Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

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Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/hazadv

Phytostabilization and rhizofiltration of toxic heavy metals by heavy metal

accumulator plants for sustainable management of contaminated industrial
sites: A comprehensive review
Pankaj Bakshe∗, Ravin Jugade
Department of Chemistry, RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur 440 033, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: The urban environment is a source and a carrier of heavy metals due to industrial waste. The establishment of
Heavy metal contamination industries and the emission of contaminants are not real problems; the big issue is the mixing of contaminants
Phytoremediation in a healthy environment. There is an urgent need to adopt the best approach to restricting contaminants at the
Remedy selection decision tree
introductory level of discharge and keeping the contaminants apart from the healthy environment. As a conse-
Soil/sediment decision tree
quence, phytostabilization and rhizofiltration are the most specifically used and successful plant-based methods
Phytoremedial action plan
for eliminating toxins from industrial polluted regions with low impact on water bodies or soil structure. It also
has the advantages of not producing secondary waste that must be treated and of stabilizing soil qualities as com-
pared to other conventional treating methods. The comprehensive study helps us establish a suitable selection of
technique for a particular metal-bearing effluent based on time consumption and efficiency, as well as identify
plants typically employed for phytostabilization and rhizofiltration. This paper aims to compile important infor-
mation about phytostabilization and rhizofiltration in relation to heavy metals stabilization. It also described the
phytoremedial action plan, the remedy selection decision tree, and the soil/sediment decision tree. Additionally,
it reveals the major criteria for plant selection, and their mechanism of stabilization Furthermore, this paper also
recommends that the future studies should focus on finding more species that absorb As and Hg and designing a
diverse range of plants that are useful for multielement absorption.

1. Introduction The environmental matrices are rich with common contaminants

that may be very hazardous to both aquatic and terrestrial life (Ali et al.,
One of the most significant problems facing the environment today 2021). There are two main categories of environmental pollutants:
is the contamination caused by heavy metals, which is caused by the in- organic and inorganic. Organic pollutants include common dye com-
dustrial effluent that is not treated. Because of their recalcitrance, tox- pounds like methylene blue that are emitted by factories producing
icity, and persistence, these heavy metals are a matter of the highest paper, paint, textiles, and other goods. Pesticides, polycyclic aromatic
concern (Mohyudin et al., 2022). Industrial effluents and solid urban hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalate esters (PAEs), bisphenol A (BPA), per-
wastes are a major source of surface water contamination. In industrial fluorinated compounds (PFCs), organic phosphate flame retardants
areas, the surrounding groundwater gets contaminated by industrial ef- (OFRs), and others are some of the major pollutants (Ali et al., 2018;
fluents from industries like metal processing, chemical production and Ahmad et al., 2021; Clarke and Smith, 2011). Whereas radionuclides
paper manufacturing with organic and inorganic contaminants includ- and heavy metal ions are examples of inorganic contaminants in
ing heavy metals, salts and fluoride (O. Khan et al. 2021). This contami- wastewater (Rasheed et al., 2022; Ahmad and Mirza, 2018; Mirza and
nated water flows through streams, rivers, and wells, eventually ending Ahmad, 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Karaçetin et al., 2014). They have
up in the drinking water system. Although the waste recycling units are a negative influence on the natural environment and living beings in
limited and not adequate for the treatment of huge load of industrial general due to their carcinogenicity and toxicity. The following are
waste, there are industries which export their waste to other regions. some examples of the maximum permitted levels of heavy metal con-
Waste disposal is carried out in most of the units improperly and this taminants: Arsenic: 0.05 mg/l, Cadmium: 0.005 mg/l Lead: 0.015 mg/l,
has major environmental impacts. The uncontrolled, insufficient, and Mercury: 0.002 mg/l, Chromium: 0.1, Selenium: 0.05 mg/l, Antimony:
haphazard management of this waste introduces a significant threat to 0.006 mg/l (Rasheed et al., 2022). Since some of them have the abil-
global environmental health. ity to bioaccumulate, the damage they do to living organisms may be

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Bakshe).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2023.100293
Received 19 February 2023; Received in revised form 5 April 2023; Accepted 8 April 2023
2772-4166/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

Table 1
Industrial sources and Global emission of heavy metals.

Global Emission (Metric tons/year)

Element Industrial Source
Air Water Soil

Arsenic Mining and smelting, Steel factory, Pesticide manufactures & works units, Pigments and paints industry, 18.8 41 82
Cadmium Non-ferrous metallurgy unit, Electroplating units, Fertilizer industry, Pesticide manufactures & work 7.6 9.4 22
units, Nuclear fission plants, Ceramics work units, Battery manufactures, Printing and graphics processing
units, Pigments and paints industry, Non-ferrous metal smelting units.
Chromium Metallurgical and chemical industries, Cement and asbestos manufacturing industry, Pulp and rubber NA NA NA
manufacturing units, Ceramics work units Electrical components manufacture, Steel factory, Pesticide
manufactures & work units, Printing and graphics processing units, Pigments and paints industry,
Non-ferrous metal smelting units.
Copper Mining and smelting, Metal processing units, Machinery manufacturing industry, Iron and steel industry, 35 112 954
Fertilizer industry, Fly ash disposal unit, Ceramics work units, Electrical components manufacture,
Pesticide manufactures & works units Non-ferrous metal smelting units.
Lead Battery manufactures, Electrical components manufacture, lead smelters unit Burning of coal and oil units 332 138 796
Pesticide manufactures & work units, Mining and plumbing industry, Ceramics work units, Electrical
components manufacture, Steel factory, Printing and graphics processing units, Pigments and paints
industry, Polymer stabilizers unit.
Mercury Mining and refining unit of mercury, Ceramics work units, Electrical components manufacture, Battery 3.6 4.6 8.3
manufacture Pigments and paints industry, Non-ferrous metal smelting units.
Nickel Metallurgical industries, Electroplating units, Steel factory, Battery manufactures, Catalyst works unit. 56 113 325
Zinc Mining and metallurgy, Electroplating units, Instrumentation factory, Paper mills Zinc refineries, 132 226 1372
Galvanizing processing units, Brass manufactures, Metal plating units, Ceramic work units, Electrical
components manufactures, Steel factory, Pesticide manufactures & works units, Battery manufactures,
Printing and graphics processing units, Pigments and paints industry, Polymer stabilizers unit,
Non-ferrous metal smelting industry.
[Sources: Ganeshmurthy et.al (2008), Alloway. B.J (2013), Central Water Commission (2018)].

