PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY

1. ELECTRICITY ENERGY

In terms of natural resources electricity is an expensive fonn of energy. since the efficiency of
heat-to-electricity conversion, on a commercial scale, rarely exceeds 40%. Electricity con-
stitutes a form of energy itsetf which occurs naturally only in unusable forms such as lightn-
ing and other static discharges or in the natural galvanic cells, which cause corrosion. The
primary problem in the utilization of electric energy is that, unlike fuels or even heat, it can-
not be stored and therefore must be generated and utilized at the same instanf.
The bulk of electric energy utilized today is in the form of alternating current (a-c), produc-
ed by a-c generators, commonly called alternators. Direct-current (d-el generators are
utilized for special applications requiring large quantities of d-e. In the building field such a
requirement is found in elevator work . Smaller quantities of d-e, furnished either by batteries
or by rectifiers are utilized for telephone and signal equipment, controls, and other specializ-
ed usas.

2. UNIT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

THE ''AMPERE"
When electricity flows in a conductor, a certain number of electron$ pass a given point in the
conductor in 1 second. Numerically, an ampere of current flows in a conductor when 6.25 x
1018 electrons pass a given cross section in 1 second. Current or amperage, is abbreviated
Amp, Amps or a. (on 120 volt service, the ordinary 100 Watt lamp filament carries about
0.833 amp, the motor for a desk calculator. about 1.00 amp.} Current is represented in equa-
tions by 1.

CURReNT
Battery
Produces RESISTANCE
..,R..,.

T
Voltage "V''

cf:o-------.J
Switch

Pump produces
FRICTION
Pressure " P" 'F ..

ELECTRIC-HYDRAULIC ANALOGY

2
 It is convenient to establish an analogy between electric systems and mechani_cal systems as
an aid to comprehension. Current, or amperage, is a measure of flow and, and such, would
correspond to water flow in a hydraulic system. The correspondence is not complete,
however, since in the hydraulic system the velocity of water flow varies, whereas in the elec-
tric system the velocity of propagation is constant and f!18Y be considered instantaneous;
hence, the need to utilize the electric energy the instant it is produced.

3. UNIT OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

THE "VOLT" OR "V"
The electron movement and its concomittant energy, which constitutes electricity, is caused
by creating a higher positive electric charge at one point on a conductor than exists at
another point on that same conductor. This difference in charge can be created in a number
of ways. The oldest and simplest method is by electrochemical action, as in the battery. In
the ordinary dry cell, or in a storage battery, chemical action causes positive charges {+}to
collect on the positive terminal and electrons or negative charges (- J to collect on the
negative terminals. There is a definite force attraction, or tendency to flow, between the
electrified particles concentrated at the positive and negative terminals. Potential dif-
ference or Voltage is the name given to this electromotive force {emf}. This force is
analogous to pressure in a hydraulic or pneumatic system. Just as the pressure produced by
a pump or blower causes water or air to flow in a connecting pipe, so too the potential (emf,
voltage) produced by a battery (or generator) causes current to flow when the terminals bet-
ween which a voltage exists are connected by a conductor.

The higher the voltage (pressure}, the higher the current Wow) for a given resistance (fric-
tion).

LOAD

TERMINAI..S
+
SWITCH

By convention current is assisted to

BATTERY flow from positive I + } to negative
{ -).

4. UNIT OF ELECTRIC RESISTANCE:

THE OHM
The flow of fluid in a hydraulic system is impeded by friction; the flow of current in an elec-
tric circuit is impeded {resisted) by resistance, which is the electrical term for friction. In a
direct-current circuit (d-el this unit is called resistance and is abbreviated R; in an alternating-
current circuit (a-c) it is called impedance and is abbreviated Z. The unit of measurement is
called the ohm.
Materials display different resistance to the flow of electric current. Metals generally have
the least resistance and are therefore called conductors. The best conductors are the

3
 precious metals-silver, gold, and platinum -with coppet and aluminum only slightly in-
ferior. Conversely, materials that resist the flow of current are called insulators. Glass,
mica, rubber, oil, distilled water, porcelain, and certain synthetics such as phenolic com-
pounds exhibit this insulating property and are therefore used to insulate electric conduc-
tors. Common examples are .rubber and plastic wire coverings, porcelain lamp sockets, and
oil-immersed switches.

INSULATOR

5. OHM'S LAW

The current I that will flow in a d-e circuit is directly proportional to the voltage V and in-
versely proportional to the resistance R of the circuit. Expressed as an equation, w e have the
basic form of Ohm's law that
v
I = -R-

that is, a current 1 is produced that is proportional to the electric pressure V and inversely
proportional to the electric friction R.

Examples:
1) An incandescent lamp having a hot resistance of 66 ohms is put into a socket that is con-
nected to a 115 V supply. What current flows through the lamp?

I = .::!__ I = .!..!.? = 1.74 amperes

R 66
(these figures correspond to a normal 200 W lamp)
2) A bathroom heater draws 11 amperes at 120 V what is its hot resistance?
120
R = "i = ·= 10.91 ohms
I 11
(these figures correspond to a 1320 W portable heater}
3) A household electric water heater is rated 220 V and 20 amperes. What is the unit's
resistance when drawing this amount of current?
220
R = Y. 8 = 11 Ohms =
I 20

6. CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
a) Series Circuits
The elements are connected one · after the other in series. Thus, the resistance and
voltages add.

4
 - . . .lo ~+-]--......c\o o*-1-==-~fc: 'f-
+ + +

S VOLTS ~TTERY 9VOLTS TO.TAL 27VOLTS

10 OHMS 15 OHMS \S

-< RESIS~
o~-cc=]30-==
~I!SlSTOR
TOT'AL.. 25 OHMS

An electric circuit may be defined as a complete conducting path that carries current
from a source of electricity to and through some electrical device (or load} and back to
the source. A current can never flow unless there is a complete (closed) circuit.

6 VOLT l..Z Of.fM

'ft::""ti!:~.:·~l HEADLIGHT

~ VOLT l2. OHM

HEADL&<SHT

GRAPHIC
PR~SENTATION PliYSICAl. PRE~TATION

In any series circuit, the total Resistance R is the sum of the resistance around the circuit.
Thus,

Total Resistance, R = rab +· +rbc red + r<Ja

hence the tot al circuit res istan~e is
0.01 to 0;02 = 0.02 = 1.20 ohms

0 . 02.
: sour'~
- r,ab:O.O/
a battery IO<!Id 1.15
120 volt

o .oz.

rd..!t =0.02
5
 The battery voltage may be called Vab = 120v
The voltage across the load resistance, V cd = 115v
The resistance of the two wires rbc = rda = 0.04 ohm.

Example:
The battery in the above figure is rated at 120v. the line resistance {both wires) is 0.04
ohm, and the load resistance is 1.15 ohms. Determine the (a) current flowing in the cir-
cuit, lbl the voltage across the load IVcdl·
a) the current flowing is:
y_ = 120
I =
R rab t
Vab
roc T red -r rda
100 amp.
.
b) The voltage drop across the load is
Vcd = I X Red = 100 x 1. 15 = 115v
A practical application of series circuits is found in an incandescent lamp street lighting
circuits. The figure below explains that loss of one lamp can disable the entire circuit.
Futhermore, the point of fault is difficult to pinpoint, necessitating individual testing of
lamps.

SE~IES LA\IIP

~
0 "IJ' a
..
t •
]
~
At; ClR DC.
SOURCE

SIN6t.E wnze u:>oP

Q
+ Q Q
~
€J IN A <:::HRISTMA$ LIGHT se:~lES1
IF ONE l-lte;.HT IS OUT rHE WHOLE
CU1'CLJir <::AN NOT WORK.

bl Paraltel Circuits
When two or more branches or loads in a circuit are connected between the same two
points, they are said to be connected in parallel or multiple. Such an arrangement and
its hydraulic equivalent are shown below.

!!I'Oamps ~ zoa

30amps
I
"' 20.a
l 1oa.
equals
3oa
>
---7
aoa
(-
10.25

6
 ANALOGOUS TO:

ltDgpm

~ao~pm 10 gptn

From the circuit shown below, it should be apparent that multiple loads are across the
same voltage and, in effect, constitute separate circuits. From this we conclude that in
the circuit is the sum of the individual currents flowing in the branches that is,

IT = J, + Iz +I,
= 12 + 1 t 10 =Z3 amp
IO.Q ~

I,
TOTAL.. 23 .amp

L r
23-12= u.amp
120
source
volt to
ohm 1
12amp
~~ms 12.
ohm
IO.!mp
11. j = roamp

~2321 ~10.3

12 a "'"""'} 14 roa

~~,t ~~2<>ohms+
O
~zchms
IZO
volts
LJJ
120
volts
L:dr. 111

Loads connected in parallel are equivalent to separate circuits superimposed into a single
connection. Each load acts as an independent circuit unrelated to, and unaffected by the
other circuitS. Notice that the total current flowing in the circuit is the sum of all the
branches, but that the current in each branch is the result of a separate Ohm's Law
calculation. Thus in the 10-ohm load a 12·amp current flows and so forth.

I= !.~ :: IZ. amps Branc:h 1

I :. .1.Z.Q. = l amps Bran'h 2.
IZO
l::IZO .:!Damps Br.and'l 3
IZ
Z3 amps tr>lal corrent.

7
 The parallel connection is the standard arrangement in all building wiring. A typical
lighting and receptacie arrangement for a large room is shown below .

SWITCH .... .

PICTORIAL
A

UGHTS
TO HOUSE PANEL~---~
ro amp

ARCHITECTURAL
SCHEMATIC PLAN
Here the lights constitute one parallel grouping, .and the convenience wall outlets con·
stitute a second parallel grouping. The fundamental principle to remember is that loads in
parallel are additive for current, and that each has the same voltage imposed .

Current is inversely proportional to resist-

ance. Thus as resistance drops, current
rises under ordinary conditions that circuit
will carry 10 amp. and will operate normally.
But. if by some mischance, a connection ap·
pears between points a and b, the circuit is
shortened so that there is no resistance in
the circuit. The current rises instantly to a
very high level, and the condition constitutes
a short circuit. If the circuit is properly pro-
tected, the fuse or circuit breaker will open,
Re!SISTAHCE and the circuit will be disabled, If not, exce·
ssive current will probably start a fire.

8
7. DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
Id-e) and (a-cl
Direct current - whenever the flow of electric current takes place at a constant time rate,
practically unvarying and in the same direction around the circuit. The terms universally ac-
cepted are "d-e voltage" or "d-e current". The d-e voltages of 1.5v positive polarity, and
1.0v negative polarity is shown below,

t l -5

+1.o

+05

~os
0

)0 1.0 .__......,_ _ _;;;;;;;;;;;_ _ _ _ _ _ __

I.S

a) GRAPHIC representation of d-e voltages with positive and negative polarity

Current Flow Current Flow

Positive Polarity Negative Polarity

b) CIRCUIT SYMBOL representation of BATTERY SOURCE

Alternating Current -whenever the flow of current is periodically varying in time and in
direction, as indicated by the symmetrical positive and negative loops or sine waves as in the
figure 2, it is called an alternating current.
10
c) alternating current

d) fully rectified
I
I

.:P~VJ~'
S I I

e) half-rectified a-c
:::::::::=:::!=[\
=====:-

f) Fully-rectified and filtered a-c ap-

proaches the wave form of true d-<:
as shown in fig. (a) above.

9
 The distance along the time axis spanned by a positive and negative a-c loop is called one cy-
cle of time. Modern a-c systems in the United States operates at 60 ~ycles per second, or 60
hertz. This means that current at 60 hertz'(Hz} is delivered to the consumer. In a-c, instead of
resistance, the corresponding parameter in an a-c circuit is impedance, which is also
measured in ohms. Thus for an a-c circuit, the equivalent to Ohm's Law is
I = Y.. where z is the symbol normally used for impedance
z

8. ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

a) Direct Current -Since the d-e generator is in reality an a-c generator witA a device
(commutator), attached, which rectifies the a-cto d-e, the battery is still the only major
direct source of direct current. The d-e generators are used where accurate speed control
is de#iired, for example, for elevators, or where d-e is required on a larger and more sus-
tained basis than would be economical for batteries. Of course, a rotating d-e generator
unlike a battery, must be driven to produce power. The prime mover can be a motor,
engine, turbine, or any other device that will provide the required input power.
Another source of d-e power is rectification of a-c that can be accomplished on any
desired scale to provide as much d-e power as there is available a-c power. Various types
of rectifiers are in commercial use, including selenium, silicon and copper-oxide types.
b) Alternating Current -Alternating current is produced commercially by an a-c
generator, called an alternator. The prime mover, as in the case of the d-e units may be
any type of engine or Turbine. The process by which electricity is produced is shown in
• the figures below. This principle of electromagnetic induction states that when an elec-
trical conductor is moved in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it. Tbe direction of
the movement determine~ the polarity of the induced voltage as shown.

MA6NeTIC R:)l.ES-
i:l"t'WeR A A:~MA·
NeNT MA6NET OR
Aha .6\...eCTJlOMAGNET
}S StJIT"ABl...e.

- M~•c. f".e\d
If the conductor is formed into a coil and rotated in tne magnetic field, a voltage of alter-
nating polarity is produced, that is, alternating current . It does not matter whether the
conductor or the magnet moves; the motion of the conductor and the field wit h respect
to each other produces the voltage.
P Rotat-100
----..... ', 11'0:------"'

N
..
LVOLTA6E 16 pt~kb! Dff
With sl14ln~ tDnt&'ts,
GaliU • S Ll P - RINE'15"

10
 .~AT1NG
'MAGNET Vab

COil.OFIJ
WlRE
Voltage is picked off with sliding con-
tacts, called "slip-rings".
It does not matter whether the conductor
moves and the magnetic field is stationary,
or vice versa, as long as there is relative mo-
tion between the two.

9. POWER AND ENERGY

Energy-is the technical term for the more common expression-work. In terms of power,
it is the product of power and time, that is
energy or work = power x time
In practical terms, energy is synonymous with fuel and therefore also cost. Thus energy can
be expressed as barrels (tons) of oil, cubi"c feet (cu. metersJ of gas, tons of coal, kilowatt
hours of electricity usage, and dollars/pesos of operating cost. The concept of energy effi-
ciency of structures can be stated in terms of annual usage of oil, gas, and electricity or alter-
natively in terms of$, 'P'or of total fuel cost. In technical terms. energy is expressed in units of
Btu {calories), foot-pounds (joules), and kilowatt-hours.
Power is the rate at which energy is used, or alternatively, the rate at which work is done.
Since energy and work are synonymous.
The term power implies continuity, that is, the use of energy at a particular rate, over a
given, generally considerable, span of time. Thus multiplying power by time yields energy.
Typical units of power in the English-system are horsepower, Btu per hol!r, wall and
kilowatt. In the metric or Sl System the corresponding units are joules per second, calories
per second, watts and kilowatts. In physical terms power is also the rate at which fuel
(energy) is used. Thus power can also be expressed as gallons (liters) of oil per hour, cubic
feet (cu. meters) of gas per minute, and tons of coal per day.

10. POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

The unit of electric power is the watt (W}. A larger unit of 1000 watts is the kilowatt (kw).
The power input in watts to any electrical device having a resistance R and in which the cur-
rent is I is given by the equation:
Wattage W = 12R or W = I (IR)
this is true for both a-c and d-e circuits. However, since the resistance of an item is generally
not known, but tile circuit voltage and current are known. It would be preferable to calculate
Power in this equation.

11
 By Ohm's Law V = IR A in Ohms
and since W = I (IR} Win Watts
W = I (V) I in amperes
V in volt
Example :. incandescent lamp = 66 ohms Resistance
115V Supply
v 115
I = R = 66 = 1.74

d-e W = VI= 115 (1.74) = 200watts

power drawn
in a-c multiply x pf

Example:
calculate the current and
power in two branches of the circuit and the total circuit current assume a 120 v a-c
source.
a) Power= VI

p = 150 + 150 + = 300 w 300 W = 120. X I

I = 300 = 2.5 amperes
120

R
v = -120 = 48 ohms
2.5
b) Second branch is 10 amp. 0.8 pf load
Power = V x amp x pf
= 120 X 10 X 0.8 = 960 W
but the circuit volt - ampere
is. 120 x 10 : 1.200 Va

11 . ENERGY IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Since power is the rate of energy use, it follows that energy = power x time. Therefore the
amount of energy used is directly proportional to the power of the system and to the length
of time. It is in operation. Since power is expressed in either watts or kilowatts, and time in
hours (second and minutes are too small for use), we have for units of energy: watt-hours
(wh) or kilowatt-hours (kwh ) energy used for one hour .

12
 Example:
a) Find the daily energy consumption of the appliances listed below if they are used daily for
the amount of time shown.
Toaster (1340 w) or 1.34 kw 15 min. or % hr.
Percolator (500 w) or 0.5 kw 2 hr.
Fryer (1560 w) or 1.56 kw 39 min. or Y.! hr.
Toaster = 1.34 kw x % hr. = 0.335 kwh
percolator = 0.5 kw x ~hr. = 1.00 kwh
fryer = 1.56 kw. x Y.! hr. = 0.78 kwh
iron = 1.40 kw x % hr. = 0.70 kwh
Total = 2.815·kwh
b) If the average cost of energy is per kilowatt-hour, find the daily operating cost
2.815 kwh x /kwh='---
c) If considering an average power demand of a househoid is 1.2 kw, calculate the monthly
electric bill of such a household, assuming the rate of per kilowatt hour= P _ _
Monthly energy consumption
= 1.2 kw x ·24 hr x 30 days = 864 kwh
day month
Electric power bill
• 864 kwh X .,. _ _ /kwh • ft" _ _

12. ElECTRIC LOAD CONTROL

A method of load control for efficient utilization of available energy to produce a high load
factor. This results in a lowering of demand charge, (levying of a charge for power (kwl in
addition to the normal energy (kwh} charge. This demand charge is primarily useful in en-
couraging users to reduce to their peak loads. In so doing, energy use is also reduced
somewhat}. and secondarily in a reduction of energy costs. (An ancillary, but important,
benefit is the maximum utilization of electrical power equipment, which normally runs
underloaded. This results in smaller equipment, lower first cost, and less space utilization).
The control devices and systems are variously referred to as load shedding control, peak de-
mand control, peak load regulation, power use control, and permissive load control.

a) Levei1-Load scheduling and duty-cycle control

The simplest and most applicable. to all types of facilities. the installation's electric load
are analyzed and then scheculed to restrict demand. Thus large loads can be shifted to
off-peak hours and controlled to avoid coincident operation. The user c~n also take ad-
vantage of special-night and weekend-utility rates for loads that do not require im-
mediate operation, such as battery charging and transfer pumping. Control can be entire-
ly manual or automated by use of a duty-cycle controller. This device is essentially a pro-
gram clock with switching for a number of circuits or loads.
Typical applications of this device are control of HVAC (heating, ventilation, airconl
loads, lighting load and process loads. Although such as analysis is a necessary first step
in all levels of electric load control its efficacy is limited since many of the loads are
automatically controlled. Thus compressors controlled by pressure switches, fans con-
trolled by thermostats, ·and pumps controlled by float switches cannot be scheduled
with this type of duty-cycle controller and coincident operation cannot be prevented.

13
 'TIMER DRUM
sup~1es- ~tuatm~
S19n.al tD ~r.am.
MANUAL OVERRIDE

PRQSRAM DRUM
(pm po.;"1t1onare
ava1 1.1 ble for controI
..
bf Z1 ~lrCUIW .
CIRCUIT WIRING

STEPP1N6 MOTOR
a't1v.1ttd by lh1~r
dr'\.lm SWitG:hes.

TERMfNAL STRIPS
for a:ll11'tt>ll~d
ar~Uits.

THE HEART OF A DUTY-CYCLE CON-

TROLLER is the program drum and
associated controlled contacts. The ter-
minal strips are wired to the drum con-
tacts and then to the controlled loads.

USEFULNESS OF DUTY - CYCLE

1. Eliminating energy waste by shutting down units when not required.
2. Automatic control such as preheat and precool, which results in lower power and
energy levels.
3. Establishment of efficient equipment scheduling without continual manual supervi-
sion.

b) levei2-0emand Metering Alarm

If in conjunction with a duty-cycle controller some type of continuous demand metering
is installed which will go into alarm when a predetermined demand level is exceeded, a
basic load control system will have been established. The load analysis discussed aoo...e
would have to be extended to determine load priorities so that when the present max-
imum demand load is exceeded and the alarm sounds, loads can be shed (disconnected)
manually in predetermined order of priority and, subsequently, reconnected also in order
of priority. This type of control is practical only for a limited size installation in as much as
most of t~e load switching activity is manual. Also to av'oid excessive alarming, the facili-
ty operator may be inclined to set the alarm point higher than it should be to effect all
possible savings. A unit typical of this type is shown below.

14
 MANIJAl.lY
ADJUS'WI.E
<0Nnt()C. LQ'\P

<t>~TJU)t.
'<NOB
l~O
INOICA'fO&

c) Levei 3-Automatic Instantaneous Demand Control

This type of control {also called "rate control") is, in effect, an automated version of the
level-2 system. The unit accepts instantaneous kw load information from the utility
system either in the form of continuous current readings or in the more sophisticated
form of pulsed energy data. It then compares this information to the preset Kw limit (rate
control) and acts automatically to disconnect and reconnect loads as required. These
units do not recognize the utility's metering interval of 15 or 30 min., but act continuously
on the basis of load comparison data.
The first step in setting up this system is to separate the controllable ("sheddable") loads
from those that must remain uninterrupted. Depending on the type of facility the two lists
that follow are typical.

"SHE DOABLE"
Non-essential lighting Sewage Ejectors with
Ventilation fans appropriate level
Space heating controls
Comfort Cooling Transfer pumps
Non-critical batch Any device with
process equipment flywheel effect
Electric Boilers (Electric snow melting)

NONSHEODABLE"
Essential lighting Process equipment
Elevators Material bandling
Refrigeration equipment
Compressors Office machinery

The nonsheddable loads are fed directly from the power line. The sheddable loads are fed
via a panel of control relays that respond to on/off instructions from the demand con-
troller. The facility's operator will then analyze the sheddable loads and determine a
minimum coincident kw load for this group. This figure when added to total coincident of
the nonsheddable loads, becomes the kw rate control or the set point.

15
 1NSTANTAN15'0US
KW~ tli.TA

BLOCK DIAGRAM of a system of Automatic electric power control. The demand

controller receives instantaneous load data from the metering equipment, compares
it to present limits, and disconnects and reconnects controllable loads automatically
to keep load within these limits.
To avoid excessive cycling of loads a variable width Kw band around the set point is
used. Note that the controller acts to reduce maximum loads (peaks) and in low points
(valleys) 15% of energy is saved.

LOA~

Most commercial units permit considerable flexibility in field adjustments in order to ar-
rive at optimum operation. Some units as shown below, have special provisions to over-
come some of the limitations inherent in rate control systems. These are:
1. Excessive cycling due to too narrow an op~rating band or insufficient time delay bet-
ween control demands .
2. Inability to change or " weight" load priority structure. resulting in excessive cycling of
certain loads and insufficient cycling of others.
3. Excessive off-time due to the absence of limit t imers.
4. Inability to readily adapt to varying load patterns resulting from variable production
schedules, time schedules, changes in weather.
5. Nonrecognition of the block of energy available in a given timing interval.
As a result of these limitations, this system is most useful in applications where operating
modes do not change frequently and the facility is not very large . Thus, stores, super-
markets, warehouses, small industrial facilities, and commercial installations are well
served with this level system if they have at least 20% sheddable loads; and their con-
nected electric load is at least 150 kilovolt amperes (kva).
16
 This demand c<Jntrol unit operates on
the rate control principle, keeping the
demand w ithin a band around the set
point.

d) Level 4-ldeal Curve Control

This controller operate by comparing the actual rate of energy usage to the ideal rate,
and controls kw demand by controlling the total energy used w ithin a metering interval.

DSMAND
INTEftVAI..

GRAPH of a cumulative energy use

over a demand Interval. (Energy use is
the time integral of power; i.e., kwh =
kw x t ime)

A constant rate of energy use over a demand interval would show as the set of repeated
straight lines. The utility company determines the demand over the demand interval by
integrating the kwh energy over the interval and dividing by t he interval time. Thus, the
user is actually given a block of energy (kwh) that can be utilized at any desired rate, not
necessarily at the constant rate of the above Figure (a).

17
 f;!NE~Y ~VEL.~IlR!:~
-------·- - - - - TO-~IMUM ~SI~ --~

,,..~~

, ...'t-.(IP!''i """ ~·
1"""'-- -- - - - -- - - - -- ' The desirable rate of energy use •s the
......c::o. F " Ideal Curve" as shown in this figure.
OFFSET.,. -Ne~ ""'""•~.. 0
UJNl'Jl,Cl.I..SiP I.O'.DS
Graph (b) showing an offset, which es-
tablishes an " ideal curve" to whj,ch ac-
INTERVAL------~~-­ tual energy use will be compared by
r!ME' __.,. the controller. in deciding whether to
Fl6. .a shed or add loads.

INT'EfU.lAL l.OG.IG.
INC.LLI~ \O&I'fL
CURVE PULSS
c;.e NEllA"ffR

...• • ..,., 'T

-
~

el Level 5-Forecasting Systems

These systems are the most soph isticated, the most expensive, and the most effective.
They are best applied to large structures where the number of loads, load patterns, and
complexity of operation precludes the partially manual operation of the preceding
systems. As a result of the large amount of load data, these systems frequently are in-
stalled as part of the computerized Central control facilities in. large Industrial plants, sky-
scrapers, and very large institutional facilities. The units operate by continuously fore-
casting the amount of energy remaining in the demand interval, based on kwh pulse data
received. They then examine the status and priority of each of the connected loads and
decide on a course of action.

18
13. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
To measure energy, the factor of time must be introduced, since ... energy = power x
time.
a-c watt-hour meters are basically small motors, whose speed is proportional to the power
being used. The number of rotations is counted on the dials which are calibrated directly in
kilowatt-hours.

CU~RENT
I-E'AOS
;.. ,
..........
~.

J
A::IWER
S<>URCA
WM
I I
l LOA.OJ
..,
~"Jjj\~E
WATTME\1:R LEADS

SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT of Wattmeter connections. Note that the current coil is in

series with the circuit load, whereas the voltage loads are in parallel.

TYPICAL INDUCTION-TYPE Kwh Meter with Kw demand dial. Decade dials register total
disc revolutions that are proportional to energy. Disc speed is proportional to power.

19
 ....

chapter
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM and
MATERIALS:
· WIRING
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND
MATERIALS: WIRING
1. SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The major components of a building's electrical power system are illustrated here:

HI6H • VOLTAeE
PRIMARY I""EE~S
2400,4160,72.00
OR 1~,.too VOL. TS

Sfai'MER MAIN
1-....,_.----4SWIT£M
VAlJLT !21>/2De Clf ~O ......._--'-~
1 - - - -- - J IZO/Z10 or L-.--~
227/100Volts
LAfi6E'
MO'Tl:>R

SINGLE~ LINE DIAGRAM of a typical Building

~NtH
electrical sys~em, from the incoming seNice ~IWJIT.
to the utilization items at the end of the sys-
tem. This type of diagram is referred to as a
" Block diagram ". Since the major compo-
nents are shown as rectangles.
ELEVA~'

ROOF

C&N~ RISER SAAFT

M.c .c.
..---..,..... j
~,. I1DOM

22
 It ·is called a " riser diagram.'! when this some type of information is presented showing
the. spatial retations between compenents.
When electrical symbols are used· in lieu of the blocks, it is called a " one line" or a
" single line diagram " .
These components may be arranged in three major categories.

3 CATEGORIES:
1st- WIRING ............ ............ includes conductors and raceways of all types
2nd-POWER HANDLING EOUtPMENT ....... ........... includes transformers
switchboards, panelboard, large switches and circuitbre_!lkers.
3rd - UTIUZATION EQUIPMENT .... , .. ........... actual utilization of equipment
such as lighting motors, controls ar::~d wiring devices.
In the Block diagram shown, there is a diffe·rentlation by line weight between heavy and
light (large and small) conductors. This size differentiation, as indicative of the amount
of power handled and is shown in the following figure.

IO . as:N~26P SWira-llNG
~N'P Pl<'l:>TE:t:Tlbf-.1 !"DR lAUE
~ c iRa.llT!O
~ 1..,..\~f? AIR a!Z'a.liT
~K~ !>W~~S4.R

tt. IH.P!VIt:t..t.\1. ~A\.\..

91?ANQ.I ataaln'
SWJTL'JUN~ ~

t .aJILpjt.j• !:WIT~ "'rO.SW!Tc:cM~P ~lCCI'

- t.V.IN FEECERS AHP ~IN BUILPII"G.

23
 2. NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE-
Or NEC is a code used by all inspectors, electrical designers, engineers, contractors, and the
operating personnel charged with the responsibility for safe operation .

