Reviewers for Mathematics in the Modern World o does not require a big picture or full

understanding of the problem, as it uses a lot of

Lesson 3. Problem Solving and Reasoning
small pieces of abstract information that you
A. INDUCTIVE REASONING have in your memory to create a reasoning
leading to your decision just from the limited
o type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based
information you have about the problem in
on the examination of specific examples hand
o uses a set of specific observations to reach an o comes from noticing, thinking and questioning
overarching conclusion or it is the process of o the ability to know something without having
recognizing or observing patterns and drawing a
proof
conclusion
o the process of reaching a general conclusion by Proof and Certainty
examining specific examples
A proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical
o does not guarantee a true result, it only
statement while proofs are an example of mathematical
provides a means of making a conjecture
logical certainty. Mathematical proof is an inferential
Conjecture - the conclusion formed by using inductive argument for a mathematical statement, showing that
reasoning the stated assumptions logically guarantee the
conclusion.
“ Then” and “now” Approach
A mathematical proof is a list of statements in which
“Then” idea - to use the data to find pattern and make a every statement is one of the following:
prediction (1) an axiom
“Now” idea - to make a conjecture based on the (2) derived from previous statements by a rule of
inductive reasoning or find a counterexample Inference
(3) a previously derived theorem
B. DEDUCTIVE REASONING

o a basic form of valid reasoning starts out with a Methods of Proof - Two ways on how to present the
proof
general statement, or hypothesis, and examines
the possibilities to reach a specific, logical 1. Outline Form
conclusion 2. Paragraph Form
o works from the more general to the more Kinds of Proof
specific
o the process of reaching specific conclusion by 1. Direct proof- a mathematical argument that uses
applying general ideas or assumptions, rules of inference to derive the conclusion from the
procedure or principle premises.
o a process of reasoning logically from given 2. Indirect proof (Contrapositive proof) - a type of proof
statement to a conclusion in which a statement to be proved is assumed false and
if the assumption leads to an impossibility, then the
Lesson 3.2 Intuition, Proof, and Certainty
statement assumed false has been proved to be true.
INTUITION

o an immediate understanding or knowing

Lesson 3.3 Polya’s Four Steps in Problem Solving
something without reasoning
George Polya

o one of the foremost recent mathematicians to

make a study of problem solving
 o born in Hungary and moved to the United notation Σx, called summation notation, denotes the
States in 1940 sum of all the numbers in a given set.
o known as “The Father of Problem Solving”.
Mean = Σx/n
o made fundamental contributions to
combinatorics, Population - the entire group under consideration
o number theory,numerical analysis and Sample - any subset of the population
probability theory
o noted for his work in heuristics and It is traditional to denote the mean of a sample by x̄
mathematics education. ( which is read as “x bar”) and to denote the mean of a
o A teacher and mathematician population by the Greek letter μ (lowercase mu).
o 1987 – 1985
2. Median
o How to Solve It, 1945
Median is the middle number or the mean of the two
Heuristic, a Greek word means that "find" or "discover" middle numbers in a list of numbers that have been
refers to experience-based techniques for problem arranged in numerical order from smallest to largest or
solving, learning, and discovery that gives a solution largest to smallest.
which is not guaranteed to be optimal. Any list of numbers that is arranged in numerical order
from smallest to largest or largest to smallest is a
Four Steps in Solving Problem ranked list.
1. Understand the Problem
2. Devise a Plan 3. Mode
3. Carry out the plan The mode of a list of number is the numbers that occurs
4. Look back or Review the Solution most frequently.

Lesson 4.1 Measures of Central Tendency The Weighted Mean

Statistics involves the collection, organization,
summarization, presentation, and interpretation Weighted mean = Σ (x.w)/ Σw
of data. Σ (x.w) – sum of the products formed by multiplying
each number by its assigned weight
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS Σw – sum of all the weights
1. Descriptive statistics - branch of statistics
that involves the collection, organization, Raw data - data that have not been organized or
summarization, and presentation of data manipulated in any manner
2. Inferential statistics - branch that A large collection of raw data may not provide
interprets and draws conclusions from the data much readily observable information.

Measures of Central Tendency Frequency distribution- table that lists observed

events and the frequency of occurrence of each
1. Arithmetic mean observed event, is often used to organize raw data.
the most commonly used measure of central tendency Q1: What is the science dealing with the collection,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of a given
To find the mean for a set of data , find the sum of the data? Answer: Statistics
data values and divide by the number of data values. Q2: What are the two branches or categories of
Statistics? Answers: Descriptive and inferential statistics
Q3: What is the branch of statistics which has the ability
In statistics it is often necessary to find the sum of a set to“infer” and to generalize and it offers the right tool to
of numbers. The traditional symbol used to indicate a predict values that are not really known?
Answers: Inferential statistics
summation is the Greek letter sigma, Σ.Thus the
Q4: What is the totality of methods and treatments
employed in the collection, description, and
analysis of numerical data , wherein purpose is to
describe or tell something about the particular
group or observation?
 each other.