higher than the harm caused by pollutants that cannot bioaccumulate of these human activities account for the most significant contributors
As a consequence, the deployment of efficient treatment processes for to heavy metal accumulation in the environment, and they are the pri-
the removal of dangerous toxins has become one of the most signifi- mary anthropogenic causes of heavy metal pollution (Tiwari et al., 2020;
cant predictors of long-term industrial success (Rasheed et al., 2022; Machado et al., 2020). Moreover, the increasing accumulation of several
Berrios et al., 2012; Karaçetin et al., 2014). Thus, it is essential to de- metals in soil and water due to rapid industrialization has posed a worry-
termine and assess these harmful contaminants from multiple sources, ing situation for humankind and marine life (Patnaik, 2018; Sharma and
even at low concentration levels (Ali et al., al.2021). Rai, 2018; Bakshe and Jugade, 2021).
Metals including mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, and arsenic There is an urgent requirement for methods to remediate contam-
are known to be toxic to humans (Balali-Mood et al., 2021). Many stud- inated lands. Physicochemical remediation methods are used globally
ies have found that cadmium and lead levels in industrial areas were ex- for the treatment of waste. As a result of these practices, soil fertility
ceed 2 mg/l which is recommended levels by Environment (Protection) decreases and they become unfit for farming, causing secondary con-
Rules, 1986. Despite the fact that the concentrations of heavy metals in tamination in the air or groundwater. (Sivarajasekar and Baskar 2015;
water are relatively low, they may have a significant impact on ecosys- Sivarajasekar et al., 2017a, b). In recent years, a number of different
tems and human health after becoming part of the food chain of various physical, chemical, and biological treatment approaches, including as
species. In this context, concerns about water safety have been raised by adsorption, chemical precipitation, flocculation, and technologies based
researchers due to the increasing detection of these contaminants within on electrochemical treatment, have been utilized for the removal of
water systems, and water quality is seen as a global problem (Am´erico- heavy metals from wastewater . The disadvantage of these approaches
Pinheiro et al., 2022; Cheng et al., 2021; Mian et al., 2021; Lin et al., is that they result in the generation of harmful compounds and by-
2020). products in addition to increased sludge formation (Mohyudin et al.,
Heavy metals may arise from both natural and human sources and 2022; Fu and Wang, 2011). In addition, physicochemical methods tend
accumulate in several environmental sectors (soil, air, water and its in- to be very expensive, so they are not widely used for improving soil con-
terface). Many studies have shown a variety of natural causes of heavy tamination in developing nations. (Chaney et al., 1997; Oh et al., 2014;
metal contamination. Metals may be transferred from their endemic Sivarajasekar et al., 2017c; Sivarajasekar et al., 2018). Green technolo-
spheres into diverse environmental segments through natural weath- gies focusing on the 6Rs approaches (reduce, reuse, recycle, recover,
ering processes. Natural heavy metal emissions occur under a variety redesign, rethink) and closed-loop systems throughout the integrated
of environmental situations. Such emissions include rock weathering, perspective of industrial ecology (IE) offer the potential opportunity to
sea-salt sprays, volcanic eruptions, biogenic sources, and wind-borne protect natural assets while simultaneously enhancing economic growth
soil particles (Devis et al. 1997; Willis Gwenzi, 2021). According to the on a sustainable basis (Patnaik, 2018). It requires implementing strate-
findings of a large number of research that have been carried out on the gies that take into account technological, ecological, socio-cultural, and
assessment of heavy metals, the principal causes of their contamination economic factors that can influence the industrialization process.
in the environment are sources that are anthropogenic. Activities such as Recent decades have seen an increased interest in bioremediation as
agriculture, mining, wastewater treatment, industrial operations, metal- a way to clean contaminated lands with the help of living organisms.
lurgical processes, and runoffs are examples of some of the activities that Bioremediation is the process of reducing, eliminating, altering, and
contribute to accumulate of heavy metals into different parts of the envi- transforming contaminants that are present in the environment, such
ronment. The major industry sources of heavy metals are summarizes in as soil, sediments, air, and water, through the application of microor-
Table 1. Besides that, Vanadium, selenium, mercury, nickel, and tin are ganisms, fungi, green plants, or their enzymes in either a natural or
some of the elements that are released when fossil fuels are burnt. Lead artificial environmental setting. It has the advantages of complete re-
is emitted by autos; zinc, arsenic, and copper are emitted by smelting; mediation of harmful contaminants present in the environment rather
arsenic is a waste product of pesticides; and automobiles emit lead. All than transferring contaminants from one site to another, being a cost ef-

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

fective method with minimal requirements of complex tools and equip- ions are deactivated and controlled, which prevents them from reach-
ment, being an environmentally friendly approach with the use of mi- ing the food chain further. According to Vassilev et al. (2004), these
croorganisms instead of harmful chemicals, and being able to be carried techniques have the following main objectives:
out on site in the majority of cases, reducing transportation costs, site Changing the trace element speciation in the soil, thereby reducing
destruction and disruption, lower liability level, and low environmental the solubility and exchangeable fraction of such elements. (1) Stabiliz-
impact. ing the flora cover and limiting trace element absorption by plants, (2)
It is generally possible to categorize bioremediation into two cate- Reducing the direct exposure of soil-heterotrophic organisms to pollu-
gories: in-situ and ex-situ. By way of comparison, in-situ bioremedia- tants, (3) Enhancing the biodiversity by restricting the mobility of metal
tion involves treating land contaminants on site directly, while ex-situ ions.
bioremediation involves removing them from the site and treating them Several review articles discuss aspects of phytoremediation in de-
elsewhere (Paz-Alberto and Sigua 2013; Ramachandran et al., 2013; tail, but a very few report over application of phytostabilization and
Vijayalakshmi et al., 2018). Environmental factors, such as electron ac- rhizofiltrationfor contaminated industrial streams and sediments with
ceptor status, moisture content, nutrient availability, pH, and tempera- Remedy Selection Decision Tree (RSDT) and Phytoremedial Action Plan
ture, must be optimal for in situ bioremediation to be effective. In-situ (PAP). As a consequence, this paper attempts to account collectively
bioremediation strategies have been used effectively for the treatment of for the mechanisms and methods that are involved in phytostabiliza-
contaminated sites including chlorinated solvents, dyes, heavy metals, tion and rhizofiltration of heavy metals from industrial streams and
and hydrocarbons. In contrast to ex situ bioremediation, in situ bioreme- soil/sediment sites, RSDT for the selection of appropriate technique(s),
diation largely depends on soil porosity at any polluted site. Whereas, Soil/Sediment decision tree for proceeding to design a phytostabiliza-
ex situ bioremediation procedures are selected based on the following tion cover or a phytoremediation ground cover and plant selection cri-
criteria: treatment cost, depth of contamination, kind of pollutant, level teria for this technique.
of contamination, geographical location, and geology of the contam-
inated site (Azubuike et al., 2016).The term bioremediation refers to
2. Heavy metals: industrial sources and global emission
a collection of techniques that include phytoremediation, bioventing,
biodegradation (Dupont 1993), bio-filtration (Journois et al., 1994),
Heavy metals are both carried and deposited in industrial waste wa-
bio-augmentation (Salem et al., 2003), bio-leaching (Rohwerder et al.,
ter in urban areas. In recent decades, industrialization and urbaniza-
2003), and bio-stimulation (Bento et al., 2005). Bioremediation tech-
tion have deposited massive amounts of effluent and other urban liquid
niques have received the most attention for the treatment of heavy
waste into the environment, and the problem is expected to worsen.
metal contamination through phytoremediation. Plant-based restora-
They contain a broad spectrum of inorganic and organic materials as
tion is aimed at restoring soils and water sources contaminated with
well as heavy metals (Chonkar et al., 2000). In the context of India, there
contaminants through the use of native or genetically modified plant
are 764 different industrial units generating 501MLD (Million Litres per
species (Harvey et al., 2002; Arthur et al. 2005; Parmar and Singh 2015).
Day) waste (ENVIS. 2018). Leather tanneries, paper production indus-
It is mainly due to an increase in vegetation, sustainable development,
tries, distilleries, textile industries, petroleum refineries, thermal plants,
and relatively low-cost remediation that phytoremediation has become
smelters, automobile industries, paint industries, electroplating indus-
popular (Cunningham et al., 1997; Ghosh and Singh 2005).
tries, ceramic industries, and electronic industries are the major suppli-
Based on remedy selection decision tree, the most promising reme-
ers of heavy metals to these wastes. In Table 1, results for heavy metal
dies for industrial streams and soil/sediment are rhizofiltration and phy-
emissions worldwide are presented along with the sources of pollution.
tostabilization, respectively, since both techniques ensure that contami-
nants are not introduced into nearby surface and ground waters. There-
fore, phytostabilization describes the use of pollutant-tolerant plants to 3. Remedy selection decision tree (RSDT)
mechanically stabilize polluted soil in order to reduce mass erosion,
minimize airborne transport, and reduce leaching pollutants (Fitz and A number of options must be considered when dealing with a con-
Wenzel 2002; Boisson et al., 2016). It is commonly used in soil remedia- taminated site when it comes to phytotechnology. As a general rule,
tion, sediment deposition, and sludge treatment. Rhizofiltration is also a remedies are selected based on the affected media, the contamination of
method of capturing and removing toxic contaminants from surface wa- concern, and the contamination behavior of the affected media. Using an
ter and groundwater using plant roots. As a result of precipitation, com- evaluation of general criteria, the decision tree in this section helps iden-
plexation, metal valence reduction or sorption, phytostabilization and tify possible uses for phytotechnology. In addition, whether such models
rhizofiltration can happen. Besides preventing harmful leachate from are identified as potential remedies is ensured by the soil/sediment de-
forming, the plant reduced soil erosion and the distribution of contami- cision tree. Moreover, decision trees should be developed at sites where
nated metal to different areas by reducing the volume of water that per- multiple media are affected, such as groundwater and riparian zones
colates into the soil. With their tensile strength, adhesion, and frictional (ITRC. 2009; Søndergaard et al., 2017).
qualities, dense roots provide mechanical support to soil masses. Roots In accordance with these decision trees, it will help regulatory au-
that grow perpendicular to the soil surface give resistance to shearing thorities, land holders, technology providers and the public to determine
pressures, whereas roots that grow parallel to the soil strengthen the whether phytotechnology applies to contaminated sites. Similarly, these
soil zone’s tensile strength (Reubens et al., 2007). By having a highly decision trees are mainly used to make strategic decisions; A variety of
dense root system, the soil can be stabilized and erosion reduced at factors will contribute to the final remedy chosen for the site, including
the same time. A quick immobilization solution is needed when surface the remedial goals, clean-up objectives, intended results, stakeholder
and groundwater are at risk and there is no need for biomass disposal opinions, environmental regulation, and economic considerations of the
(Pathak 2015). This remediation process is primarily employed on soils, community, as well as any other relevant and appropriate requirements
sediments, and sludge and depends on the root ability to reduce con- (ARARs) (Holland et al., 2011). By this measure, phytotechnology can
taminants’ mobility and bioavailability (USEPA, 2000). These low-cost either be viewed as a supplement or eventual replacement of an existing
phytotechnologies stabilize toxic metal ions within or around the rhizo- system on a particular site. It is important to consider the results of both
sphere using various green plants. Nowadays it is universally recognized systems together and over time as the phytotechnology system develops
as an effective method of restoring physical, chemical, and biological on the site.
characteristics to contaminated soils (Bolan et al., 2003; Kumpiene et al., The majority of information required to perform the soil/sediment
2008). As a result of these techniques, the contaminants are not actually and other decision trees should have been gathered in the project’s as-
physically removed from the soils and streams, but rather the potential sessment stage. Therefore, proposals for the use of a phytotechnology