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

RULE IX-ELECTRICAL REGULATIONS

Pursuant to Section 102,203 and 1301 of the National Building Code (PO 1096) the following
Rules shall govern the installation Qf Primary and Secondary Distribution Lines,
Transformers and other equipment in subdivisions along public and private roads and at-
tached to or over buildings.
1. General Locational . Requirements in Towns, Subdivisions, Human Settlements, In-
dustrial Estates and the like.
Overhead transmission and/or distribution lines/systems including transformers, poles,
towers and the like shall be located and installed following the latest standards of
design, construction and maintenance. However, in the interest of public safety, conve-
nience, good viewing and aesthetics may be located and installed along alleys or back
streets so as not to cause visual pollution.
2. Location of Poles and Clearances of Power Lines along Public Roads.
a. All poles erected on public roads shall be covered by Approved Pole Location (APU
plan from the Highway District City/Municipal Engineer.
b. Poles and transformer supports shall be located not more than 500 mm inside from
the road right-of-way or property line, and shall not obstruct the sidwalk, pedestrian
path and/or the road drainage canal or structure, existing or proposed.
c. Primary lines shall have a minimum vertical clearance of 10M from the crown of the
pavement when crossing the highway and 7.5 M from the top of the shoulder or
sidewalk when installed along the side of the highway or street in a highly urbanized
area.
d. Secondary, neutral and service lines shall have a minimum vertical clearance of 7.5 M
from the crown of the road pavement when crossing the highway and from the top
of the shoulder or sidewalk when installed along the side of the highway or street in
highly urbanized areas.
e. Clearances of Supporting Structures such as Poles, Towers, and others and their
guys and braces measured from the nearest parts of the objects concerned:
• From Fire Hydrants, not less than 5 M.
• From Street Corners. where hydrants are located at street corners, poles and
towers shall be be set so far from the corners as to make necessary the use of fly-
ing taps which are inaccessible from th'e·poles .
• From Curbs, not less than 150 mm measured from the curb away from the road-
way .
NOTE: Guy wires and other structures shall in no way be installed as to obstruct
pedestrian and/or vehicular traffic.

3. Attachments on and Clearances from Buildings

a. Attachments for support of power lines and cables, transformers and other equip-
ment and/or communications lines installed on buildings shall be covered by an Ap-
proved Attachment Plan from the local Building Official.
b. Where buildings exceed 15M in height, overhead lines shall be arranged where prac-
ticable so that a clear space or zones at least 2 M wide will be left, either adjacent to

24
 the building or beginning not over 2.5 M from the building , to facilitate the raising of
ladders where necessary for fire fighting.
EXCEPTION: This requirement does not apply where it is the rule of the local fire
department to exclude the use of ladders in alleys or other restricted
places which generally occupied by supply lines.

Table 1. Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires Above Ground or Rails (Supply

wires include trolley feeders)

Overhead guys: Open supply line Troily contact con-

messengers:
Communications,
wires, are wires and
service drops
..
tact conductors and
associated span or
span, and lightning messenger wires
Nature protection wires;
of communication
Ground cable; supply cable
or rails having effectively
under- grounded continuous
neath metal sheat, or in- 15000
sulated conductors 0 to 750 to to 0 to Exceed-
supported on and 750 15000 50000 750 ing 750
cabled together with volts volts volts volts volts to
an effectively to ground
grounded messenger, ground
all voltages
WHERE WIRES CROSS OVER

Meters Meters Meters Meters Meters Meters

Track rails of railroads (except
electrified railroads using
overhead trolley conductors)
handling freight cars on top
of which men are permitted 8.20 8.20 8.5 9 6.7 6.7
Track rails of railroads (except
electrified railroads using
overhead trolley conductors)
not included above 5.50 5.50 6 6.7 5.5 6
Public street, alleys or roads
or roads in urban or rural
districts 5.50 5.50 6 6.7 5.5. 6
Driveways to residence
garages 3 3 6 6.7 5.5 6
Spaces or ways accessible to 3
pedestrian only 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.2 4.9 5.5

WHERE WIRES RUN ALONG, AND WITHIN THE LIMITS OF PUBLIC HIGHWAYS OR
OTHER PUBLIC RIGHTS-OF-WAY FOR TRAFFIC

Street or alleys in urban dis-

tricts 5.50 5.5 6 6.7 5.5 6
Roads in rural districts 4.20 4.5 5.5 6 5.5 6

25
 4. Open Supply Conductors Attached to Building
Where the permanent attachment of open supply conductors of any class to buildings is
necessary for an entrance such conductors shall meet the following requirements:
a. Conductors of more than 300 volts to ground shall not be carried along or near the
surface of the building unless they are guarded or made inaccessible.
b. To promote safety to the general public and to employees not authorized to ap-
proach conductors and other current-carrying parts of electric supply lines, such
parts shall be arranged so as to provide adequate clearance from the ground or other
space generally accessible, or shall be provided with guards so as to isolate them ef-
fectively from accidental contact by such persons.
c. Ungrounded metal -sheathed service cables, service conduits, metal fixtures and
similar non-current carrying parts, if located in urban districts and where liable to
become charged to more th~n 300 volts to ground, shall be isolated or guarded so as
not to be exposed to accidental contact by unauthorized persons. As an alternative
to isolation or guarding non-current-carrying parts shall be solidly or effectively
grounded.
d. Clearance of wires from building surface shall be not less than those required in Table
2.

Table 2. Clearances of Supply Conductors from Buildings

HORIZONTAL
VOLTAGE OF SUPPLY CONDUCTORS CLEARANCE VERTICAL CLEARANCE
IN METERS IN METERS

300 to 8, 700 volts 1.0 2.5

More than 8,700 to 15,000 volts 2.5 2.5
More than 15;000 to 50,000 volts 3:0 3.0
Exceeding 50,000 volts 3.0 plus 10 mm 3.0 plus 10 mm
per Kv in excess per Kv in excess

(2) Where span length exceeds 45 M the increased clearances required by Rule 232, B, 1 of
the PEC shall be provided.
e. Supports over buildings. Service-drop conductors passing over a roof shall be
securely supported by substantial structures. Where practicable, such supports shall
be independent of the Building.

5. Conductors Passing By or Over Buildings

a. Minimum Clearances. Unguarded or accessible supply conductors carrying voltages
in excess of 300 volts may be run eith~r beside or over buildings. The vertical or
horizontal clearance to any building or its attachments (balconies, platforms, etc.)
shall be as listed below. The horizontal clearance governs above the roof level to the
point where the diagonal equals the vertical clearance" requirement. This rule should
not be interpreted as restricting the installation of a trolley contact conductor over
the approximate center line of the track it serves.

26
 b. Guarding of Supply Conductors/Supply Conductors of 300 volts or more shall be
proPllrly guarded by grounded conduit, barriers, or otherwise, under the following
conditions:
1) Where the clearances set forth in Table 2 above cannot be obtained.
2) Where such supply conductors are placed near enough to windows, verandas,
fire escapes, or other ordinarily accessible places within the reach of persons.
NOTE: Supply conductors in grounded metal sheathed cables are considered to be
guarded within the meaning of this rule .
c. Where the required clearances cannot be obtained, supply conductors shall be or
Grounded Metallic Shield, Jacketed Primary Cables grouped or bundled and sup-
ported by grounded messenger wires .

Table 3. Minimum Clearance in Any Direction From Line Conductors to supports,

and to Vertical or Lateral Conductors. Span Ol Guy Wires Attached to the
Same Support
{All voltages are between conductors)

Communication
Supply Lines
lines

Clearance of 0 to Exceeding
line conduc- 8,700 8,700
tors from - volts volts, and
In gene- On joint- In gene- On joint- for each
ral ly used ral ly used 1,000 volts
poles poles of excess

mm mm mm mm mm
Vertical and
lateral conduc-
tors: Of same
circuit 75 75 75 75 6.25
Of other cir-
cuits 75 75 150 150 10
Span and guy
wires attached
to same pole:
General 75 150 150 150 lO
When parallel to 75 150 300 300 10
Ligtning-
protection wires
parallel to line
Surfaces of cross-
arms 75 75 75 75 5
Surfaces of poles 75 125 75 125 5

6. Clearance of Service Drops

a. Service drop conductors shall not be readily accessible and when not in excess of
600 volts, shall conform to the following:

27
 • Clearance Over Roof. 'Conductors shall have a clearance of not less than 2,5 M
from the highest point of roofs over which they pass with the following excep-
tions:
Exception No. 1. Where the voltage between conductors does not exceed 300
votts and the roof has a slope of not less than 100 mm in 300 mm, the clearance
may not be less than 1 M.
Exception No. 2. Service drop conductors of 300 volts or less which do not pass
over other than a maximum of 1.2 M of the overhang portion of the roof for the
purpose of terminating at a through-the-roof service raceway or approved support
may be maintained at a minimum of 500 mm from any port.ion of the roof over
which they pass. ...
b. Clearance from Ground. Conductors shall have a clearance of not less than 3M from
the ground or from any platform or projection from which they might be reached.
c. Clearance from Building Openings. Conductors shall have a horizontal clearance of
not less than 1 M from windows, doors, porches, fire escapes or similar locations and
shall be run at least 500 mm above the top level of a window or opening.
d. Service Drop of 'communication lines, when crossing a street, shall have a clearance
of not less than 5.50 meters from the crown of the street or sidewalk over which it
passes.
Service Drop of communication Jines shall have a minimum clearance of 3.00 meters
above ground at its point of attachment to the building or pedestal.
e. No parts of swimming and wading pools shall be placed under existing service-drop
conductors or any other over-head wiring; nor shall such wiring be installed above
the following:
a) Swimming and wading pools and the area extending 3.00 meters outward
horizontally from the inside of the walls of the pool.
b) Diving Structures
c) Observation stands, towers or platforms

7. Wiring Methods
Service entrance conductors extending along the exterior or entering buildings or other
structures shall be installed in rigid steel conduit or asbestos cement conduit or con-
crete encased plastic conduit from point of seNice drop to meter socket and from meter
to the disconnecting equipment. However, where the service entrance conductors are
protected by approved fuses or breakers at their outer ends !immediately after the ser-
vice drop or lateral ) they may be installed any of the recognized wiring methods.
a. Abandoned Lines and/ or portions of Jines no longer required to provide service shall
be removed.
b. Power or communication poles, lines, service drops and other line equipment shall
be free from any attachment for antennas, signs, streamers and the like_
c. Metallic sheaths or jackets of overhead power or communication cables shall be
grounded at a point as close as possible to ground level whenever such cables
change from overhead to underground installations.

8. Transformers
a. Oil-insulated Transforme,. Installed Outdoo,. Combustible material. Com-
bustible buildings and parts of buildings, free escapes, door and window openings
shall be safeguarded from fires originating in oil-insulated transformers installed on,
attached to, or adjacent to a building or combustible material. Space separations,

28
 fire·resistant barriers and enclosures which confine the. oil of raptured transformer
tank are recognized safeguards. One Or more of these safeguards shall be applied ac-
cording to the degree of hazard involved in cases where the transformer installation
presents a fire hazard. Oil enclosures may consist of fire-resistant dikes, curbed areas
or basins, or trenches filled with coarse, crushed stone. Oil enclosures shall be pro-
vided with trapped drains in cases where the exposure and the quantity of oil involv-
ed are such that removed of oil is important.
b. Dry-Type Transformers Installed Indoors. Transformers rated 112-1/2 KVA or
less shall have separation of at least 300 mm from combustible material unless
separated therefrom by a fire-resistant heat-insulating barrier, or unless of a rating
..
not exceeding 600 volts and completely enclosed except for ventilating openings .
Transformers of more 112-1/2 KVA rating shall be installed in a transformer room of-
fice resistant construction unless they are constructed with Class B (80°C rise) or
Class H (150°C rise) insulation, and are separated from combustible material not less
than 1.85 M horizontally and 3.7 M vertically or are separated therefrom by a fire-re-
sistant heat-insulating barrier.
Transformers rated more th~m 35,000 volts shall be installed in a vault.
c. Askarel-lnsulated Transfformen l·nstafted Indoors. Askarel-insulated
transformers rated in excess of 25 KVA shall be furnished with a pressure-relief vent.
Where installed in a poorly ventilated place they shall be furnished with a means for
absorbing any gases generated by arcing inside the case, or the pressure relief vent
shall be connected to a chimney or flue which will carry such gases outside the
building. Askarel-insulated transformers rated more than 35,000 volts shall be install-
ed in a vault.
d. Oil-Insulated Transformers Installed Indoors. Oil-insulated transformers shall be
installed in a vault constructed as specified in this Section except as follows:
11 NOT OVER 112-1/2 KVA TOTAL CAPACITY. The provisions for transformer
vaults specified in Section 9.3 of this Rule apply except that the vault may be con-
structed of reinforced concrete not less than 100 mm thick.
2) NOT OVER 600 VOLTS. A vault is not required provided suitable arrangements
are made where necessary to prevent a transformer oil fire igniting other
ma~erials, and the total transformer capacity in one location does not exceed 10
KVA in a section of the building classified as combustible, or 75 KVA where the
surrounding structure is classified as fire-resistant construction.
3) FURNACE TRANSFORMERS. Electric furnace transformers of a total rating not
exceeding 75 KVA may be installed without a vault in a building or room of fire-
resistant construction provided suitable arrangements are made to prevent a
transformer oil fire spreading to other combustible material.
4) DETACHED BUILDING. Transformers may be installed in a building which does
not conform with the provisions specified in this Code for transformer vault, pro-
vided neither the building nor its contents present fire hazard to any other building
or property, and provided the building is used only in supplying electric service
and the interior is accessible only to qualitied persons:
e. Guarding. Transformers shall be guarded as follows:
1) MECHANIC PROTECTION. Appropriate provisions shall be made to minimize the
possibility of damage to transformers from external causes where the
transformers are located exposed to physical damage.
21 CASE OR ENCLOSURE. Dry-Type transformers shalt be provided with a non-
combustible moisture resistant case or enclosure which will provide reasonable
protection against accident insertion of foreign objects.

