC drastically

decreases at starting speeds of 50 rad/s and 45 Nm due to the high armature current

31
requirement. The simulation results show that even with a large load demand, the

constructed PV system performs with an excellent dynamic response.

Figure 4.3

Figure 2 shows the dynamic performance of the electric vehicle's motor load: (a) dynamic

behavior of the motor's speed; (b) dynamic response of various motor torques; (c) output

injected power from the battery banks; and (d) the battery's state of charge (SOC) during

charging and discharging modes.

4.2.3 ELECTRIC VEHICLE WITH AND WITHOUT PV PANELS

This case study provides the benefits of installing PV panels to expand the battery's

charging range at various load demands as a way to illustrate the significance of PV

sources. Fig. 3 shows the battery voltage with SOC and the motor's dynamic

performance. For this investigation, it is recorded and compared that the simulation

32
results with and without the PV panels are shown. The battery's SOC operates in a

variety of torque modes at 80%. With a rated output of 5000W, the PV panel charges

the battery, raising its voltage. The battery is charged using the excess power when the

motor's demand is lower than the PV power, as shown in Fig. 8. (b). When the load

demand exceeds the PV panel's output power, the PV and batteries split the motor's

requirement. This function can prolong the battery's life and maintain its voltage. As

seen in Fig. 8, thanks to the energy injection from the PV panel, the batteries are able

to supply the EV with power constantly for a much longer period of time.

Figure 4.4

The dynamic performance of EVs employing a PV source is shown in Fig. 4.4. The motor's

speed dynamic behavior, the measured battery bank's current, voltage, and SOC during

charging and discharging modes are all examples of dynamic behavior.

The only source of the necessary load demand when the PV panel is not connected is

the battery banks. When the PV panel was disconnected, the voltage level of the

33
batteries decreased by around 15% more quickly. However, as can be seen at the SOC

in Fig. 4.4, the PV panel's continuous recharging of the batteries kept them from

entering a deep draining phase. The measured performance of the battery's voltage and

SOC with and without the PV panel were compared. As seen, adding the PV panel

increased the battery's voltage by 15%.

4.3 Hardware Applications

The golf car is chosen as an electric vehicle (EV) to test the methodology and simulation

techniques. Three deep cycle, 12V sealed lead acid batteries power a 36V, 2hp DC motor

that powers the electric vehicle. When solar PV is connected, the PV panel is the sole and

primary source used to drive the load. To apply the MPPT algorithm, the PV panel is also

linked to a DC/DC converter to charge the battery banks. There are a number of variables

that affect the total load, including the weight of the vehicle, the top starting and running

speeds, and the average distance traveled every trip. The created EV system's experimental

application. To test the durability of the improved EV, the moving range is measured for a

year. The EV uses roughly 7kWh per day on average and 5kW at its peak. Figure 4 shows

the annual load demand, which is dominated by daytime load usage. However, throughout

the night, the load consumption decreases.

The length of the sunlight on a January day in Accra is 11.52 hours, and its solar radiation

varies. The PV panel received roughly 6.094 kW/m2/day by converting the real solar

irradiation into electricity on the chosen day and location. The installed PV panel in Table

1 has an energy efficiency of 18%, which means that its actual output power is 1.096

34
kW/day. The energy production of the PV panel is significantly greater than the need for

the EV load. Due to the load demand being 1.73 kWh/day, the PV panel shares 100% of

the overall load while the battery helps share the necessary load demand when the PV

system is disconnected. As a result, the battery was kept completely charged using the

extra energy the PV panel supplied, extending the battery's lifespan. Due to the lack of a

requirement for external charging, the created technology also boosts the sustainability and

durability of the EV. Maximum Power Point Tracking is provided via the PV's connection

to the battery banks via a DC/DC charge controller (MPPT). To get the most out of the

batteries, the charge controller monitors their state of charge and controls the power flow.

Figure 4.5 Yearly load demand

4.3.1 The Hardware Implementation of the Modified Electric Vehicle

The PV panel first takes the role of the EV's rage top as the energy source. The sunroof top

is 2345 by 1172 millimeters and weighs 15 kg. The PV panel weighs 6 kg and measures

1350 x 830 x 3 mm. The PV panel will add 3% to the golf car's 360 kg overall weight,

which will not significantly affect the torque of the motor.

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To meet the necessary load demand, deep cycle batteries are employed. Each battery

weighs 20 kg, for a total weight of 160 kg in the battery banks. The weight of the EV as a

whole will increase due to the battery banks. The modified weight augmentation would be

limited by the batteries' high power rating, which is more than three times the necessary

load demand. Since deep cycle batteries have a 7kWh capacity compared to the 6.1kWh

needed for the load, they would extend the moving range. The benefits of a PV system

might boost the battery's protection and lifespan.

4.3.2 The Implementation Procedure of the Modified EV

• Replace the EV’s roof with PV panel.