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

at a specific location should include all of the data necessary to en- steps, i.e. Design, Installation and Operation (Fig. 3). These are the se-
sure a satisfactory outcome. As part of the initial decision tree, plant- quential steps which must be followed one by one.
atmosphere continuum options, threat contaminant, affected media and
soil chemicals will be identified (Marlborough 2016). As part of the ini- 4.1. Design
tial decision tree, two additional decisions are provided that are specific
to groundwater and soil/sediment issues. These should also be acknowl- It is the first step, executed prior to installation and it gives the layout
edged as possible remedies. Moreover, some applications may be used of the total system. This includes characterization of the site, a work
for handling multiple media as well as multiple contaminants. In each plan, and treatability and piolet testing.
case, these decision trees will serve as a general evaluation of phytotech-
nology that results in a definite “Yes” or “No”. In certain situations, the 4.1.1. Site characterization
answer to a particular query can be "Maybe" or “I don’t know.dȁ In Evaluation of contamination severity and type requires a site charac-
such cases, it is recommended that these findings be considered “Yesdȁ terization, as well as to address the potential environmental risk, track
before more evidence can be obtained that will give better responses the migration of the contaminants, remedy of the contamination, and
to these questions. In some situations, a bench-or pilot-scale feasibility assess the efficacy of the remedy. There are some relevant points for a
study might be required to address these questions. Some findings lead site characterization that must be considered. The key steps to planning
to a "yield" that gives supplementary instructions before proceeding. and carrying out characterization of an environmental site are iden-
The following details are required from the assessment process in or- tifying the site (strategic mapping), defining the objectives as well as
der to construct the Remedy Selection Decision Tree (Fig. 1). (I) Chemi- site boundaries and collecting available existing data and information
cal properties of contaminant of concern, (II) Impacted media and sites about that site, i.e. desktop review (Swyngedouw 2018). On the basis
and degree of impact, (III) Results of exposure evaluation and acceptable of this data, there is a need to develop one or more conceptual work
risks plans and reports. The conceptual work plan emphasized all methods,
It is also important to provide more detail on how the contaminant requirements and results. It gives the blueprint of the system which will
of concern communicates with the applicant plant species found by the be implemented on contaminated sites.
plant screening method. This information can be assessed through a phy-
4.1.2. Treatability
totechnology database during the screening process for plant species.
Treatability studies are in situ or ex situ tests intended to provide es-
sential data necessary to assess one or more treatment technologies and
3.1. Soil/Sediment decision tree eventually to adopt them. Guidelines for Conducting Remedial Investi-
gations and Feasibility Studies published by the EPA (CERCLA, 1989),
If the Remedy Selection Decision Tree suggests phytostabilization a remediation technology will be evaluated using up to three tiers of
or phytoremediation groundcovers, the Soil/Sediment Decision Tree treatability tests. Screening in the laboratory, bench-scale testing, and
(Fig. 2) should be examined. Following are the steps that can be used pilot-scale testing are amongst them (McFarland et al., 1991).
for the analysis of the assessment phase and the screening process for
plant species: (I) Site profile, layout, irrigation sources, and planting 4.1.3. Pilot-scale testing
area available, (II) Hydrology, (III) Fertility and agronomic conditions Pilot-scale testing is suitable for this remediation as a result of the
of soil/sediment, (IV) Contaminant of concern, as well as its location large size of the contamination site and the need for precise method
and magnitude of impact, (V) Climate conditions and (VI) Tolerances to validation. Besides providing quantitative performance and cost data, it
the contaminant of concern, tolerances to soil/sediment conditions, and also identifies potential transport pathways and constraints of treatment
growth pattern of applicant plant species. alternatives.
To complete the assessment, preliminary implementation considera-
tions are needed. It is also necessary to discuss specific questions within 4.2. Installation
the decision tree (ITRC, 2009).
It is the first and most crucial step in implementing this technology.
It will be installed in stages based on piolet testing and work plans.
4. Phytoremedial action plan (PAP) For this step, the major criteria are site preparation, soil preparation,
infrastructure and planting.
The Phytoremedial Action Plan (PAP) is the primary step that spec-
ifies how the remediation will be carried out. However, there are other 4.2.1. Site preparation
documents that inform the PAP and help it to be created. It’s crucial to The process of installation starts with the site preparation process.
fully characterize the site before deciding on the best cleanup strategy To launch new projects on an unfriendly site, plans can be destroyed,
(Fountain 2005). Furthermore, the levels of pollutants and health risks the mechanism impeded, and the overall project affected. This is a chal-
posed by such chemicals at the site must be understood. Project plan- lenge that needs to be addressed before the project begins. This can be
ners can then determine what the target levels should be in order to accomplished through the dismantling of facilities, the removal of de-
adequately reduce exposure risks. And this can be accomplished by con- bris, and the removal or relocation of utility lines. This parameter assists
ducting a series of studies, or remediation site assessments, to gather the in environmental concern and organizing how the project should run.
data needed to create a PAP. This PAP lays out the steps for cleaning up Preparing a contaminated site properly to begin with provides a much
the site. Under the regulatory oversight of government environmental safer, most efficient working environment and also a total project that
agencies, technical professional consultants with special licensing pre- is up to standard.
pare these procedures. A remediation Plan’s main requirements are to
outline which remediation methods are required and why. Furthermore, 4.2.2. Soil preparation
feasibility in terms of cost, time, and effort is a topic of debate. Other One of the important steps in establishing a successful plantation is
methods that may be useful are also explained in remediation plans. soil preparation. The best soil for planting is fertilized, well drained, yet
Finally, each PAP discusses the site-specific goals, focusing on realistic moisture preserves and the sufficient air circulation which is necessary
timelines, clean-up goals, and case closure requirements (USEPA 2000; for healthy roots. For a good plant to grow and sprout, the soil needs
IETC 2003). to be properly prepared. Physical modification is part of the soil prepa-
According to USEPA (2000), the installation of phytoremediation ration process, including tilling, applying chelating agents, controlling
technology including phytostabilization is categorized into three main pH, and maintaining drainage (USEPA 2000).