29
 31 EXPOSED LIVE PARTS. The transformer installation shall conform with the pro-
visions for guarding of live parts in PEC Rule 1056.
4) VOLTAGE WARNING. The operating voltage of exposed live parts of transformer
installation shall be indicated by signs visible markings on the equipment or struc-
tures.
9. Provisions for Transformers Vaults
a. New Building. New building requiring an expected load demand of 200 KVA or
above shall be provided with a transformer vault, except that tran.sformers may be
mounted on poles or structures within the property if enough space is available, pro-
vided that all clearances required can be obtained and no troublesome contamination
on insulators, bushings, etc. can cause hazards and malfunctioning of'1he equip-
ment.
b. location. Transformer and transformer vaults shall be readily accessible to qualified
personnel for inspection and maintenance. Vaults shall be located where they can be
ventilated to the outside air without using or ducts wherever such an arrangement is
practicable.
c. Walls, Roof and Floor. The walls and roofs of vaults shall consist of reinforced con-
crete not less than 150 mm thick, masonry or brick not less than 200 mm thick, or 300
mm load bearing hollow concrete block shall have a coating of cement or gypsum
plaster not less than 20 mm thick. The vault shall have a concrete floor not less 100
mm thick. Building walls and floors which meet these requirements may serve for the
floor, roof and one or more walls of the vaults. Other forms of fire-resistant construc-
tion are also acceptable provided they have adequate structural strength for the con-
ditions and a minimum fire resistance of two and one-half hours according to the ap-
proved Fire Test Standard. The quality of the material used in the construction of the
vault shall be of the grade approved by the Building Official having jurisdiction.
d. Doorways. Any doorway leading from the vault into the· building shall be protected
as follows:
1t TYPE OF DOOR. Each doorway shall be provided with a tight-fitting door of a
type approved for openings in such locations by the authority enforcing this
Code.
2) SILLS. A door sill or curb of sufficient height to confine within the vault, the oil
from the largest trensformer shall be provided and in no case shall be height be
less than 100 mm.
3) LOCKS. Entrance doors shall be equipped with locks, and doors shall be kept
locked, access being allowed only to qualified persons. Locks Jnd latches shall be
so arranged that the door may be readily 'and quickly opened from the inside.
10. Ventilation. Ventilation shall be adequate to prevent a transformer temperature in ex-
cess of the prescribed values.
a. Ventilation Openings. When required, openings for ventilation shall be provided in
accordance with the following:
1) LOCATION. Ventilation openings shall be located as far away as possible from
doors, windows, fire escapes and combustible material.
2) ARRANGEMENT. Vaults ventilated by natural circulation of air may have roughly
half of the total area of openings required for ventilation in one or more opsnings
near the floor and the remainder in one or more openings in the roof or in the side-
walls near the roof; or all of the area required for ventilation may be provided in
one or more openings in or. near the roof.
31 SIZE. In the case of vaults ventilated to an outdoor area without using ducts or

30
 flues the combined net area of all ventilating openings after deducting the area
occupied by screens, gratings, or louvers, shall be not less than .006 sq, mm per
KVA of transformer capacity in service, except that the net area shall be not less
than 0.1 sq. m. for any capacity under 50 KVA.
5) DAMPERS. Where automatic dampers are used in the ventilation openings of
vaults containing oil-insulated transformers, the actuating device should be made
to function at a temperature resulting from fire and not a tempera..,...which might
prevail as a result of an overheated transformer or bank of transformers.
Automatic dampers should be designed and constructed to minimize the possibili-
ty of accident closing.
6. DUCTS. Ventilating ducts shall be constructed of fire resi5%ant material.
7. DRAINAGE. Where practicable, vaults containing more than 100. KVA
transformer capacity shall be provided with a drain or other means which will
carry off any accumulation of oil or water in the vaults unless local conditions
make this impracticable. The floor shall be pitched to the drain when provided.
8. WATER PIPES AND ACCESSORIES. 'Any pipe or duct system foreign to the
electrical installation should not enter or pass through a transformer vault. Where
the presence of such foreign system cannot be avoided, appurtenances thereto
which require maintenance at regular intervals shall not be located inside the
vaults. Arrangement shall be made where necessary to avoid possible trouble
from compensation, leaks and breaks in such foreign system. Piping or other
facilities provided for fire protection or for water-cooled transformers are not
deemed to be foreign to the electrical installtion.

11. CAPACITORS
a. Application. This Section applies to installation of capacitors on electric circuits in
or on buildings.
Exception No.1. Capacitors that are components of other apparatus shall conform
to the requirements for such apparatus.
Exception No. 2. Capacitors in hazardous locations shall comply with additional re-
quirements in PEC section 400-414.
location. An installation of capacitors in which any single unit contain more than
three gallons of combustible liquid shall be in vault conforming to part C of PEC Sec-
tion 319.
Mechanical Protection. Capacitors shall be protected from physical damage by
location or by suitable fences, barriers or other enclosures.
Cases and Supports. Capacitors shall be provided with non combustible cases and
supports.
rransformers Used with Capacitors. Transformers which are components of
:apacitor to a power circuit shall be installed in accordance with PEC Section 319.
The KVA rating shall not be less than 135 per cent of the capacitor rating in Kvar.

12. Emergency Systems

a. The provisions of this Section shall apply to the installation, operation and
maintenance of circuits, systems and equipment intended to supply illumination and
power in the event of failure of the normal supply or in the event of accident to
elements of a system supplying power illuminiation essential for safety to life and
property where such systems or circuits are required by the Fire Code, or by any
government agency having jurisdiction.

31
 Emergency system are generally installed in places of assembly where artificial il-
lumination is required, such as buildings subject to occupancy by large numbers of
persons, hotels, theaters, sports arenas, hospitals and similar institutions. Emergen-
cy systems provide power for such functions as refrigeration, operationof
mechanical breathing apparatus, ventilation essential to maintain life, illumination
and power for hospital room, fire alarm systems, fire pumps, industrial processes
where current interruption would produce serious hazards, public address systems
and other similar functions.
b. All requirements of .this Section shall apply to emergency systems.
c. All equipment for use on emergency systems shall be properly approved.
d. Tests and Maintenance
1) The authority having jurisdiction shall conduct or witness a test on the complete
system upon completion of installation, and periodically afterwards.
2) Systems shall be tested periodically in accordance with a schedule acceptable to
the authority having jurisdiction to assure that they are maintained in proper
operating condition.
3) Where the battery systems or unit equipment are involved, including batteries us-
ed for starting or ignition in auxiliary engines, the authority having jurisdiction
shall require periodic maintainance.
4. A written record shall be kept of such tests and maintenance.
e. Emergency systems shall have adequate capacity and rating for the emergency
operation of all equipment connected to the system.
f. Current supply shall be such that in the event of failure of the normal supply to or
within the building to group of buildings concerned, emergency lighting to emergen-
cy power, will be immediately available. The supply system for emergency purposes
may be composed of one or more of the types of systems covered in Section 12.7
shall satisfy the applicable requirements of this Section.
Consideration must be given to the type of ser:vice to be rendered; whether for short
duration, as for exit lights of a theater, or for long duration, as for supplying
emergency power and lighting during long periods of current failure from trouble
either inside or outside the buildings as in the case of a hospital.
Assignment of degree of reliability of the recognized emergency supply system
depends upon the careful evaluation of the variables of each particular installation.
g. A storage battery of suitable rating and capacity shall supply, by means of a service
installed according to Section 200 of the PEC and maintained at non mofe than 90
per cent of system voltage, the total load of the circuits supplying emergency
lighting and emergency power for a period of at least 1/2 hour.
Batteries, whether of the acid or alkali type, shall be designed and constructed--to
meet the requirements of the emergency service. Lead-acid type batteries shall in-
clude low gravity acid (1.20 to 1.22 S P. GR.), relatively thick and rugged-plated and
separators, and a transparent jar.
h. A generator set driven by some form of prime mover, with sufficient capacity and
proper rating to supply circuits carrying emergency lighting or lighting and power,
equipped with suitable means for autormatically starting the prime mover on failure
of the normal service shall be provided. For hospitals, the transition-time from ins-
tant of failure of the normal power source to the E!mergency generator source shall
not exceed ten seconds. (See Section 12.4).
i. There shall be two service, each in accordance with Section 200 of the PEC, widely
separated electrically and physically to minimize the possibility of simultaneous in-

32
 terruption of power supply arising from an occurence w ithin the building or group of
buildings served.
j. Connection on the line side of the main service shall be sufficiently separated from
said main service to prevent simultaneous interruption of supply through an oc-
curence within the building or group of buildings served.
k. The requirements of Section 12.3 and Section 12.6 also apply to installations where
the entire electrical load on a service or sub·service is arranged to be supplied from a
second source. Current supply from a standby power plant shall satisfy the require-
ment of availability in Section 12.6.
I. Audible and visual signal devices shall be provided, where practicable, for the
following purposes: ..
a) To give warning of dearrangement of the emergency or auxiliary source.
b) To indicate that the battery or generator set is carrying a load.
c) To indicate when a battery charger is properly functioning.
m. Only appliances and lamps specified as required for emergency use shall be supplied
by emergency lighting circuits.
n. Emergency illumination shall be provided for all required exit lights and all other
lights specified as necessary for sufficient illumination.
Emergency lighting systems should be so designed and installed that the failure of
any individual lighting element, such as the burning out of a light bulb, shall not
leave any area in total darkness.
o. Branch circuits intended to supply emergency lighting shall be so installed as to pro·
vide service immediately when the normal supply for lighting is interrupted. Such in-
stallations shall provide either one of the following:
1) An emergency lighting supply, independent of the general lighting system with
provisions for automatically transferring to the emergency lights by means of
devices approved for the purpose upon the event of failure of the general lighting
system supply.
2) Two or more separate and complete systems with independent power supply,
each system providing sufficient current for emergency lighting purposes and are
both lighted, means shall be provided for automatically energizing either system
upon failure of the other. Either or both systems may be part of the general
lighting systems of the protected occupancy if circuits supplying lights .for
emergency illumination are installed in accordance with other Sections of this
Rule .

p. For branch circuits which supply equipment classed as emergency, there shall be an
emergency supply source to which the load will be transferred automatically and im-
mediately upon the failure of the normal supply.
q. Emergency circuit wiring shall be kept entirely independent of all other wiring and
equipment and shall not enter the same-race-way, box or cabinet with other wiring
except:
a) In transfer switches, or
b) In exit or emergency lighting fixtures supplied from two (2) sources.
r. The switches installed in emergency lighting circuits. shall be so arranged that only
authorized persons have control of emergency lighting, except:
a) Where two or more single throw switches are connected jn parallel to control a
single circuit, at least one of those switches shall be accessible only to authorized
persons.

33
 b) Additional switches which act only to put emergency lights into operation but
not to disconnect them may be permitted.
Switches connected in series and three-and-tour-way switches shall not be allowed.
s. All manual switches for controlling emergency circuits shall be located at the most
accessible place to authorized persons responsible for their actuation . In places of
assembly, such as theaters, a switch for controlling emergency lighting systems
shall be located in the lobby or at a place conveniently accessible therefrom.
In no case shall, a control switch for emergency lighting in a theater for motion pic-
ture projection be placed in the projection booth or on the stage. However, where
multiple switches are provided, one such switch may be installed in such locations
and so arranged that it can energize but not disconnect for the circuit."'
t. Lights on the exterior of the building which are .not required for illumination when
there is sufficient daylight may be controlled by an automatic light-actuated device
approved tor the purpose.
u. In hospital corridors, switching arrangements to transfer corridor lighting in patient
areas of hospitals from overhead fixtures to fixtur~s designed to provide night
lighting may be permitted, that switches can only select between two sets of fix-
tures but cannot extinguish both sets at the same time.
v. The branch circuits over current devices in emergency circuits shall be accessible to
authorized persons only.
w. Where permitted by the authority having jurisdiction, in lieu of other methods
specified elsewhere in this Section, individual unit equipment for emergency il·
luminations shall consist of:
1) Battery
2) Battery charging Jlfleans, when a storage battery is used.
3) One or more lamps, and
4) A relaying device arranged to energize the lamps automatically upon failure of
the normal supply to the building.
The batteries shall be of suitable rating and capacity to supply and maintain, at not
less than 90 per cent of rated lamp voltage, the total lamp load associated with the
unit for a period of at least 1/2 hour. Storage batteries, whether of the acid or alkali
type, shall be designed and constructed to meet the requirements of emergency ser-
vice. Lead-acid type storage batteries shall have transparent jars.
Unit equipment shall be permanently fixed in palce (i.e. not portable) and shall have
all wiring to each unit installed in accordance with the requirements of any of the
wiring methods discussed in Chapter 11 of the PEC. They shall not be connected by
flexible cord. The supply circuit between the unit equipment and the service, the
feeders or the branch circuit wiring shall be installed as required by Section 12.17.
Emergency illumination, fixtures which obtain power from a unit equipment which
are not part of the unit equipment shall be wired to the unit equipment as required
by Rule 5257 of the PEC and in accordance with the one of the wiring methods des-
cribed in Chapter 11 of the PEC .

13. EffECTIVELY
a. All primary and secondary supply lines already existing shall comply with the provi·
sions of this Rule Within two (2) years from the effectivity of this Rule.
b. Transformers to be installed on, ilttached to, or in buildings shall comply with the re-
quirements of this Rule. Transformer installations already existing shall comply with
the requirements within two (2) years from the effectivity of this Rule.

34
 c. Non-compliance with the provisions of this Rule shall be subject to the penal provi-
sions in Section 213 of PO 1096.

RULE X-MECHANICAL REGULATIONS

1. Definitions-For purposes of this Rule, the f ollowing definitions sha ll apply:
A CCI DENTAL CONTACT -Any inadvertent physical contact with power transmission
equ.ipment, prime movers. machines or machine parts which· could result from slipping,
falling. sliding, tripping or any other unplanned action or movement.
AIR ·c oNDITIONING-The process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution to meet the requirements of the con-
ditioned space.
BALUSTRADES-The frames on either of the moving steps of an escalator.
BOILER -A closed vessel for heating water or for application of heat to generate steam
or other vapor to be used externally or to itself.
BUFFER - A device designed to stop a descending car or counterweight beyond its nor-
mal limit of travel by absorbing and dissipating the kinetic eneryy of the car or
counterweight.
CAGE/CAB -An enclosure for housing the operator and the hoisting mechanism,
power plant and equipment controlling a crane.
CAPACITY OF WORKS. PROJECT OR PLANT - The total horse-power of all
engines, motors, turbines or other prime movers installed, whether in operation or not.
CAR - The load-carrying unit of an elevator including its platform, frame, enclosure and
door or gate.
COMPRESSOR-A mechanical device f or the purpose of increasing the pressure upon
the refrigerant.
CON DENSER- A ve.ssel or arrangement of pipes or tubing in which vaporized re-
frigerant is liquified by the removal of heat.
CONDEMNED BOILER OR UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSEL -A boiler or unfired
pressure vessel that has been inspected by the Building Official and declared unsafe or
disqualified and power stamped or marked designating its rejection.
CRANE -Means a machine for lifting or lowering a load and moving it horizontally, the
hoisting mechanism being an integral part of the machine.
DUCT - A passageway made of sheet metal or other suitable material not necessarily
ieak tight, for conveying air or other gases at low pressure.
DUMBWAITER-A hoisting and lowering mechanism equipped with a car not to ex-
ceed 3861 sq. em. in area and a maximum height of 1.20 m., the capacity of which does
not exceed 277 kilos, used exclusively for carrying materials.
ELEVATOR LANDING-That portion of a floor, balcony or platform for loading or
discharging passengers or freight to or from the elevator .
ELEVATOR WIRE ROPES- Steel wire ropes attached to the car frame or passing
around sheaves attached to the car frame from which elevator/ dumbwaiter cars and
their counterweights are suspended.
ENCLOSED-Means that the moving parts of a machine are so guarded that physical
contact by any part of the human body is precluded or prevented. This does not
howeve·r prohibit the use of hinged, sliding or otherwise removable doors or sections to
permit inspection, lubrication or proper maintenance.
ESCALATOR-A power driven, inclined, continuous stairway for raising or lowering
passengers.