Measures
Q6: What is the entire group people, things, or
events having at least one trait in common? 1. Range
Answer: Population The range of a set of data is the difference between the
Q7: What is the small number of observation greatest value and the least data value.
taken from the total number making up a ROBERT PERSHING WADLOW
population? o Alton Giant and the Giant of Illinois
Answer: Sample o tallest person in recorded history for whom
Q8: What is any measure obtained in gauging
there is irrefutable evidence
the entire population?
o Born: 22 February 1918, Alton, Illinois, United
Answer: Parameter
Q9: What is any measure obtained in gauging States
the sample? o Died: 15 July 1940, Manistee, Michigan, United
Answer: Statistic States
Q10: What are the different measures of central o Height: 2.72 m = 8 ft 11.1 in.
tendency? o Shoe size: 37AA
Answers: Mean , median and mode o Weight: 439 lb (199 kg)
Q11: What is the arithmetic average of all the scores?
CHANDRA BAHADUR DANGI
Answer: Mean
o Nepalese weaver -74 yrs . old,
Q12: What is the point that separates the upper half
from the lower half of the distribution and the middle o 21½ inches tall
point or midpoint of any distribution? o a weaver who also helps look after buffaloes
Answer: Median and cows in his remote mountain village of
Q13: What is the most frequently Reemkholi
occurring score in a distribution? o weight - 32 pounds
Answer: Mode SULTAN KOSEN
Q14: What is the formula for finding the
o Born: 10 December 1982
sample mean of ungrouped data?
Answer: Mean = Σx/n o Weight: 137 kg (302 lb; 21.6 st)
o Height: 2.51 m (8 ft 2 7/8 in)
o Nationality: Turkish
o Tallest Living Man

2. Standard Deviation
Module 5. 1 The Data o The range of a set of data is easy to compute,
but it can be deceiving.
A variable is something that can be measured and o The range is a measure that depends only on
observed to vary. While a constant is something that the two most extreme values, and as such it is
does not vary, and it only maintains a single value. very sensitive.
o A measure of dispersion that is less sensitive to
Scales of Measurement extreme values is the standard deviation.
- Nominal Scale : Categorical Data o The standard deviation of a set of numerical
- Ordinal Scale : Ranked Data data makes use of the amount by which each
- Interval/Ratio Scale : Measurement Data individual data value deviates from the mean.
Ratio Scale. This is an extension of an interval scale. These deviations, represented by , (x – x)
Module 5.3 Measures of Dispersion are positive when the data value x is greater
than the mean x and are negative when x is
Variability refers to how spread apart the scores of the less than the mean x.
distribution are or how much the scores vary from
 o The sum of all the deviations is 0 for all sets of
data. PERCENTILES
o Standard deviation of the population = σ divide the whole distribution into 100 equal
= lowercase Greek letter sigma parts
1st Percentile= P1= 1/100 part of the data
2nd Percentile= P2= 2/100 part of the
Data

QUARTILES
divide the whole distribution into four
equal parts.
1st Quartile = Q1 = ¼ part of the data
2nd Quartile = Q2 = ½ of part the data
3rd Quartile= Q3 = ¾ part of the data

DECILES
3. Variance divide the whole distribution into ten
Variance for a given set of data is the square of the equal parts
standard deviation of the data. 1st Decile = D1= 1/10 part of the data
2nd Decile = D2 =2/10 part of the data …

SUMMARY

P25 = Q1
P50 = Q2 = D5 = Median
P75 = Q3
FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE POSITIONS OF
QUARTILES AND PERCENTILES OF UNGROUPED
DATA
Lesson 5.4 Measures of Relative Position
Q1 = 0.25 (n+1)
IMPORTANCE OF MEASURES OF Q2 = 0.50 (n +1)
RELATIVE POSITIONS Q3 = 0.75 (n+1)
1. give us a way to see where a certain data point or
value falls in a sample or distribution
2. tell us whether a value is about the average, or
whether it's unusually high or low
3. used for quantitative data that falls on some
numerical scale

PERCENTILES, QUARTILES AND

DECILES
o partition values
o division of data into equal parts

NOTE: Data should be arranged in ascending or

descending order of magnitude.
Ascending order- lowest to highest
Descending order - highest to lowest