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Fig. 1. Remedy Selection Decision Tree (Source: Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council, 2009).

Physical modification: tilling- In soil preparation, the goal of tillage 2012). Tilling equipment is chosen according to the soil type and
is to create favourable physical environments for seed germination and size. amongst the options are hand digging with a spade or shovel,
rapid plant growth. It is likely to cause soil compaction, alter the bal- tilling with a power rotary tiller, and using a small garden tractor
ances of microbes and lead to the burying under the zone of insects and or full-sized tractor. The best methods of tilling the soil are hand
microbes in layers of coarse organic material. (Ordoñez-Morales et al., plows, rotary tillers, small garden tractors or full-sized farm tractors
2019; Jabr et.al. 2011). Intensive soil tillage, on the other hand, may (Niemiera 2015).
cause soil structure deterioration due to the progressive depletion of Chelating agents- By chemically chelating the metal, a specific bind-
stable aggregates, resulting in soil erosion and compaction, as well ing site is generated which forms a precipitate (Fei et al., 2005). Gen-
as reduced moisture accessibility for plants (Castellini and Ventrella erally, the process of precipitation entails the addition of different

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Fig. 2. Soil/Sediment Decision Tree (Source: Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council, 2009).

chemical agents producing poisonous gases and maintaining strict re- been carried out for specific metals such as mercury contamination: 1,
dox conditions. To prevent such concerns by using metal chelating 3-benzenediamidoethanethiol (BDET), for removal of copper ions from
agents, heavy metals are precipitated directly in the aqueous phase wastewater: potassium ethyl xanthate, for complex heavy metals: N,
(Koelmel et al., 2016). Another significance of chelating agent is the N0-bis-(dithiocarboxy) piperazine and 1, 3, 5-hexahydrotriazine dithio-
increased mobility of metals in soil caused by these chemicals com- carbamate and dipropyl dithiophosphate for remediating lead, cad-
pensates for the non-hyper accumulators’ comparatively poor absorp- mium, copper, and mercury (Chang and Yen, 2006). Furthermore, syn-
tion capacity, enhancing their overall uptake potential and efficiency. thetic chelating agents and surfactants such as Ethylene diamine tetra
The examples of widely used chemicals are sodium dimethyldithio- acetic acid (EDTA), Ethylene bis (oxy ethylene nitrilo) tetra acetic acid
carbamate, trimercaptotriazine and potassium or sodium thiocarbonate (EGTA), 1,2-cyclohexylene dinitrilo tetra acetic acid (CDTA), Diethylen-
(Yadav et al., 2019). The development of specific chelating agents has etriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), and citric acid have been shown to

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

Fig. 3. Phytoremedial Action Plan.

accelerate the rate of heavy metal absorption by allowing them highly is associated with optimal availability of soil nutrients (Msimbira and
bioavailable to plants (Pathak et al., 2020). pH control- A significant fac- Smith, 2020). Hence, the appropriate pH of the soil is essential for op-
tor in soil preparation is pH control, as the pH of soil is too high or too timal plant growth. Typically, lime and sulphur are used to change the
low can lead to poor plant growth, mostly because of pH effects on the pH of soil. Dolomitic limestone (calcium carbonate and magnesium car-
supply of plant nutrients. The solubility, mobility and bioavailability of bonate) increases the pH of the soil by adding calcium and magnesium.
trace elements is strongly affected by soil pH. The optimum pH for plant For the acidification of alkaline soil, agricultural (elemental) sulphur is
growth is slightly acidic (6.1–6.5) to slightly alkaline (7.4–7.8) which used. The quantity to apply is determined by the present and ideal pHs,