35
 EVAPORATION- That part of the AC/refrigeration system in which liquid refrigerant
is vaporized to produce 'refrigeration.
EXTERNAL INSPECTION - An inspection made on a boiler during operation.
GUARDED -Shielded, fencea, or otherwise protected by means of suitable enclosure
guards, covers or standard railings, so as to preclude the possibility of accidental con-
tact or. dangerous approach to persons or objects.
HOIST - An apparatus for raising or lowering a load by the application of a building
force, but does not include a car or platform . tt may be base-mounted, hook suspen-
sion, monorail, over-head, simple drum type or trolley suspension .
HOISTWAY- A shaftway for the travel of one or more elevators or dumbwaiters.
INTERNAL INSPECTION -An inspection made when a boiler is shut down , with
hand-holes, manholes, or other openings opened or removed to permit inspection of the
interior.
LIQUID RECEIVER - A vessel permanently connected to a system by inlet and outlet
pipes for storage of a liquid refrigerant.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER - A boiler mounted on a self-propelled track locomotive used
to furnish motivating power for travelling on rails.
LOW PRESSURE HEATING BOILER - A boiler operated at pressures not exceeding
1.05 kgs/sq./m. with steam or water temperature not exceeding 250°F.
MACHINE- The driven unit of an equipment.
MACHINE HOUSE - An enclosure for .housing the hoisting mechanism and power
plant.
MACHINE PARTS -Any or all moving parts of a machine.
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT. MACHINERY OR PROCESS - Includes steam
engines, internal combustion engine plants, hydraulic power plants, pumping plants,
refngerating plants, air conditioning plants, mill shops, factories, foundries, shipyards,
etc. containing any mechanical equipment, machinery or process, driven by steam, in-
ternal or external combustion fuel, electricity, gas, air, water, heat, chemicals or other
prime movers.
MOVING WALK - A type of horizontal passenger-carrying device on which
passengers stand or walk, with its surface remaining parallel to its direction of motion
and is uninterrupted.
POINT OF OPERATION - That part of a machine which performs an operation on the
stock or material and/ or that place or location where stock or material is f ed to the
machine. A machine may have more than one point of operation.
PORTABLE BOILER - An internally fired t}oiler which is self-contained, primarily in-
tended for temporary location.
POWER TRANSMISSION MACHINERY -A shaft, wheel, drum. pulley, system of
fast and loose pulleys, coupling, clutch, driving belt, V-belt sheaves and belts, chains
and sprockets, gearing, torque connectors, conveyors, hydraulic couplings, magnetic
couplings, speed reducers or increasers or any device by which the motion of an engine
is transmitted to or received by another machine.
PRIME MOVER -An engine or motor operated by steam, gas, air, electricity, liquid or
gaseous fuels, liquids in motion or other forms of energy whose main function is to drive
or operate, eit her directly or indirectly, other mechanical equipment.
PROCESS MACHINE - An equip.ment designed and operated for a specific purpose.
REFRIGERANT -A substance which produces a refrigerating effect by its absorption
of heat while expanding or evaporating.

36
 TON OF REFR I GERATION -The useful refrigerating effect equal to 12,000
BTU/hour; 200 BTU/minute.
TRAVELLING CABLE -A cable made up of electric conductors which provides elec-
trical connection between an elevator or dumbwaiter car and a fixed outlet in the
hoistway.
UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSEL-A vessel in which ore~ure is obtained from an exter-
nal source or from an indirect application of heat.
VENTILATION - Process of supplying or removing air by natural or mechanical means
to or from any space.

2. Guarding 9f Moving and Dangerous Parts:

All prime n10vers, machines and machine parts, powers transmission equipment shall b~
so guarded, shielded, fenced or enclosed to protect any person against exposure to or
accidental contact with dangerous moving parts.
3. Cranes:
a. Access to the case or machines house of a conviniently placed stationary ladder,
stairs or platforms requiring a step-over, that no gap exceeding 300 milimeters is
allowed .
b. Adequate means shall be provided tor cranes having revolving cabs or machine
houses to permit the operator to enter ur leave the crane cab and reach the ground
safely, irrespective of its position.
c. Cages, cabs or machine houses on cranes shall be enclosed to protect operator dur-
ing inclement weather.
d. A gong or other effective warning device shall be mounted,on each cage or cab.
e. Temporary crane effect~ve warning device may be allowed provided there is a
flagman whose sole duty is to warn those in the path of the crane or its load.
f. The maximum rated load of all cranes shall be plainly marked on each side of the
crane. If the crane has more than one hoisting unit, each hoist shall have marked on
it to its load block, its rated capacity clearly legible from the ground or floor.

4. Hoists:
a. Operating control shall be plainly marked to indicate the direction of travel.
b. Each cage controlled hoist shall be equipped with an effective warning device.
c. Each hoist designed to lift its load vertically shall have its rated load legibly marked on
the hoist or load block or at some easily visible space.
d. A stop, which shall operate automatically, shall be provided at each switch, dead end
rail or turn-table to prevent the trolley running off when the switch is open.
e. Each electric hoist motor shall be provided with electrically or mechanically operated
brake so arranged that the brake will be applied automatically when the power is cut
off from the hoist.
5. Elevators:
a. Hoistways for elevators shall be substantially enclosed through their height, with no
openings allowed except for necessary doors, windows or skylights.
b. Ropes, wires or pipes shall not be installed in hoistways, except when necessary for the
operation of the elevators.
c. Hoistway pits shall be of such depth that when the car rests on the fully compressed
buffers, a clearance of not less than 600 millimeters remains between the underside
of the car and _the bottom of the pit.

37
 d. When four or more elevators serve all or the same portion of a building, they shall be
located in not less than two (2) hoistways and in no case shall more than tour t41
elevators be located in any one hoistway.
e. Where a machine room or penthouse is provided at the top to a hoistway, it shall be
constructed with sufficient room for repair and inspection. Access shall be by means
of an iron ladder or stairs when the room is more than 600 millimeters above the ad-
cajent floor or roof surface. The angle of inclination of such ladder or stairs shall not
exceed 60° from the horizontal. This room shall not be used as living quarters or
depository of other materials and shall be provided with adequate ventilation.
f . Minimum number of hoisting ropes shall be three (3) for traction elevators and two
(2) for drum type elevators.
g. The minimum diameter of hoisting and counter-weight ropes shall be 30 millimeters.
h. Elevators shall be provided with over-load relay and reverse polarity relay.
i. In high-rise apartments or residential condominiums of more than five (5) stories. at
least one passenger elevator shall be kept on 24-hour constant service.

6. Escalators:
a. The angle of inclination of an escalator shall not exceed 35° from the horizontal.
b. The width between balustrades shall not be less than 558 millimeters nor more than
1.20 meters. This width shall not exceed the width of the steps by more than 330
millimeters.
c. Solid balustrades of incombustible material shall be provided on each side of the
moving steps. If made of glass, it shall be tempered type glass.
d. Each balustrade shall be provided with a handrail moving in the same direction and at
the same speed as the steps.
e. The rated speed, measured along the angle of inclination, shall be not more than 38
mpm.
f. Starting switches shall be key ope~ated and located within sight of escalator steps.
g. Emergency buttons shall be conspicuously and accessibly located at or near the top
and bottom landings but p·rotected from accidental contact.

7. Boilers and Pressure Vessels:

a. Location of Boilers:
1) Boilers may be located inside buildings provided that the boiler room is of rein-
forced concrete or masonry and that the boiler room shall not be used for any
other purpose .
2) In case the main building is not made up of fire resistive materials, boilers shall be
located outside the building at a distance of not less than 3.00 meters from the
outside wall of the main building and the building housing the boiler shall be
made up of the fire resistive materials.
3) No part of the boiler shall be closer than one meter from any wall.
4) Fire tube boilers shall be provided with sufficient room for removal/replacement
of tubes either thru the front or rear.
b. Smokestacks whether self-supporting or guyed shall be of sufficient capacity to
handle fuel gases, shall be able to withstand a wind load of 175 km per hour and
shall rise at least 5 meters above the eaves of a building within a rad ius of 50 meters.
c. Manufacturers / assemblers of boilers/ pressure vessels/ pressurized water heaters
shall stamp each vessel on the front head or on any nther suitable location w ithe the

38
 name of the manufacturer, serial number. maximum allowable worl<ing pressure,
heating surface in sq. m. and year of manufacture.
d. Boilers of more than 46. sq . m. heating surface shall each be provided with two
means of feeding water, one electrically driven, one pump and one injector.
e. Two check valves shall be provided between any feed pump and the boiler. in addi-
tion to the regular shut-off valve.
f. Where two or more boilers are connected in parallel, each steam outlet shall be pro-
vided with a non-return valve and shut-off valve.
g. Boiler rooms shall have at least two separated exits.
h. In no case shall the maximum pressure of an old/existing boiler be increased to a
greater pressure than would be allowed for a new boiler of same construction.
i. Each boiler shall have at least one safety valve. For boilers having more than 46 sq.
meters pressure of water heating surface or a generating capacity exceeding 907 kg.
per hour, two (2) or more safety valves shall be required.
j. Each boiler shalt have a steam gauge, with a dial range of not less than 1-1/2 times
and not more than twice the maximum allowable working pressure. It may be con-
nected to the steam space or to the steam connection to the eater column.
k. Whenever repairs/replacement are made on fittings or appliances, the work shall
comply with the section on New Installation of the Philippine Mechanical Engineer-
ing Code .
I. After a permit has been granted to install a boiler/pressure vessel/pressurized water
heater upon payment of the installation fees thereof, it .shall be the duty of the Build-
ing Official to make periodic inspection of the installation to determine compliance
with the approved plans and specifications.
m. Upon completion of the installation, the Building Official shall conduct an inspection
and test, after which a certificate of operation for a period not exceeding one year
shall be issued upon payment of the required inspection fees.
n. The Building Official shall notify the owner in writing of the intended date of the an-
nual inspection at least 15 days in advance. However, the owner may request a post-
ponement in writing of said inspection and the Building Official shall fix a date for in-
spection agreeable to both, but not to exceed 30 days from the intended date.
o. The owner or user of a boiler shall prepare the same for inspection by cooling it
down, blanking off all connections to adjacent boilers, removing all soot and ashes
from tubes, head shell, furnace and combusti9n chamber. The owner shall assist the
Building Official by providing all labor and equipment required during said inspec-
tion .

8. Refrigeration and Air Conditlonrng:

a. The temperature and humidity of the air to be used for comfortable cooling shall be
maintained at 68.74°F effective temperature at an air movement from 4.57 to 7.60
MPM within the living zone.
b. Water from evaporators, condensers and other machinery shall be properly col-
lected into a suitable water or drainage system.
c. Ducts shall be constructed entirely of non-combustible materials such as steel, iron,
aluminum or other approved materials. Only .fire retardant lining shalt-be used on the
''"iside of ducts.
d. Access doors shall be provided at aU automatic dampers, fire dampers, thermostats
and other apparatus requiring service and in~ction in the duct system.
e. Where ducts pass thru walls. floors or partitions, the space around the duct shall be

39
 sealed with fir_e resistant material equivalent to that of the wall, floor or partition, to
prevent the passage of flame or smoke.
f. When ducts or the outlets or inlets to them pass through f ire walls, they shall be pro-
vided with automatic fire dampers on both sides of the fire wall through which they
pass.
·g. Fire doors and fire dampers shall be arranged to close aut,omatically and remain
tightly closed, upon the operation of the fusible link or other approved heat actuated
device, located where readily affected by an abnormal rise of temperature in the
duct.
h. Each refrigerating system shall be provided with a legible metal sign permanently at-
tached and easily accessible, indicating thereon the name of manufa~urer or in-
staller, kind and total number of kgs. of refrigerant contained in the system and field
test pressure applied.
i. In refrigerating plants of more than 45 kg. refrigerant, masks and helmets shall be
used. These shall be kept in a suitable cabinet outside the machine room when not
in use:
j. Not more than 136 kgs. of refrigerant in approved containers shall be stored in a
machine room at any given time.
k. Where ammonia is used, the discharged may be into a tank of water, which shall be
used for no other purpose except ammonia absorption . At least one gallon of water
shall be provided for every 0.4536 kg. of ammonia in the system .
I. Refrigerant piping crossing a passageway in any building shall not be less than 2.3
meters above the floor.
m. In a refrigerating system containing more than 9 kgs., stop valves shalt be installed in
inlets and outlets of compressors, outlets of liquid receivers, and in liquid and suc-
tion branch header.
n. Window type ACs shall be provided with drain pipe or plastic tubing for discharging
condensate water into a suitable container.
o. Window type AC installed on ground floors of buildings shall not be less than 2.13
meters from the ground.
p . Window type ACs shall be provided with exhaust ducts if the exhaust is discharged
into corridors/ hallways / arcades/ sidewalks etc.
q. Window type ACs installed along corridors/hallways/above the first floor shall not
be less than 2. 13 meters above the floor level.

9. Water Pumping for Buildings/ Structures:

a. Installation of pumping equipment to .supply buildings/structures from existing
water supply system shall only be allowed if there is always water in the mains.
b. To maintain water pressure in all floors of a building/ structure, the following
systems may be used:
1) Overhead tank supply -may be installed above the roof supported by the
building/structure or on a separate tower.
9.2. 1. Water tanks shall be provided with a vent and an overflow pipe leading to
a storm drain and shall be fully covered.
2) Pneumatic tank - an unfired pressure vessel, initially full of air, into which water
from mains is pumped.
- A suitable pressure switch shall stop the pump when pressure required is at-
tained.

40
 - Tanks shall be designed for twice the maximum total dynamic pressure re-
quired.
- An air volume control device shall be installed to maintain correct air volume
inside the tank.

10. Pipings :
a. Piping shall, as much as possible, run parallel to building walls.
b. Grouped piping shall be supported on racks, on either horizontal or vertical planes.
c. Piping on racks shall have sufficient space for pipe or chain wrenches so that any
single line can be altered/repaired/replaced without disturbing the rest.
d. Piping 100 millimeters in diameter and above shall be flanged~ Smaller sized pipes
may be screwed .
e. Piping subjected to varying temperature shall be provided with expansion joints.
f. Galvanized piping shall not be used for steam.
g. Piping carrying steam, hot water or hot liquids shall not be embedded in concrete
walls or floors and shall be properly insulated to prevent accidental scalding to per-
sons and to minimize heat loss.
h. Color coding of piping shall be as follows:
1) Steam Division - High Pressure- White
- Exhaust system- Buff
2) Water Division - Fresh water, low pressure-Blue
- Fresh water, high pressure-Blue
- Salt water piping-Green
3) Oil Division - Delivery-Brass or 'Bronze
- Discharge- Yellow
4) Pneumatic Division - All piping-~ray
5) Gas Division - All piping- Black
6) Fuel Oil Division - All piping-Black
7) Refrigerating Division - Pipes-Black
- Fittings- Black
NOTE: All cases not specifically covered by t his Rule shall be in accor-
dance w ith the Philippine Mechanical Engineering Code.

3. ECONOMICS OF MATERIAL SELECTION

The selection of electrical materials involves not only choosing a material or assembly
that is functionally adequate and , where necessary, visually satisfactory, but also the
consideration of economic factors. This is necessary since, in most instances_. There is
available a multiplicity of equipment that will fulfill the construction need. In such
cases, economic factors often decide the issue.

4. ENERGY CONSIDERATION
Energy costs are a major factor in ecof)omic analysis. However, energy considerations
are at least as important, in and of themselves. In addition to purely electrical charac-
teristics, electrical equipment possesses also economic and energy ' 'ratings'' .

5. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT RATINGS·

All electrical equipment is rated for the normal service it is intended to perform. The
ratings may be in voltage. current, duty, horsepower, kw. kva, temperature, enclosure
and so on.

41
 a) Voltage-the voltage rating of an item of electrical equipment is the maximum
voltage that can safely be applied to the unit continuously. It frequently, but not
always, corresponds to the voltage applied in normal use. Thus, an ordinary wall
electrical receptacle is rated at 250 v maximum, though in normal use only 1 20v is
applied to it. The rating is determined by the type and quantity of insulation used
and the physical spacing between electrically energized parts.
b) Current-the current rating of an item of electrical equipment is determined by max~
imum operating temperature at which its components can operate properly con-
tinuously . That in turn depends on the type of insulation used.
A motor is rated in horsepower (or kw), transformer is rated in kva and a cable, is
rated in amperes. The criterion on which all these it base is maximum permissible
operating temperature.

6. INTERIOR WIRING SYSTEMS

The function of any wiring system is to conduct electricity from one point to another.
When the primary purpose of the system is to distribute electrical energy. it is referred
to as an electrical power •Y•tam. When the purpose is to transmit information. It is
referred to as an electrical signal system.
Due to the nature of Electricity, its distribution within a structure poses basically a
single problem: How to construct a distribution system that will safely provide the
energy required at the location required. The safety consideration is all-important, since
even the smallest interior system is connected to the utility's powerful network and the
P.Otentiat for damage, injury, and fire is always present.
The solution to this problem is to isolate the electrical conductors from the structure ex-
cept at those specific points, such as wall receptacles, where contact is desired. This
isolation is generally accomplished by insulating the conductors and placing them in
protective raceways. The principal types of interior wiring systems in use today are:

a) Exposed Insulated Cables

NM ("Romex"l, AC ("BX"I Ml (Mi'neral Insulated,
ALS, and CS. The latter two types are represent-
ative of the many metal-ja,keted types available.
This type of w iring system relies upon the cons-
truction of the cable itself for protection both of and
from the "hot" conductors, since raceways are not
required in the installation (see Sections 11 & 12).

b) Insulated Cables in Open Raceways {Trays)

This system is specifically intended for industrial application, and it relies upon
both the cable and the tray foJ· safety.

4.2
 c) Insulated Conductors in Closed Raceways
This system is the most general type and is applicable to all types of wiring in all
types of facilities. It can further be subdivided into two major subcategories.

1. Field Assembled Systems -We include here wiring

in conduit, surface raceways, and under-
floor ducts. In general, the raceway is installed first
and the wiring pulled in or laid in later. The
CONOUCTOR raceways themselves may be:
rNSUL.ATOR a) Buried in the structure; for example, conduit in
C.lOSED ~WAY
the floor slab or underfloo( duct. (see sections
19 and A, B, E).
b) Attached to the structure, for example, all types
of surface raceways, including conduit and wire
ways suspended above hung ceilings. (see sec-
tions 21 and 221.
c) Part of the structure; for example cellular con -
crete and cellular metal floors (sections 20 B, and
CJ.

2. Combined Conductor and Enclosure

This category is intended to over all types of factory-constructed busway and
bus duct, plus a few special types. Application of this construction is generally
to feeder circuits, though light-duty bus duct is available for branch circuit use
as well (see sections.18, 19 and 20).

7. CONDUCTORS
Electrical conductors (wiring) are t he means by which the current is conducted through
the electrical system, corresponding to the piping in t he hydraulic analogy. By conven-
tion, a single insulated conductor No. 6 AWG (American Wire Gauge) or larger, or
several conductors of any size assembled into a single unit, are referred to as a cabte.
Single conductors No.8 AWG and smaller are called wire.
The standard of the American wire and cable industry for round cross-section conduc-
tors is the American wire gauge (AWG). All wire sizes up to No. 0000 (Also written
4/0) are expressed in AWG. The AWG numbers run in reverae order to the size of the
wire, that is, the smaller the AWG number, the larger the size . Thus, No. 10 is a heavier
wire than No. 12 and lighter (thinner) than No. 8 the 4/ 0 size is the largest AWG desig-
nation, beyond which a different de!lignation called MCM (thousa nd circular mil) is us-
ed. In this designation, wire diameter Increases w ith number; thus 500 MCM is a
heavier wire (double the area) than 260 MCM.
A circular MU is an artificial area measurement, representing the square of the cable dia-
meter (diam2) when the diameter is expressed in mils (thousandths of an inch). Thus a
solid conductor Y2 inch in diameter is 500 mils in diameter, or 250,000
circular mils in area (500)2 or
250 MCM
CM diam2 ( 500)2 250,000 = 250 MCM
MCM = 1000 = 1000 = 1000 ~ 1000

In Metric System, conductor sizes are given simply as the diameter in millimeters (mm).

43
 METRIC ENGLISH
SIZE d-e Resistance
CROSS Diameter Diameter Ohms/1000 It
SECTIONAL Size Area jlnches) { Milimeters) at TF F. 25° C
AREA mm 2 (AWGO~MCM) (Circular Mils) Solid Stranded Solid Stranded (Bare Copper)

1.3 16 2580 0.0508 - 1.29 - 4.10

2.0 14 4109 0.0641 -- 1.63 - 2.57
3.5 12 6530 0.0808 2.05 - 1.62
5.5 10 10,380 0.1019 - 2.59 - 1.02
8 8 16,510 0.1285 - 3.26 - 0.64

14 6 26,240 0.162 0.184 4.11 4.67 0.41

22 4 41,740 0.204 0.232 5.18 5.89 ,.. 0.26
30 2 66,360 0.258 0.292 6.55 7.42 0.16
38 1 83,690 0.289 0.332 7.34 8.43 0.13
50 0 (1/0) 105,600 0.325 0.373 8.26 9.47 0.10
60 00 (2/ 0) 133,100 0.365 0.418 9.27 10.62 0.08 1
eo 000 (3 / 0) 167,800 0.410 0.470 10.41 11.94 0.064
100 0000 {4 f 0) 211 ,600 0.460 0.528 11.68 13.41 0.051
125 250MCM 250,000 0.500 0.575 12.70 14.61 0.043
150 300MCM 300,000 0.548 0.630 13.92 16.00 0.036
200 400MCM 400,000 0.632 0.728 16,05 18.49 0.027
250 500 MCM 500,000 0.707 0.81 3 19.56 20.65 0.022

8. CONDUCTOR AMPACITY
Conductor current carrying capacity or ampacity is explained above by the maximum
operating temperature that it s insulation can · stand continuously. Heat is generated as
a result of the current flowing and the conductor resistance (12R). This head is dis-
sipated into the environment. The operating temperature therefore depends on the
amount of current, the wire resistance, and the environment. Thus for a given environ-
ment (open-air or enclosed), ampacity increases with increasing conductor size. If more
than three conductors are placed in a conduit, the increase in temperature requires that
the conductors be derated in the amount as shown in this Table.

CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
DERATING FACTORS

Number of Conductors Derating

In Raceway Factor

4 to 6 0.80
7 to 24 0.70
25 to 42 0.60
43 and above 0.50

When conductors are placed in an enclosed raceway. The heat generated is not as easi-
ly dissipated as it would be if the conductor were in free air and the temperature rise is
greater. Thus, t he current rating in free air is much higher that for the same were in con-
duit.

9. CONDUCTOR INSULATION AND JACKETS

Most conductors are covered with some type of insulation that prevents them from
contacting other wiring or the grounded raceway, and also prevents accidental contact
w ith the wiring lnaulatlon also serves as a physical shield to the conductor against

44
 W\~ ~NCLOse."O.
C.URRE~T
RA11N6 l.ES$,
TEMPERATURE RISE
IS6REATER.

FR'EI: A IR WIRE eXR:lSEO.

CU~ENT RATING l5 HIGHER
TEMPERATURE RISE IS LESS

heat, water and so on, although outer jackets usually accomplish this function. Using our
hydrauiic analogy, conductors are analogous to pipes; when pressure is high, pipes are
heavier; when voltage is high ; insulation must be thicker.
Insulation is rated by voltage for example, 300 ,600, 1 ,000, 3 ,000 . 5 ,000, and
15,000v. If insulation is used above its rating. it may break down causing short circuits
and arcing with the possibility of fire. Ordinary building wiring is usually rated for 300v
or 600v. The common types of building insulation are listed below:
INSULATORS -used as supports and for additional protection for wires.

General Wiring
Maximum
Trade Type Operating Application
Name Letter Temperature Provisions
Moisture- and
75" c Dry and wet
heat-resistance RHW
16JO F locations
rubber
60° c
Thermoplastic T Dry locations
140" F
Moisture-resistant 60° c Dry and wet
thermoplastic
TW 140" F locations
Heat-resistant 90" c
THHN Dry locations
thermoplastic 194° F
Moi.sture- and
75 ° c Dry and wet
heat-resistant THW
167° F locations
thermoplastic
Moisture- and
75° c Dry and wet
heat-resistant THWN
167" F locations
thermoplastic
Moisture- and 90° C
Dry locations
heat-resistant 194° F
cross-linked XHHW
thermosetting 75° c Wet locations
polyethylene 167° F
90° c
Silicone-asbestos SA 194°.F Dry locations

Asbestos and
110" c
Varnished AVA Dry locations only
230° F
cambric

45
)j:>.
en

Size Type RHWb

-· Types T, THW•, TW Types THHN, THWN Typ,e AVA Type XHHW
-- Approx. Approx. Approx. Approx. Approx.
Approx. Area Approx. Area Approx. Area Approx. Area Approx. Area
AWGC Diameter ($quare Diameter (Square Diameter (Square Diameter (Square Diameter (Square
MCM (Inches) Inches) (Inches) Inches) (Inches) Inches) (Inches) Inches) (Inches) Inches)
14 0.204 0.0327
14 - - 0.162• 0.0206• - - 0.245 0.047 0 .129 0.0 131
12 0.221 0 .0384
12
10
--
0.242
-
0.0460
0.179•
0.168
0.0251•
0.0224
-
0.153
-
0:0184
0.265 0.055 0.146 0.0167

10
8
-
0.311
-
0.0760
0.199•
0.226
0.0311 •
0.0408
-
0.201
-
0.0317
0.285 0 .064 0.166 0.0216

8 - - 0.259• 0 .0526• - - 0.310 0.075 0.224 0.0394

6 0.397 0.1238 0.323 0.0819 0.257 0.0519 0.395 0.122 0.282 0.0625
4 0.452 0.1605 0.372 0.1087 0.328 0 .0845 0.445 0.155 0.328 0 .0845
2 0.513 0.2067 0.433 0. 1473 0.388 0.1182 0.505 0.200 0.388 0.1182
1 0.588 0.2715 0.508 0.2027 0.450 0.1590 0.585 0 .268 0 .450 0.1590
1/0 0.629 0.3107 0.549 0.2367 0.491 0.1893 0.625 0 .307 0.491 0.1893
210 0.675 0.3578 0.595 0.2781 0.537 0.2265 0.670 0.353 0.537 0.2265
3/0 0.727 0.4151 0.647 0.3288 0 .588 0.2715 0.720 0.406 0.588 0.2715
4/0 0.785 0.4840 0.705 0.3904 0.646 0.3278 0.780 0.478 0.646 0.3278
,250 0.868 0.5917 0.788 0.4877 0.716 0 .4026 0.885 0.616 0.716 0.4026
300 0.933 0.6837 0.843 0.5581 0.771 0.4669 0.940 0.692 0.771 0.4669
350 0.985 0.7620 0.895 0.6291 0.822 0.5307 0.995 0 .778 0.822 0.5307
400 1.032 0.8365 0.942 0.6969 0.869 0.5931 1.040 0.850 0.869 0.5931
500 1.119 0.9834 1.029 0.8316 0 .955 0.7163 1.1 25 0.995 0.955 0.71 63
Source. Extracted from the National Electrical Code.
•Dimensions of THW In sizes Nos. 14 to 8. No. 6 THW and larger Is the same dimension as T.
~Dimen&ion of AHW without outer covering Is the same as THW. l

•No. 14 to No. B, solfd; No. 6 and larger, stranded. Refer to Table 15.1 for equivalent sizes In millimeters.
 Various materials are utilized for outer coverings as wire and cable. Lead provides
moisture protection . Neoprene gives moisture, corrosion and abrasion protection.
Metal wire or Tape coverings of bronze or steel protect against rodent attack or
physical damage. ·

10. COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS

The use of aluminum wiring has increased because of its inherent weight advantages
over copper, with concomitant lower installation cost. However, it is not so much re-
commended because it forms an oxide, which is an adhesive and poorly conductive
film, within minutes on any exposed aluminum surface. If ever aluminum conductor is
used, it should be restricted to sizes not smaller t han #AWG. Copper conductors are
preferred in all references.

11 . FLEXIBLE METAL CLAD CABLE CBX)

Among the most common types of cable run without raceways-is the NEC type AC
metal clad cable, commonly known by the trade name "BX". It is an assembly of wires,
normally plastic insulated , bound together with a tape or braid and then wrapped with a
spiral-wound interlocking strip of steel tape. Such cable must have an internal metallic
bonding strip in contact with the armor for its entire length. The assembly is installed as
a unit, usually by simple U-clamps or staples holding it againts beams, walls, ceilings
and columns. This type of installation is frequently used in residences and in the rewir-
ing of existing buildings. Such armored cable can be pulled into place through existing
spaces in back of plastered surfaces, under floor joists or between studding in the
walls . Special couplings, box connectors, and other fittings are made for BX and to in-
terconnect BX with rigid conduit systems.

GOLOFf cooeo
RUBeEROR
THemAOPVGnt.
I~LATION

eusHING (TO f'ROT~T ~E

Wl25 r:R()M THJ:
SHARP ME"D\l ~b!;E.S
OF T1iE' aJT A~)

TYPE AC FLEXJBLE
ARMORED CABLE (BX)

47
 12. NON-METALLIC SHEATHED CABLE (ROMEX)
In application, the NEC types NM and NMC, also known by the trade Name " Romex"
are similar to type AC (BX). However, not having the physical protection of metallic ar-
mor, use is restricted to small buildings, that is, residential and other structures not ex-
ceeding. three floors above grade. This cable type comprises an assembly of two or
more plastic-insulated conductors and a ground wire, all coyered with a flame-
retardant, moisture-resistant plastic jacket. In the case of type NMC, the jacket is also
corrosion resistant. The plastic jacket, in Ueu of the armor on type AC, makes type NM
easier to handle but more vulnerable to physical damage.

MOISTlJRE RESJS T.-\NT

FLAME' - ~E'TA~T F'LA~TlG JACKET

lq/2 WITH GROUND 600YOLTS

11
OBTAINED lN CABLE IDENTlACATION i UNcoATED C~R
SEc.nONSCP CONOUC.TOR
2 ~ONDUCTOR NO.IO AW6
FUiT,1 ~ , ~-. F1BER COATED 6~0
WIRE

13. CONDUCTORS FOR GENERAL WIRING

The most common "building wire" types are listed in the Table under Sec. 9 and 10.
These type of wires consist of a copper conductor covered with insulat ion, and in some
instances with a jacket. Thus type TW wire concise simply of the metal conductor with
a thermoplastic (pvc) insulating covering.