• Change the lead acid battery banks with deep cycle batteries.

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• Regulate DC/DC charger converter with MPPT feature to charge the batteries.

• Sunlight serving as the main and only source of energy.

• Battery serving as a backup.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

It is imperative to move to a new source of energy, namely solar electricity, which will be a

cheap, efficient, inexhaustible, and of course environmentally benign alternative to meet the

rising fuel demands and catastrophic environmental pollution caused by operating carbon-based

vehicles.

Due to the lack of volatile gasoline and a hot exhaust system, solar-powered electric vehicles

are safe. They produce no emissions and are also odorless, smokeless, and silent. They are

easier to maintain, have fewer or no moving parts, and can be efficiently charged almost

anywhere.

It goes without saying that it is incredibly cost-effective. The solar-powered electric vehicle

would assist end users like businesses, college campuses, and amusement parks. The

technology employed in SPEVs helps green transportation.

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 Table 5.1
Element Conventional Golf Car Modified EV Features

EV’s structure weight roof weight roof Increasing the total

360kg Sunroof top 398kg PV module weight by 25%

Charging Fossil fuel, electric grid Solar energy while providing

source shading

Battery banks Lead – acid battery Deep cycle lead – acid advantages.

battery Reducing Co2

charger AC/DC converter DC/DC converter with emissions.

MTTP

Increasing moving

range by 50%.

Increasing energy

efficiency and

protection.

The modified electric vehicle (EV) employs a PV panel as its primary energy source to run

the motor and transfers any extra energy to deep-cycle batteries using a DC/DC charge

controller with MPPT characteristics.

Despite the fact that the EV motor's load demand is 5000 W higher than the solar PV

system's charging power of 400 W, the total energy consumption is not very high because

of the day's operations' brief intervals. Additionally, the EV is solely dependent on shifting

39
demand from one location to another. The findings of the modeling and testing confirmed

that the average daily energy consumption is 1.7 kWh. Therefore, the PV panel's roof top

transforms solar energy into mechanical energy to power the EV. Therefore, it can be

inferred from the feasibility analysis that the PV system's ability to produce enough

electrical energy to meet the daily load requirement for EV customers at the chosen

location. While travelling, it can also recharge the battery banks. When the battery banks

only require one day to fully charge, this approach meets 100% of the load demand. It is

important to note that the experimental analysis and meteorological data are looked at

during January, when sun irradiation is at its worst. This feature increases the EV's mobility

range when the golf car is operating in direct sunshine. The environmental study of

greenhouse gas emissions is contrasted with the fossil fuel-generated external utility grid

and PV panel charging of the EV. The external utility grid, which emits 420 Kg of CO2

year, first meets the EV's yearly load needs. This damaging can be decreased, and there are

no CO2 emissions produced when using PV panels as the primary source. The benefits of

the built EV system will lead to a sizable annual decrease in CO2 emissions. Table 1

compares the aspects of integrating the PV system between the traditional golf cars and the

modified EV. The PV panel is installed on top of the EV, extending its travel distance.

Additionally, it can offer charging capabilities while the car is in motion, as well as

sunshading advantages for the occupants. The EV emits no CO2 because it can only be

powered by solar panels, as shown in Table 1. Each day, the sun's radiation lasts for around

9 hours. The battery banks are charged by the additional PV energy. The traveling range

would thus be increased by the PV system without the use of external charge stations.

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5.2 Summary

The EV to be used is a 5 HP golf cart. Three deep cycle battery banks, a PV panel, and a

DC/DC charge controller with MPPT characteristics are all part of the solar system. Solar

radiation and temperature at the intended location are taken into consideration while

analyzing the metrological data. Through the use of experimental applications and

Matlab/Simulink, the dynamic performance of the redesigned EV is simulated. The

dynamic performance of the system has been verified through the analysis of three case

studies. At the top of the EV, a 400 W PV panel is installed to charge three 3kWh deep-

cycle battery banks. The analysis's findings demonstrate that, regardless of the weather, the

EV's PV system can generate enough electricity to run the vehicle. The movement range

can also be extended by the PV system, and charging intervals can be restricted.

Additionally, it lengthens battery life and enhances sustainability in general. The

environmental results indicate that since the PV system does not require an external charge

from fossil fuels, it can reduce 420 Kg of greenhouse CO2 emissions. Although it is

theoretically possible to power a solar automobile directly with energy generated by solar

panels, employing batteries as a form of stored energy is a better and more effective option.

The modified EV can be said to be technically sound, dependable, and environmentally

benign.

5.3 Recommendation

An electric vehicle (EV) with onboard photovoltaic cells charging a group of batteries for

a longer driving range is referred to as a solar electric vehicle (SEV). By means of this

study, we suggest a unique fuzzy logic control method to enhance the energy management

of a solar electric vehicle in order to increase its range.

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5.4 Implemented Solar Powered Electric Vehicle

Figure 5.1

42
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