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

which is one reason for soil being tested on a regular basis (Neina 2019; has less scope in the remediation process because it is less reliable estab-
Niemiera 2015). lishment on some sites and across seasons. This method is incompatible
Drainage- In order for well-drained soil to work properly, it must with deep, nonwetting sands and heavy textured soil. Also, there is a
drain slowly without pooling and puddles. In order for fertile soil to low survival rate of viable seeds. Despite these drawbacks, it is used be-
drain properly, it cannot drain too quickly or too slowly. The rapid cause seeds are less expensive than transplants, and seeds are easier and
drainage of soil prevents plants from absorbing water, which may lead less costly to transport and easy to store. Whereas transplanting is the
to death. Furthermore, a stagnating puddle of water in a garden sink most acceptable method in this technique. It has many advantages, in-
will decrease the amount of oxygen that plants can get from the soil, cluding the ability to be more resistant to insects and other unfavourable
causing the plants to die. A plant with a low water content and is weak conditions due to their maturity and strength. Transplants provide a sig-
is more susceptible to diseases, as well as insect damage. In addition, nificant jump start to the season because they mature sooner (Zaid and
the compact and clay soil will drain improperly and allow the roots in Arias-Jiménez 2002; Palma and Laurance 2015).
wet conditions to sit too long. Suitable plants can be selected for wet A poor planting plan is proven to negatively impact a tree’s growth,
areas where heavy clay or compacted soil exists, for examples Phrag- survival, and wind stability. Wind throw can occur if the root systems
mites australis, Phalaris arundinacea, Typha domingensis, Typha latifolia, of trees are badly distorted during planting. In order to ensure a strong
Phragmites karka, Juncus pallidus, and Empodisma minus (Herath and radial root system that protects the stem all around, care must be taken
Vithanage, 2015). Either modify the soil to make it softer or make it when planting the roots in the planting hole. Forest establishment,
spongier to be able to handle the amount of water. If the soil is sandy, therefore, has an important focus on planting efficiency, since it im-
plant roots are drained and are deprived of water. For this type of pacts both short-term and long-term plantation success. In cases where
soil, modify the soil or choose plants that can cope with dehydration mounding or bare-rooted transplants are used, they must be planted
and drought. It is therefore important to check the soil as well as its manually. In terms of manually planting, there are three basic tech-
drainage capabilities prior to planting anything on the site to create a niques: Slit planting, Angle-notch or T-notch planting and Pit planting
well-draining soil. All types of soil, whether compact, clayey or sandy, (Forestry, 2021).
can benefit from organic amendments. To strengthen drainage, it is in-
sufficient to simply add sand to the tile soil because this can merely 4.3. Operations
make the soil much more concrete. Plant health is dictated by the pres-
ence of organic materials such as: Peat moss, compost, shredded bark, In phytoremediation technology, the operational part is essential for
manure, nutrient-rich, properly drained soil. Furthermore, a drainage a consistent and optimal output. Once this technology has been success-
channel with agricultural piping will be the most effective alternative fully installed, the operational part plays an important role for best per-
(Jacobs et al., 2009). formance for a long time. The operation part includes the maintenance
and monitoring of important physical parameters that help to strengthen
the system.
4.2.3. Infrastructure
Some infrastructure is required to establish phytoremediation tech-
4.3.1. Maintenance
niques in contaminated sites. Infrastructure plays an additional role in
Since living organisms are used in phytoremediation technology, it
the progression of this technique and better outcome. These infrastruc-
is more important to maintain this system as compared to other tradi-
tures lead to developing this technique in a better way and improving
tional remediation techniques. It is nothing but the efforts taken to keep
performance. Irrigation systems and fencing are the important infras-
the condition and performance of a system always new. For remedia-
tructure required for phytoremediation techniques.
tion to continue and be effective, it is critical that the system remain
Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to crops to
healthy. It may be planned or unplanned maintenance. Plant, climate
meet their water needs. It provides moisture for growth and enhance-
and contaminant variations can result in some, all or additional require-
ment, germination, and other associated functions. According to soil
ments such as: irrigation water, compost, pH regulator, chelating agent,
condition, seasons and type of the plants, the frequency, rate, amount
drainage water disposal, insecticide, fencing/pest control and replant-
and time of irrigation are different. The application of Localized Irri-
ing. Depending on the situation, it’s essential to keep all of these factors
gation and Surface Irrigation is more convenient for healthy plants in
in good working order (USEPA 2000).
contaminated sites (Brouwer et al., 1985).
Soil quality and application of fertilizers- The quality of the soil is
Fencing: A newly created forest plantation is especially vulnerable
another crucially essential maintenance criterion for the effectiveness
to harm by livestock and wild animals. The major issue is affected by
of these methods. Soil quality refers to the physical, chemical, and bi-
animals that like to browse on the shoots of young plants. Damage can
ological qualities of soil as well as their interactions. When a soil can
cause stunted, forked, and dead trees, resulting in the failure of a plan-
perform many ecosystem functions such as food supply, water storage,
tation, which is expensive to replace. Depending on the plant species,
nutrient cycling, erosion management, and climate regulation, it is said
young trees may be vulnerable to browsing for several years after plant-
to be of high quality. The many and varied criteria available for charac-
ing. Existing walls or hedges are also used if they are available, but
terizing soil quality (Adhikari and Hartemink, 2016; Bünemann et al.,
fencing is the most common way to protect newly planted trees from
2018; Ibrahimi et al., 2022; Juhos et al., 2019). A technique for man-
animal damage. Although the plantation is enclosed by fences, tree shel-
aging soil resources for future eco-friendly usage has been proposed as
ters are also used to protect individual trees. Plastic or mesh tubes are
a soil quality assessment. The sustainability of production has become
slipped over the young plants and secured with a stake. The greenhouse
a topic of public concern. A thorough examination of the effects of land
effect created by the plastic tubes provides a favourable environment for
use must include characteristics of soil quality (De Laurentiis et al.2019;
the trees to grow and also provides physical protection from browsing.
Amami et al., al.2022).
These tree shelters are especially beneficial in plantations where groups
It is well acknowledged that the use of fertilizers is one of the most
of broadleaves are being established, as they provide additional safety
important factors contributing to improved plant growth and lower lev-
to these vulnerable species (Potter 1991).
els of ammonia emissions. (O. Khan et al., 2021) Common fertilizers,
on the other hand, do not produce encouraging outcomes due to the
4.2.4. Planting fact that the vast majority of conventional fertilizers are lost and do not
Plantations can be grown in a variety of ways, including direct seed- reach the intended location as a result of the waste produced by evap-
ing, transplanting, and a combination of the two. The planting method oration, drift, hydrolysis, leaching, runoff, and microbial or photolytic
can be adopted depending on the selection of the plant. Direct seeding degradation of nutrients. On the other hand, the use of huge amounts of

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

Table 2
Important monitoring parameter, reasons of monitoring and scheduled.

Monitoring parameter Reason for monitoring Frequency

Temperature Maintenance in function of type of plants

(irrigation, etc.)
Rainfall To determine the water balance and
velocity of evapotranspiration
Climatological data Relative humidity Seasonal
Sunshine
Wind speed and wind direction

Visual characteristics (signs of stress, Maintenance in function of type of plants: Trimester or seasonal
disease, vitality, damage from insects, replanting, replacement of plants,
fungal disease, growth, leaf mass, etc. fertilizing, pesticide use
Plants Tissue conc. (root, shoot, stem, leaf) Determine contaminant and degradation Annual
products
Transpiration velocity/VOC evapotr. Quantification and evolution of the First time two years after planting, then possibly
phytoremediation process every two years

Geochemical parameters (pH, nutrient Optimization of characteristics for Seasonal/annual

concentrations, water content, etc.) vegetation
Soil/sediment Microbial communities Quantification of degradation potential Annual (afterwards every two or three years)
Contaminant and degradation products Quantification and evolution of the Annual
phytoremediation process
(Source: USEPA 2000; Gestel et al., 2019).

fertilizers is one factor that contributes to a rise in the contamination of effective at reducing contaminants’ movement, especially heavy metals.
water. (Khalid et al., 2022; Manjunatha et al., 2019). To overcome this Heavy metals are typically discharged from industry as solid waste or
challenge, the encapsulated fertilizers proved to be the most effective water effluents; thus, it is important to keep these solid waste or wa-
solution owing to the gradual release nature of their ingredients and ter effluents apart from the healthy environment. Solid waste in soil
the reduced solubility impact they had. (Zafar et al., 2021). Further- and sediment can be most effectively limited from accumulating heavy
more, the use of nanotechnologies is a strategy that has the potential to metals through phytostabilization. Planting a specific plant for phytosta-
promote plant growth and yield, leading to improved outcomes of this bilization not only restricts the movement of contaminants, but it also
process. It is anticipated that with the assistance of this technology, it helps to reduce air pollution and maintain the normal temperature in the
would be feasible to use the nanoparticles in an efficient and accurate industrial site. Similarly, rhizofiltration is the most effective method for
manner together with other limited resources such as water and expen- preventing contaminants from moving across surface or ground water
sive synthetic fertilizers (Beig et al., 2022). This would help to reduce media.
the overall cost of the project. An industrial site can be phytostabilized by planting specific trees
based on contaminants, nature of soil and the climate. There must be
4.3.2. Monitoring open fields for planting in industrial areas. If there’s not enough open
It is imperative to monitor the phytoremediation system on a reg- fields, then it would have to be planned and created. Plantation is done
ular basis in order to assess the evolution and effectiveness of the end in a row at a fixed distance to occupy the most area to prevent contam-
result. The monitoring always depends on the selection of phytoremedi- inants from drifting from an industrial site to another native environ-
ation technique and the chosen remediation goal. It must be determined ment. Whereas, in rhizofiltration, acclimatized plants are planted along
whether the contamination and/or contamination plume is constant or the industrial stream from its point of origin to where it meets in a nat-
decreasing. A specific-designed monitoring system leads to a repository ural stream or river. Plantation can be done equidistantly and on both
with trend data of the related parameters over time and space. The moni- sides of the industrial stream to limit contaminant migration as much
toring plan must comply with the following requirements. (I) Assert that as possible.
the phytoremediation technique is working as predicted, (II) Consider Rhizofiltration and phytostabilization have as their main princi-
all of the toxic by-products that could be produced, (III) Determine the ple that plants accumulate contaminants inside root tissue and mini-
stability or shrinkage of contamination or contamination plume, (VI) mize metal mobility or bioavailability by alleviating it within the sub-
Verify that there is no threat to sensitive receptors, (V) Observe the strate or accumulating within the root system. A possible consequence
changes in environmental factors which may compromise the efficiency of excessive metal accumulation is a reduced ability to move met-
of phytoremediation technology, and (VI) Ensure that the remediation als through sediment (Nedjimi and Daoud 2009; Jamal et al. 2014;
objectives have been achieved (Gestel et al., 2019). Radziemska et al., 2017; DalCorso et al., 2019). Both methods have
Some of important monitoring parameter along with reasons of mon- a similar basic mechanism in that the process of complexation with
itoring and scheduled are shown in Table 2. root exudates and chelation with metal-binding molecules takes place
in both. (Ma et al., 2016; Yanet al. 2020). In addition to these mech-
5. Structural mechanism of phytostabilization and rhizofiltration anisms, involvement of microorganisms and cell wall bonding occurs
in industrial sites in phytostabilization, whereas, production of antioxidant compounds
and compartmentation of contaminants occurs in rhizofiltration. Fur-
The establishment of industries and the emission of contaminants thermore, trace element mobility as well as pH, organic matter, texture,
are not real problems; the big issue is the mixing of contaminants in a redox potential, and temperature are all important factors for this mech-
healthy environment. If we adopt the best approach to restricting con- anism to work (Chaignon and Hinsinger 2002; Sheoran et al., 2016;
taminants at the introductory level of discharge, then we will rarely face Radziemska et al., 2018; Palansooriya et al., 2020). The ultimate pro-
toxic impacts of industry. Restriction in the movement of contaminants cess of stabilization and filtration may take place through complexation,
is the ideal strategy for preventing contaminants in a healthy environ- sorption, metal valence reduction or precipitation (Ghosh and Singh
ment. Phytostabilization and rhizofiltration have been proved to be most 2005; Chibuike and Obiora 2014).