Q
SOLID~
UNJAC.KETEO BUILDING WIRE .5oltd- ~o 9, N~ 10, Nq 1(. (SMit\.LE~
StranMd- No~,Nc:>-11 N0-2, Mo.-()0
TYPES T and TW (and lar~sr)

NYLON JAC,KETED CABLE

sUGh as THWN ot" THHN ~NYLON

J:tt~N !MOISTURE ANDHI:AT-

I2e$1STANT THERMOPtAsnc
N
NYLON
HEAT RESISTANT
THERMOPLASTIC.

48
14. SPECIAL CABLE TYPES

a) Mineral Insulated (MU Cable

This construction, comprises an integral assembly of copper conductors, mineral in-
sulation, and outer copper jacket that serves as a'water and gas seal and continuous
ground. Because of its unique construction, it requires special fittings for termina-
tions. Despite its relatively high cost, it is often the best solution to a difficult pro-
blem. The mineral insulation is flame proof and cold resistant, and the entire con-
struction is explosion proof, lightweight, non-aging, and self-contained-making
raceways unnecessary. (No application limitations).

MINERAL INSULATED CABLE

This 600v self-contained wiring system finds its best _application in adverse condi-
tions where conventional wire and conduit systems are not adequate . These include
extreme of heat and cold, and moisture-laden or explosive- gas environments.

Ml CABLE TERMINATION
To maintain the integrity of the Ml cable. Terminations are made with compression
rings, glands, and sealing compound. Sleeves are installed on the exposed bare con·
ductors to provide insulation between the wires and metal box.

bl Jacketed Cables
These cables comprise an assembly of two or more individually insulated conduc-
tors, cabled together and covered with a plastic or metal jacket. Metal clad cables,
due to inherent rigidity, may be installed with cable clamps. Plastic jacketed cables
require continuous support. The nature of the jacket material is determined by the
cables application. Cables intended for underground use must be designated type
UF

49
 .---~llNDIVI~L.LY COlOR COoED ECO'(
FILLER MATERIAL.
BINDING TAPE
Type UF - Plastic
Type TC - Plastic
Type AlS -Aluminum
Type CS - Copper
"o~t...I"U.:::l'-.:= DESI6NA110f.JS
OUTER JAC.KET MATERIAL

The outer jacket material determined the type of support necessary metal jacketed
cables may be clamped at appropriate intervals; plastic jacketed cable must be con-
tinuously supported by tray, a messenger cable or the earth.

r----l CONDUCTOR
SHIELDJN6 TAF'fS- HIGH VOLTAGE, 3 CONDUCTOR
<::~-UN !(ED PoLYETHYlENE INTERLOCKED STEEL-ARMORED CABLE
1N$UlATION
COI...a? -COOED TAPE
.'BINDER TAPE (This type of construction carried its own
race way and finds application indoors, in in-
dustrial and large commercial facilities.

c) Service Entrance Cables

To be discussed next chapter, which cover electric service.

15. BUSWAY
When it is necessary to carry large amounts of current (power) the usual alternatives
are to use several conductors in parallel or a single large conductor. The former solution
becomes expensive· with the increasing size and number of parallel cables, particularly
where tap offs are necessary. However the single large cable becomes increasingly in·
efficient in wire sizes above 750 MCM, bec~use large cables require more cross sec-
tion per ampere than small ones. This is not the case with flat conductors -(called
BUSBARS), leading to their use for high-current-carrying application.
Busbars are described by dimensions; thus a bar may be .!' in. x 4 in., (0.64 x 10) em),
5/16 in. x 6 in. {.8 x 15 em) and so on. As a rule of thumb, the current-carrying capaci-
ty of copper bus is 1000 amperes/sq . in. of cross Section~ 1 50 amperes/sq. em). Thus
a .!' in. x 2 in. copper bar is ~ sq . in. in area and will safely carry 500 amperes. Bus is
normally constructed of solid copper and, when assembled with other bars in a metal
housing, it is referred to as busduct or busway.
The bars in a busduct, whether bare or insulated, are rigidly assembled by bolting them
to insulating supports that are then connected to a stiff metal housing. A wide variety
of fittings and joints are available to enable buswork to be installed with angles, bends,
tap-offs, and curves.

so
 INSULATIN6 AND
PRoTEc.nve W1fN'S
CONDUC.TOR

1- Line Busduct is an assembly of mold-

ed and insulated conductors rigidly
fastened in an alurrinum housing.
Housing is sectional and of aluminum
to reduce hysteresis and eddy current
losses. Design is inherently weather-
proof. Heat loss is by contact radiation
and conduction .

l
c::'~ANIIIEL
SUPPORT HUN6
PROM CEU.IN6

I -ll Nf' BUSOOC.T

}
/
.... __,.-/'
T IN'TeR.S~ION A TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF
COMPAC.T DESIGN BUSDUCT
BUSDUCT is specified by material, number of buses, (normally three or four, plus
ground bus is required). current capacity, type, and voltage. In addition, maximum
voltage drop is often specified . Thus, a typical brief description of a busduct would be:
copper busduct .... 4-wire, 1 000 amp, low-impedance type, 600r; or aluminum
busduct, 3 wire, 2000 amp. plug-in type, 600v-both with a maximum fall-load.
Voltage drop of 2.5, per 100ft. at 90, power factor.
'Plug-In' refers to a design that allows devices such as switches, circuit breakers, and
so on, to be directly plugged into the busduct, similar to a common plug insertion into a
receptacle low impedance refers to a design that is specifically intended to give
minimum voltage drop.

51
 plugs are spaced every 12. in. (0 .30) on
alternate sides to facilitate connection of
plug-in breakers, switches, transformers,
or cable taps - Bars are insulated over
their entire length.

COMPARISON

A Sectional View of this type of busduct

shows the ·tight assembly of conductors
within the metal Housing. This design can
be mounted in any posit ion, since heat
dissipation is by radiation this is compared
to the 8 sets of cable shown which have
the same current-carrying capacity.

16. CABLEBUS
This construction is similar to ventilated busduct, except that it uses insulated cables
instead of busbars these cables are rigidly mounted in an open space-f rame. The advan-
tage of this construction is that it carries the ampacity rating of its cables in free air,
which is much higher than the conduit rating, thus giving a high amperes- per
pesos/dollar first cost figure. Its principal disadvantage is bulkiness . The figure shows a
construction with 6 cables. Units are available w ith 3 to 18 cables sizes 250 through
1500 MCM. Corresponding · electrical ratings are from approximately 400 to 6000
amp in voltage with ·ratings of 600, 5000, and 15,000v.

52
 When considering first cost alone, the advantage lies in cable by adding the energy- less
consideration shifts, the advantage to cable tray and interlocked armor cables. A dif·
ferent system is used to advantage by considering the change in feeder ler,gth, the
number of taps, hours of operation, energy rates, etc.

THE~
:NSULATED tA131,.gS
L-OWER SUPmP.'r
SLOCI< l"'~Tot:y
AAVt:; A FIU!E- AIR
.AM~ITY 1'2'AnN6,
JN,T,A.I..U:D YIELPIN6 A HI~H
AMPE'i:E- PIOR PcUAI't
OR. Pfi!'.SO FM.TOR. AR
THIS' ASS'E:MCJI.Y.

TYPICAL CABLEBUS CONSTRUCTION

FLAT CABLE ASSEMBLIES AND LIGHTING TRACK

Two special construction assemblies that act as light duty (branch circuit) plug-in bus-
ways are widely used.
1st " FLAT CABLE ASSEMBLIES" - is field constructed;
2nd "LIGHTING TRACK" -is factory prepared and field mounted.

a) Flat Cable Assemblies

A specially designed cable consisting of two, three or four conductors, No. 10
AWG, is field installed in a rigidly mounted standard 1 5/8 in. Square structural
channel. Power tap devices, installed where required, puncture the insulation of one
of the phase conductors and the neutral. Electrical connection is then made to the
pigtail wires that extend from the tap devices. This connection can extend directly
to the device or to an outlet box with a receptacle, which then acts as a disconnect -
ing means for the electric device being served . In this fashion lights, sma ll motors,
unit heaters, and other single-phase, light-duty devices can be served w ithout the
necessity of " hard" (conduit and cable) wiring.

53
 PLASTIC BOOYWITH
PHA~E ANO HElJT~
PINS AT TOP

T/GI4TENIN6

FLAT CABLE ASSEMBLY INSTALLATION

The unit illustrated is a 4 conductor, Fe
cable. Only a single phase may be tapped,
thus limiting the application to single-
phase t20v or 277v d_evices. If the top is
removed the ·pin holes in the pvc insula-
tion "heal" maintaining the integrity of
the insulation.

..---t GAeLE - - - - - -- - ---"11

t+---! NEUTRAl.
TAP BOOY PHASE z. W1r;?E
..,__~ .5rRUC:TURAL. CHANNEL-----~

f'leSSUrtS P't.ATB
M---f HOLt>lNG- So\DOLE
f-----{ NlpPl..E
I COUBLE La:I<NUTS.
ounET eQ<

SUSPENDED FlXTURE

a) Can energize a receptacle in an outlet b) A lighting fixture can be hung from

box. the Fe cable channel w ith a Fixture &
Hanger.
STRUT

TAP(~

Til..OCJ<N UT

COMBINATION OF TAP & HANGER

b) lighting Track
This is a factory- assembled channel with conductors for one to four circuits per-
manently installed in the track. Power is taken from the track by special tap-off de-
vices that contact the tract's electrified conductors and carry the power to the
attached lighting fixture the tracks are generally rated 20 amperes, and unlike Flat
Cable (Fe) assemblies. they are restricted to 120v.

LIGHTING TRACK,
The electrified conduc-
tors are permanently
installed in the alumi-
~'(Y)N)1. I~LATJON num track , which is
grounded for safety .
Tracks and insert
plugs are available in
single circuit design
(a) and multiple circuit
design.

55
18. CABLE TRAY ..... OPEN RACEWAY

Is a continuous open support for approved

cables. When used as a general wiring sys-
tem the Cables must be self-protected , jacket-
ed types, type TC. The advantages of this
system are free-air rated cables, easy installa-
tion and maintenance, and relatively low cost.
The disadvantages are bulkiness and the re-
quired accessibility.

CABLE mAY
SUPR>Rl'EO FH\?M
11-U:;: CEILING 6Y
'-IA~ER'$

GABLES WITH
\...--- - - 1 INTl'!eRAL. ME£HANICAL
PROTEcTION

19. CLOSED RACEWAYS

Included here are conduit pipes, surface raceways and underfloor ducts which are first
installed, then t he wiring is inserted and pulled in later .

•
A) Steel Conduit
T he purpose of conduit is to:
al Protect t he enclosed w iring f rom mechanical inj~ry and corrosion.
b) Provide a grounded metal enclosure for the wiring in order to avoid shock
hazard.
c) Provide a system ground path.
d) Protect surroundings against firehazard as a result of overheating or arcing of
the enclosed conductors.
el Support the conductors
This rigid metallic conduit or raceway must be corrosion resistant. There are four
(4) ways in which steel conduit is manufactured.
a} Hot-d.p. galvanized (dipped into molten zinc}.
b) Enameled (coated with a corrosion - resistant enamel).
c) Sherardized (coated with zinc dust).
d) Plastic covered.

There are three (3) types of steel conduit that differs basically only in wall thick-
ness.

i.
a) Heavy-walt steel conduit or simply called " Rigid Steel Conduit".

!>liT =Q SIDE <OA><ElER -

a
b) Intermediate Metal Conduit, usually referred to as IMC.

r:=~AM·-
c) Electric Metallic tubing, normally known as EMT or thin-wall conduit.

---
- ..
-~ --

GALVANIZeD, HE!AVY WAL.L, Rl610 CONDUIT

·--------
J. - - - = ---------
- = - - - - - .)

EMT THIN WALL

PLASTIC COATED CONDUIT FOR

USE IN HIGHL'I' CORROSIVE ATMOSPHERES

Rigid Steel conduit and intermediate metal conduit use the same fittings and are
threaded alike.
As a result of its thin walls, EMT is not threaded instead it uses set screw and pres-
sure f itting not recommended for imbedding in concrete and not permitted in
hazaradous areas.
IMC yield a larger ID or inside diameter for easier wire pulling and is lower in weight
than the rigid steel conduit.
57
 The nominal trade sizes of conduits are

00000000000
Vz", 3/4", 1", , Vz", 2", 2Vz, 3" , 3Vz", 4", 5", and 6"

Standard length is 10 feet (3.00 m) with couplings.

~~----------------------~6

When steel conduit is installed in direct contact with the earth! it is advisable to use
hot-dip galvanized type and to coat the joints with asphaltum.
The selection of conduit size depends on the number and diameter of the wires that
may be drawn into the conduit without injuring the wire. The number and radius of
bends in the conduit, as well as its total length, affect the degree of abrasion to the
wiring insulation.
Long, straight pulls may be through as much as 200 feet (up to 64 meters) of con-
tinuous conduit without bends. The NEC states that no wire shall be spliced, con-
nected, or tapped then drawn into the conduit so that the connection is within the
conduit itself. All such connections shall be made within connection boxes.

. .
. ......
. . ..
~

ra~:: ::.~:.;~:
:~-···....

•. .. . •<.

TYPICAL OVERHEAD CONDUIT INSTALLATION

58
 PUll BOXES, CONNECTION BOXES
In order to provide access to the conduits for installing the necessary wires and for
making connections to them, the continuous conduit runs are interrupted at fre-
quent intervals by sheet-metal or cast-metal boxes. These boxes are usually of a
rectangular, Octagon, or round form having punched holes to fit the conduits which
.terminate in them. The threaded ends of the conduit are held rigid in the holes by
means of a bushing on the inside and a locknut on the outside of the box. The bush-
ing is tapered and rounded to provide a smooth entrance to the inside of the con-
duit.

La.KNU1 -1=;~~::::;1 '

SUSHING-

WIRE - - ~ CONPUt,. ~

J -~~---- L~ ---
. -- ...
···.···.-:..::;·.-:::.~

METAl. BOX - ·
. J--- - - -
-< __ ~-------

~r--·-- ····· .-.~--~J ~~

. . ,, 0 I
0:
!c 0 jl,•
\C) l. _ . !I o
··-P

,_- -~ ·-·-·-:..::-;;..:.·-===--~-=--=-:::;_j-:;;;.

59
 For structural reasons, conduit in concrete slabs are run close to the bottom surface
(in the portion of the slab in Tension) or near the Central portion. In many instances,
the structural slab is covered with a concrete topping, in which conduit may be in-
stalled without affecting slab integrity, In any event the top of any conduit shall be
at least 3/ 4 inch below the finished floor surface in order to prevent cracking.