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

5.1. Interaction with root exudates of the metallothionein gene (KoMT2) in the leaves of seedlings living
under Cd stress.
Phytostabilization depends on the solubility, mobility, and phy-
toavailability of metal ions released from roots (Colzi et al., 2012). 5.3. Role of microorganisms
A significant portion of the photosynthates generated by leaves are
transported from the roots to the rhizosphere during natural plant Plant roots are exposed to a variety of microorganisms in their nat-
development. There may be a variety of compounds in exudates, in- ural environment, which play important roles in nutrient recycling,
cluding sugars, polysaccharides, organic and amino acids, peptides, soil structure preservation, noxious chemical detoxification, and pest
and proteins (Lin et al., 2003; Hinsinger et al., 2006). Basically, root and pathogen management (Filip 2002). It is possible for plant-microbe
exudates can be categorized into high-molecular-weight compound interactions to be either specific or non-specific. In specific interac-
and low-molecular-weight compound. High-molecular-weight exudates tions, plants provide a carbon source that boosts the ability of bacte-
from roots are made up of enzymes, mucilages including polysaccha- ria to reduce toxicity of contaminated soil, and in non-specific inter-
rides, and polyuronic acid, while low-molecular-weight exudates in- actions, different metabolic reactions in plants promote the growth of
clude sugars, organic acids, and phenols. Root exudates play a vital role microbial communities, which then degrade the pollutants in the soil.
in phytostabilization by facilitating the accumulation, stabilization, or (Kushwaha et al., 2015). By overcoming phytotoxic effects, the microor-
volatilization of contaminants from the soil (Kushwaha et al., 2015). ganisms in the rhizosphere of plants (bacteria and mycorrhizae) are able
Aside from the above points, root exudates have also proven to be an to actively participate in changing the speciation of the metals and re-
efficient source of energy for soil-based microbes; these substances also generating the plants (van der Lelie et al. 1999). In some cases, a re-
work as ligands for binding heavy metal ions, which have an impact duction in soil pH can significantly enhance the phytoavailability of
on the pH of the rhizosphere. Changing soil pH influences metal mo- heavy metals as well as Ni by adding bacteria such as Sphingomonas
bilization and reabsorption by plant roots. Hence, roots alter trace el- macroscopica, M. arabinogalactanolyticum, Alyssum murale, etc. to the
ement mobility by controlling the soil pH and electrochemical poten- soil, thus facilitating phytostabilization (Abou-Shanab et al. 2003).
tials through apoplastic and rhizodeposition/complexation processes. Moreover, Brassica napus plants were inoculated for increased tol-
(Hinsinger 2001; Lombi et al., 2001; Chaignon and Hinsinger 2002). eranceto various heavy metals with different types of bacteria such
Through root exudates, heavy metal ions are stabilized without being as pseudomonas chlororaphis,azotabactervinelandii, bacillus mucilagi-
taken into the root by plants. This step is key to phytostabilizing. An nosus, and microbacteriumlactium (Wu et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2009;
amino acid compound produced by grain plants, phytosiderophore, is He et al., 2010). The phytostabilization of heavy metals, such as Zn and
capable of forming stable complexes with iron, cadmium, zinc and cop- Cd, in Zea mays L. has been reported by Janeeshma (2015) (Fig. 4).
per (Hinsinger 2001; Lombi et al., 2001; Chaignon and Hinsinger 2002).
Moreover, Nair et al. (2008) discussed the role of siderophores released 5.4. Cell wall response
by roots in immobilizing arsenic and increasing detoxification toxicity.
Similarly, organic acids, including oxalic acid, malic acid, and citric Through simple passive diffusion or active metal uptake by spe-
acid, prevent Cd2+ from entering its roots (Kushwaha et al., 2015). Fur- cial metal transporters, heavy metals from the soil can access the root
thermore, there have been reports that heavy metals from roots, such as cell. Reports claim that the root cell wall is the main chamber where
nickel and zinc chelating histidine molecules, along with citrate, assist heavy metals are deposited in plant roots (e.g., Małecka et al., 2008;
with restraining their uptake into the cells (Salt et al. 2000; Hall 2002). Meyers et al., 2009; Konno et al., 2010). Homogalacturonan (HGA) is the
principal pectin-binding domain of plant cell walls, which binds divalent
5.2. Molecular chelation with metal-binding and trivalent metals (Pelloux et al., 2007; Caffall and Mohnen 2009). A
benefit of metal binding with the HGA of cell walls is that metal ions
In addition to chelating metal ions with amino acids, organic acids, within the cell wall are metabolically inactivated, thus decreasing their
or peptides in the cytosol, metal ions may also be locked away in the vac- toxicity (Jiang and Wang 2008). According to Bringezu et al. (1999),
uole through metalloproteins, hence increasing their toxicity to heavy heavy metal-tolerant Silene vulgaris sp. Heavy metals accumulate in Hu-
metals. The two most identified ligands within plant cells for heavy milis’ epidermal cell walls. Additionally, the carboxyl group of pectin in
metal binding are Phytochelatins (PCs) and Metallothiones (MTs). A the cell wall can act as a binding site for lead. This is considered the
number of low-molecular-weight cysteine-rich peptides or polypeptide most significant and reliable interaction through which plants can sus-
molecules possess a high affinity for different heavy metals and are syn- tain their poisoning by lead (Meyers et al., 2008; Jiang and Liu 2010).
thesized in the plant cell (Hall 2002). A heavy metal presence stimu- The cell walls of Minuartiaverna sp. hercynica growing on heavy metal-
lates the production of PCs by plants (Cobbett and Goldsbrough 2002; contaminated mine tailings contained higher levels of Iron, Copper,
Suresh and Ravishankar 2004). In the presence of heavy metals, phy- Zinc, and Lead (Solanki and Dhankhar 2011; Kushwaha et al., 2015).
tochelatin synthase becomes activated, releasing PCs as a result. The Furthermore, increased levels of pectin in the roots of the Copper (Cu)
halophyte S. salasa was found to express an increased amount of SsPCS tolerant Silene paradox have resulted in higher rates of Copper binding
mRNA in the presence of Pb and mercury (Hg). In contrast to the first to the roots, thus reducing Cu accumulation within them (Colzi et al.,
PCS gene cloned from Thellungiella halophila, SsPCS is thought to have 2012).
a metals sensing ability (Cong et al., 2016). Plant MTs are categorized
into three classes according to the Cys-residue arrangement. A majority 5.5. Secretion of antioxidant compounds
of the plant MTs are Class I proteins with two Cys-rich domains and
a spacer region that is free of this amino acid. The Cys-residues are Typically, the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is an
distributed throughout the entire protein sequence in Class II MTs. In indication that a heavy metal is toxic. ROS trigger oxidative dam-
contrast to Class I and II MTs, Class III MTs are enzymatically derived age. For this reason, plants have evolved antioxidant strategies that
(Usha et al., 2009). The expression of metallothionin genes in a variety use enzymes such as peroxidases, catalases, superoxide dismutase, glu-
of plant species was studied in several groups. In response to Zn, Cu, tathione, ascorbic acid, flavonoids, and alpha-tocopherol to eliminate
and Pb, Huang and Wang (2010) found that AmMT2 gene transcripts ROS. (Schutzendubel and Polle, 2002; Barna et al., 2012; Keshavarz-
increased significantly in Avicennia marina plants. BgMT2 transcript Tohid et al., 2016). These antioxidant enzymes such as peroxidases,
levels exhibited a similar response to Zn, Cu, and Pb when these el- catalases, and superoxide dismutase help determine the extent of stress
ements were found in leaves of Bruguieragymnorrhiza (Huang et al., in plants. The guaiacol peroxidase antioxidant is a key player in scav-
2011). Chen et al. (2014) reported an increase in the expression levels enging ROS (Verma and Dubey, 2003). It is observed that Wolffia ar-

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

Fig. 4. Bacterial mediated reduction and immobilization of heavy metals. Metal reduction and accumulation occur in four major steps (1) metal interaction and
biosorption, (2) metal transport to cytoplasam, (3) reduction and (4) accumulation. (With copy right permission, Source: wi).

rhizal has significantly released both enzymatic anti oxidative com- also suggested that plant species with a high bioconcentration factor or
pounds such as ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, nicotinamide dinu- BCFroot (> 1) and a low translocation factor or TFs (< 1) will be good
cleotide, and peroxidase, and non-enzymatic compounds such as glu- candidates for phytostabilization (Yoon et al. 2006; Meng et al., 2013;
tathione and ascorbate in defensive mechanism against Cd and Pb Shackira and Puthur 2017). It is also essential that plants used for phy-
(Piotrowska et al., 2010). Similarly, several aquatic plants including tostabilization are not toxic to a variety of metals and metalloids found
Najasindica (Singh et al., 2010), P. stratiotes,S. molesta (Upadhyay and in the sediment (Fitz and Wenzel 2002).
Panda,2005), Spirodela intermedia (da-Silvaet al.,2017), L. minor (Babi A phytoremediation strategy should meet the total objectives (i.e.,
’c et al., 2009) Salvinia natans (Dhir et al., al.,2009), and Potamogeton- reducing water and soil pollution) by selecting plants that are indige-
pusillus (Monferran et al. 2009) have been studied and found to have a nous to the contaminated area, grow rapidly, have strong root systems,
remarkable capability to produce antioxidant compounds. and prevent heavy metal dispersals by water runoff or wind erosion
(Berti and Cunningham 2000; Freitas et al., 2004; Ali et al., 2013). Ad-
5.6. Compartmentation of contaminants ditionally, in order for phytostabilization to be applied on a large scale,
plants must produce a significant number of propagules and should pref-
Metals are deposited large amounts in hyperaccumulating plants in erentially propagate by seeds (Henson et al., 2013; Mench et al., 2006;
a way that doesn’t harm essential enzymes. In the vacuoles, enzymes Bert et al., 2008). Phytostabilization reclamation methods have also
such as proteinases, lipases, and phosphatases are found that are not been reported to need more seed production, which normally aids in
affected by the toxicities of the targets. Therefore, plants have a greater a more persistent vegetation cover (Yoon et al. 2006; Meng et al., 2013;
capacity to deposit metals in the vacuoles (Wink, 1993; Carter et al., Shackira and Puthur 2017). Finally, plants in contaminated places must
2004). Freeman et al. (2006) report that metals such as cadmium, ar- be able to improve soil growth through a long-term succession process
senic, nickel, zinc and aluminium are also stored in epidermal tissue. (Mendez and Maier 2008).
For rhizofiltration, the primary characteristics for selecting plant
6. Plant selection criteria species are similar to those for phytostabilization, with the exception
that we would select a plant species that is hydroponically cultivated
Plant selection is a critical step towards an effective phytostabiliza- in green houses and can be effectively acclimatized in an industrially
tion process, and some appropriate aspects must be addressed before contaminated stream (Kristanti et al., 2021) Other criteria for selecting
choice. A suitable plant for phytostabilization must be indigenous to the a plant species for rhizofiltration include dense rooting systems with
contaminated area and able to withstand other stresses such as drought, high adsorption, plants that grow quickly, are easy to establish and
salt, and metal, as well as exhibiting minimal metal deposition on its maintain in field conditions, have a relatively long life or are able to
shoots. (Mendez and Maier 2008). By adding a high concentration of self-propagate, and finally, easy to harvest or dispose the plants that are
hazardous heavy metal to their roots, these plants will be able to limit saturated with heavy metals. (Berti and Cunningham 2000; Mendez and
or restrict the migration of heavy metal to the shoots, making them good Maier 2008). Some beneficial plants for heavy metals stabilization are
phytostabilizers (McGrath et al., 2002; Maestri et al., 2010). The study highlighted in Table 3.

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P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

Table 3
Heavy metal contaminants and various plants are used for phytostabilization and rhizofiltration to stabilize them.

Phytostabilization Rhizofiltration
HM
Plant Source Plant Source

TamarindusIndica Udokaet al. (2014) Brassicajuncea Qiu et al. (2014)

Populuscathayana,P.prezwaskii,P.yunnanensis Chen et al. (2011) Setariaitalica(L.) Chiang et al. (2011)
Zeamays Redjalaet al. (2011) PistiastratiotesL Veselý et al. (2012)
DesmostachyabipinnataandDichanthiumannulatum Rashidet al. (2009) SalviniaauriculataAubl.,SalviniaminimaBaker Veselý et al. (2012)
Cd Nicotianatabacum L. Gorinova et al. (2007)
WedeliatrilobataHitchc Qianet al. (1999)
Lemna minor L Zayed et al. (1998)
AmaranthusspinosusL. Chinmayee et al. (2012)
Solenumnigrum L. and Spinacia oleracea L. Dinesh et al. (2014)
Nicotianatabacum, Vetiveriazizanioides Boonyapookana et al. (2005) Brassicajuncea Qiu et al. (2014)
Pb AmaranthusspinosusL. Chinmayee et al. (2012) Typha domingensis Hegazy et al. (2011)
Solenumnigrum L. and Spinacia oleracea L. Dinesh et al. (2014) Carexpendula, Yadav et al. (2011
Lemna minor L Zayedet al. (1998) Eichhorniacrassipes(Mart.) Solms Hammad et al. (2011)
Myriophylhumaquaticum, Ludwiginapalustris, Kamal et al. (2004)
Mentha aquatic
Cu SalixjiangsuensisCL ‘J-172′ and Salix babylonicaLinn Chen et al. (2012)
AmaranthusspinosusL. Chinmayee et al. (2012)
Solenumnigrum L. and Spinacia oleracea L. Dinesh et al. (2014)
WedeliatrilobataHitchc Qian et al. (1999) Eichhorniacrassipes(Mart.) Solms Hammad et al. (2011)
Ni MenthaaquaticaL. and MenthasylvestrisL. Zurayk et al. (2002)
RiccinusCommunisL. Adhikari and Kumar (2012)
SpirogyrairregularisNageli Afari and
Ahmady-Asbchin (2011)
Wolffiaglobosa Boonyapookana et al. (2002) Brassicajuncea Salt et al. (1997)
A.microphylla, A. pinnataand A. filiculoides Arora et al. (2006)
Cr Solanumtuberosum L. Baghour et al. (2001)
Pterisvittata Suet al. (2005)
Solenumnigrum L. and Spinacia oleracea L Dinesh et al. (2014)
Myriophylhumaquaticum, Ludwiginapalustris, Kamal et al. (2004) Eichhorniacrassipes(Mart.) Solms Hammad et al. (2011)
Mentha aquatic
LemnagibbaL. Khellaf and Zerdaoui (2009) Typhadomingensis Hegazy et al. (2011)
Zn Jatrophacurcas Abioye et al.(2010)
Scirpusmucronatus Marbaniang and
Chaturvedi (1994)
Myriophylhumaquaticum, Ludwiginapalustris, Kamal et al. (2004) PistiastratiotesL Veselý et al. (2012)
Mentha aquatic
Fe Jatrophacurcas Abioye et al.(2010) Typhadomingensis Hegazy et al. (2011)
ClerodendrumindicumL. Mukherjee et al. (2013)
As Solanumtuberosum L. Baghour et al. (2001) Cynaracardunculus Llugany et al. (2012)
Hg Myriophylhumaquaticum, Ludwiginapalustris, Kamal et al. (2004)
Mentha aquatic
Sb Solanumtuberosum L. Baghour et al. (2001) Cynodondactylon Xue et al. (2018)

7. Conclusion and future prospect ing phytostabilization and rhizofiltration, such as the Remedy Selection
Decision Tree, Soil/Sediment Decision Tree, and Phytoremedial Action
Rapid industrialisation has resulted in the uncontrolled discharge of Plan, as well as the variety of plants used in varying challenges and
several toxic contaminant into water sources, which poses major risks to variables impacting phytostabilization and rhizofiltration, have been
both human and environmental health. amongst the contaminant heavy discussed, paving the way to the development of new strategies. In a
metals are a severe threat to soil, water, and individuals. The employ- conclusion, phytostabilization and rhizofiltration are two methods that
ment of low-cost and ecologically safe techniques seems to be a viable can be used in relation to the utilization of metal-accumulating plants
option for remediate these contaminants. As a consequence, phytostabi- as an alternative method for heavy metal remediation. These methods
lization and rhizofiltration are the most specifically used and successful have the potential to be cost-effective, efficient, environmentally safe,
plant-based methods for eliminating toxins from industrial polluted re- and ecofriendly. To make the procedure more efficient, it is necessary
gions with low impact on water bodies or soil structure. In addition to to introduce new plant species that are adapted to the removal of heavy
the advantages that phytostabilization and rhizofiltration offers as an metals from industrially contaminated soils. In combination with this
ecological process, research and applications revealed the need to in- strategy, chelating agents and microorganisms may be used to enhance
crease and accelerate it due to the problems connected with the lengthy heavy metal bioavailability, allowing for more heavy metal deposition
removal of heavy metals as well as the hazards that heavy metals tox- in plants and effective soil remediation.
icity presents to plant integrity. The study investigates the factors that Based on the current review, it is found that there are few plants
led to the pollution of heavy metals by different industries, the contam- suitable for the stabilization of highly toxic metals such as As and Hg,
ination of soil and water by heavy metals, as well as the adverse im- and even fewer plants that can absorb multiple contaminants at once.
pact of heavy metals on human health and the environment. The com- Therefore, the application of genetic engineering and molecular science
prehensive study helps us determine how to choose a technique for a research can make significant and innovative contributions to increasing
particular metal-bearing effluent based on time consumption and effi- the impact of phytostabilization and rhizofiltration as beneficial tech-
ciency, as well as identify commonly used plants for phytostabilization niques for improving more species that absorb As and Hg, designing
and rhizofiltration. Additionally, the study helps us determine how to a diverse range of plants that can absorb many contaminants at once,
select a technique for a particular metal-bearing effluent from indus- increasing soil quality, and developing a method of recovering critical
trial site. Furthermore, some of the options and approaches for improv- metals from heavily polluted industrial areas.

12
P. Bakshe and R. Jugade Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 10 (2023) 100293

Funding Baghour, M., Moreno, D.A., Hernández, J., 2001. Influence of root temperature on phy-
toaccumulation of As, Ag, Cr, and Sb in potato plants (Solanum Tuberosum L.
var. Spunta). J. Environ. Sci. Heal. Part A Toxic Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 36,
“The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were 1389–1401.
received during the preparation of this manuscript.” Bakshe, P., Jugade, R., 2021. Distribution, association, and ecological risk evaluation of
heavy metals and influencing factors in major industrial stream sediments of Chan-
drapur District, Central India. Water Air Soil Pollut. 232, 78.
Author contributions Balali-Mood, M., Naseri, K., Tahergorabi, Z., Khazdair, M.R., Sadeghi, M., 2021. Toxic
mechanisms of five heavy metals: mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic.
Front. Pharmacol. 12, 643972.
“All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Mate-
Barna, B., Fodor, J., Harrach, B.D., Pogany, M., Kiraly, Z., 2012. The Janus face of reactive
rial preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Pankaj oxygen species in resistance and susceptibility of plants to necrotrophic and biotrophic
Bakshe, Ravin Jugade. The first draft of the manuscript was written by pathogens. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 59, 37–43.
Pankaj Bakshe and Ravin Jugade commented on previous versions of Beig, B., MBK, Niazi, Sher, F., Jahan, Z., Malik, U.S., Khan, M.D., et al., 2022. Nanotech-
nology-based controlled release of sustainable fertilizers. A review. Environ. Chem.
the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.” Lett. 20, 2709–2726.
Bento, F.M., Camargo, F.A.O., Okeke, B.C., Frankenberger, W.T., 2005. Comparative biore-
mediation of soils contaminated with diesel oil by natural attenuation, biostimulation
Declaration of Competing Interest and bioaugmentation. Bioresour. Technol. 96, 1049–1055.
Berrios, M., Martin, M.A., Martin, A., 2012. Treatment of pollutants in wastewater: ad-
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial sorption of methylene blue onto olive-based activated carbon. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 18,
780–784.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Bert, V., Lors, C., Laboudigue, A., 2008. Use of phytostabilisation to remediate metal
the work reported in this paper. polluted dredged sediment. In: International Symposium on Sediment Management
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study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable Mahy, G., 2016. Potential of copper-tolerant grasses to implement phytostabilisation
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Boonyapookana, B., Parkpian, P., Techapinyawat, S., 2005. Phytoaccumulation of lead
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under URPS, Dev-2117, DST, New Delhi for DST-FIST grant and UGC, riazizanioides). J. Environ. Sci. Heal. Part A Toxic Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 40,
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New Delhi for UGC-SAP grant.
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