In general, the following rules should be observed and included in all spedfit:ations
for conduit work in concrete slabs.
1) Conduits shall have an outside diameter (00) no greater t han 1/3 of the slab
thickness as measured at its thinnest point.
2) Conduits running parallel to each other shalt be spaced not less than three times
the OD of the largest conduit center-to-center .
31 Conduits running parallel to beam axis shall not run above beams.
4) Conduit crossing shall be as near to a right angle as possible.
5) Minimum cover over conduits shall be 3/4".

B) Aluminum Conduit
The use of aluminum conduit has increased greatly in recent years because of the
weight advantage that aluminum has over steel, being even lighter than EMT . The
savings in laborcost more than offsets the additional cost of the material it self . In
addition, aluminum has better corrosion resistance in most atmospheres. It is non-
magnetic, giving lower voltage drop; it is nonsparking; and generally, it does notre-
quire painting.
Its major drawback is its deleterious effect on many types of concrete, causing
spalling and cracking when embedded. It is also inadvisable to bury aluminum in
earth because of the rapid corrosion often encountered.

C) Flexible Metal Conduit

This type of conduit construction- which consists of empty spirally wound inter-
locked armor raceway-is known to the trade as ''Greenfield ." It is used principal-
ly for motor connections or other locatiors where vibration is present, where move-
ment Is encountered, or where physical obstruction make its use necessary. The
acoustic and vibration isolation provided by flexible conduit is one of its most im-
portant applications. It should always be used in connections to motors, trans-
formers, ballasts and the like. Flexible conduit is available in galvanized steel. brass,
bronze, and aluminum, in all standard trade diameters and with requisite fitings.

60
Dl Liquid- tight Flexible Metal Conduit
This conduit is of the same construction as flexible conduit, except that it is
covered with a ·liquid- tight jacket. It is not intended as a general purpose conduit,
its use being restricted to connections where flexibility and imperviousness to li-
quid is required. The trade name "sealtite" is most often applied to this product.

E) Non-Metallic Conduit
A separate classification of rigid conduit covers raceways that are formed from
such! materials as fiber, asbestos-cement, soapstone, rigid poly-vinyl chloride (pvc).
and high density polyethylene. These materials when utilized as an electric raceway
must be so labeled and must be resistant to moisture and chemical corrosion .
....
For use above ground. this conduit must be flame retardant, tough and resistant to
heat distortion, sunlight, and low temperature effects. For use undergound the last
two requirements are waived. Due to physical limitations, pvc conduit is the
material of choice for indoor exposed used and asbestos cement, fiber and pvc
plastic for outdoor and underground use.

Fl Metal Surface Raceways

Surface metal raceways and multi outlet assemblies may be utilized only in dry, non-
hazardous, uncorrosive location and may generally contain only wiring operating
below 300v. Such raceways and normally installed in exposed condition and in
places not subject to physical injury. The principal applications of surface metal
raceways are:

The exposed wood mem-

bers require the use of an
unobtrusive surface race-
way. A small flat race-
way feeds receptacle out-
lets into which the ela-
borate hanging fixtures
are plugged.

a. Where the architecture does not permit recessing.

b. Where economy in construction weighs very heavily in favor of surface race-
ways.
c. Where outlets are required at frequent intervals, and where rewiring is required
or anticipated.
d. Where access to equipment in the raceways is required.
e. Where rewiring existing installations to avoid the extensive and expensive cut-
ting and patching required to "bury" a raceway.

61
 Wireways and troughs are sheet metal enclosures with hinged or removable
covers, which may be utilized to carry up to 30 conductors. rated 600v maximum
in dry, non-hazardous, noncorrosive locations and where not subject to physical
abuse. Splices and taps are permitted in such raceways, making them particularly
useful for feeding groups of starters, switches and other equipment that may be
nippied into the trough and its wiring spliced at that point. Another advantage of
this type of raceway is that the hinged or removable cover exposes all the conduc-
tors to full view and access for replacement, inspection, addit ion of other wiring,
and so on.
Available in 2 W' x 2 .W' 4" x 4"
4" x 6" and 6" x 8 "
and in 1·, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 ft. lengths .

.,~,.,., ··
.··"' /'_____ ... ·

1CJ==- -.....:..:.....<-~·. .. ·- ---·-· ~ n

~ ~)
lj
!! j
.

~-----·-·-·-------·---~ ·No.aooo _ i)4''

........._·--·---~

NOT DI?..A.WN 7t> SCALE

62
20. FLOOR RACEWAYS

The NEC recognizes three types of floor raceways

' underfloor raceways
' cellular metal floor raceways
'cellular concrete floor raceways

A) Underfloor Ducts . . . . UF
These raceways which may be installed beneath or flush with the floor, are covered
find their widest application iri office spaces, since their use p€rmits placement of
power and signal outlets immediately under desks and other furniture, regardless of
furniture layout. Where such underfloor raceways are not employed, and it is
desired to place an outlet on the floor, one of the following methods is necessary.

a. Channel the floor and install a conduit in the chase, connecting it to the nearest
wall outlet. Patch the chased portion.

~TGH~

'-,_~~'-~ ~~Nl>UIT

b. Drill through the floor and run a conduit on the ceiling below to an outlet below.
c. Drill through the floor twice and connect the new outlet to an existing outlet via
a conduit on the ceiling below, (This is expensive and disturbs the occupant
below)

CSIL\NG3'

d. Install a surface floor raceway.

Underfloor duct systems are available in two basic designs-single level and two
level.

63
 puq

~NI:IUIT
\
I 'ILA1Efl.AL
TAl<J!!OFF

~ • Ft..COIZ ELff.l\N

In a single-level system all the system components are on the same level-the
feeder ducts from the panels, the distrib~o~tion ducts with inserts for floor outlets
and, most important. The junction boxes. As the number of parallel distribution
ducts grows with the size of the open floor area and the density of the furniture
layout, the need for more feeder ducts and consequently larger and more complex
junction boxes also grows.

A modern office floor layout almost invariably requires a triple duct system (Power,
Telephone, and signal). Since power and Telephone wiring most be separated by
metal barriers, the junction boxes becomes complex and consequently large and
deep. The depth of these boxes obviously controls the amount of concrete fill re-
quired. A simple single-level system requires a minimum concrete fill of 2 .1-S in.,
while a complex one can easily require an inch more. With such a concrete fill re-
quirements, a two-level system with its flexibility becomes desirable.

64
 001.J8LE. 14\"~
SJN6LE LON TEN~ l(JN!
1 O UTLET h' r: I
TEN$lON c:)U'llJ:f
I /

WAL.L ·.__..
ELE!CtYV ;

The two-level system has its Feeder and distribution ducts on different levels thus
eliminating the necessity for complex junction boxes. This gives the system un-
limited feeder capacity and thereby obviates the necessity for supplementals con-
duit feeds, as in the single-level system. The drawback of this sytem is the conduit
fill required. A minimum of 3 5/ 8 in . is required through additional slab thickness
throughout can be avoided by depressing part of the slab to accomodate the feeder
ducts.

65
 ~SET INSERTS TO BE
OISTIZJ6UTtO~ DUCTS
2EMDVED LATeR ON

• f
~·
. 4

JOISTS r
ceNTER TOA~D 1lfE
STEEL OF ~ N~R t.£A."'-'M

A TYPICAL TWO·LEVEL JUNCTION BOX

Underfloor duct systems are expensive. They ~an add 50% to the buildings electric
system cost, w ithout consideration of the construction costs involved. To justify
their use, the buildign should meet these criteria.
a. Open floor areas, with a requirement for outlets at locations removed from walls
and partitions-:·
b. Outlets from ceiling systems unacceptable.
c. Frequent rearrangement of furniture and other items requiring electrical and
signal service.
Example of facilities that may meet these criteria are prestige office buildings,
museums and galleries, high-cost merchandising areas, and selected areas In in·
dustrial facilities.

8) Cellular Metal Ftoor Raceway

Random arrangements, such as these found in office landscaping, require a fully ac-
cessible floor- if indeed the floor is to be used for electrification. (The underfloor

66
 duct system described in A) is best applied to known furniture. Layouts and the rec-
tilinear arrangements).

This is best provided by a cellular (metal) floor that. is integrated structural/electrical

system. The floor can be fully or partially electrified. A floor designed with two or
three electrified. A floor designed with two or three electrified cells adjacent to
several cells of structural floor, will give sufficient coverage for all purposes. Fur-
thermore, the electrified ceUs can be arranged to feed lighting outlets in the floor
t)elow.

RlcSET INSERT CAN ae.'" ~ERe~·

TO PROv"'tE R:IWER AND PliCJE. SE~
CN 80TH SIDES ~A PARTITIONS fll,Aa! a-1
THE MODULE LINE· H~S M~T BE PRE~
f'U)Jc:H IN S'OV;.'-f!RE D ~TTeR.N.

Aile,.~
~ttas
IN f!LEC'f'Rli-I!.P
a:
A
u.s ~r2f. .-J--·.
IS JIVI(.S). ~r;r F'GU.QV
PRE£lt!Tl:JtMIN&f> MI:O-
ll.E . SOME ARe. AG11\Im!P
JNI1WJ.Y, Cmt:'l?$ Ql NBE
,I,S ~·~i> WNI:lJ
t>ITU£ ~YOUT ~ N«'".
POWER. Wl~l~
SlpNAL. WUtiNG ~----~
CEU$ ·sert~AS ~A'fl..Y
f'l..OOFf
~t:ERS, ~')Ill* PWJEt~ l'E.c..e~
Art!) -'"NAt. .UN~ 'Jt) nf r: f'Ra:eT t~T .....__./

67
 DETAIL t>

• SEE PET.-\tL C

PRESET I~T;
SEE ~T.....Il-,S
(~

DeTAIL C.

C) Precast Cellular Concrete

The structural concrete system is similar to cellular metal floor in application. A cell
is defined as a "single, enclosed, tubular space in a floor made of precast cellular
concrete slabs, the direction of the cell being parallel to the direction of the floor
member. Feed for these cells is provided by header ducts, which is normally install-
ed in concrete fill above the hollow core structural slab, although feed from the ceil-
ing below is also practicaL The cells can be used for air distribution and even for
piping.

68
 GelLING ADOPTER
IXTlJRES

... ; . , - - PE'RMA.NENT ~PlATE

1~ / . FINISH P1a:R 1'1LJIL
_-REM~ ~ fViT'E
~-::,.. '·· · 'TRI5Nc:H . H""""'"" "'~

FLUSH CEl JN& CUTLET

. ..
: .•
C.Ell.ING
. . . .. .. .
~TtET~~
.. ~~ .......: ~.
--=r LCNI>\Jt ll>~ /
'~ ~X.a.\PS~
\ ··,.," SCREW ~
~ f"lX'Tl.J!ZS. BAit
Of?II..L z)i HOLE lN THE. FlEL.O. --
•;. FIRST, I~T ~~TICJ'W- j, •;;.
TOP Pl.ATB.~~
...... .. ,....... ,

~-
-·.. ...... . ;

~1'--~E ~lPPLS. FOR t'ONDUIT

~nn~---- •.: ~ toNNEtT/DN
•' . ) • 4
/ ~ ;;.;.: ?H~ APAf'feR
~ ..... $ our
:>ceEW
' s:ECc:N D
BoTTOM PL4n=.
I~TO Tt>f'

69
 21. CEILING RACEWAY SYSTEMS

The need for electrical flexibility in facilities with limited budgets coupled with the high
cost of underfloor electrical raceway systems encouraged the development of equi-
valent over-the-ceiling systems. These systems are actually more flexible than their
underfloor counterparts, since they energize lighting as well as provide power and tele-
phone facilities; Furthermore they permit very rapid changes in layouts at low cost.
This last characteristics is particularly desirable in stores where frequent display
changes necessitate corresponding electrical facility changes.

It is now allowed by NEC, wireways to be run inside hung ceilings, fixtured t~ be fed by
lengths of unsupported raceways (Floor-to-ceiling system}, splices inside wireways,
and plug-in type connections in accessible ceiling spaces. (Hung ceilings with lift-out
tiles are classified in this respect as accessible spaces). An additional advantage is that
it itself can be altered at will since it is not cast in concrete. Thus, not only layout
changes in the utilization of existing spaces can readily be accommodated.

r
G-~ H~
/VI::SWA'f TEUimoNiii.

1'ltLe ~ m.a

FOR DETAILS SEE ~/I'V'-1"'""'"

FIGURE ON NEXT ~y PERMIT

PAGE 1CL.. t.-\St.Es
IN ~M~
WlTitDUT
~ovr:~.

70
 G- 4fOO 1.1\lt=l?AL
~AY TgLEPI'!ONE

~.DS"t ~RIES PlJJGMOlP, W1nt

SJ'W>'-0\L IN 6 ·"tOOo ~, LA"lt=lq\L
~a=.~Y-~WER

Header dum (wireways) connect to electrical panels and telephone cabinets in the
powe~ and telephone closets, respectively . Telephone headers are normally of larger
size than the power header and .can carry other low-voltage signal equipment as well
Distribution ducta (laterals) tap onto the headers. These laterals may act as subdistribu-
tion wireways (foreground) or may feed fixtures and poles directly. Power feeds f rom
these laterals are made by means of plugs and receptacles, thus eliminating the cost in-
volved in the "hard" wiring of fixtures; this allows the desired flexibility.
Poles carrying telephone and. i 20v power <.fawn to the desk level can be fed from
laterals above, below, in, or on the ceiling as desired. (Good for big office spaces,
libfaries).

0054 /
SERlE$ r/ 126 FO<.U:;::
~

[1]}
fr- f ~.(--7f
SECTION A

., ~ffOUNDEP
KA IZSY f?Ea:?TA·
eLf! o~n.s r t-t-+--~

TELE- POWER. POLE

(of different dimensions, outlets, bases and colors)

71
 cEILING

G·40X>
FEEDER
~WAY

TEl.Ef'HON~ -+-- -.

z l.i- S"
Tf!.IJ!. R:>'NEfl 1-r--··---- -.3)11
POL..S

T. ~~.> 1--- - - - -
SUSPENPP.D
c.elLING l - ---=-::no
rtAN~f?. f--- - - -- r _ _...,......

PIVIDEI<.
~.t:::ER ~'(1-------- '-'liilll..n'o~

TEl.Ef>~E G'ASL.a !-~--~~

iEl.E PO~R fti£ !---·

22. PREWIRED CEILING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

In an effort to·reduce the on-site labor cost of systems such as those described earlier,
a number of manufacturers have produced pre-wired plug-in t ype equipment that re·
duces the field assembly time drastically. The reasoning behind this is that factory labor
cost is considerably lower than field labor cost, and therefore a considerable
savings can be effected. An ancillary benefit is that a plug-in type system is simply and
rapidly altered if required.
Th is f igure shows schematically how such as system yould be employed t o feed a
group of necessed f lourescent troffers in a typical hung ceiling installation.
See illustrations on next page.

23. BOXES AND CABINETS

In this category are included pull boxes. Splice boxes are placed in raceway runs at
points where splices or taps must be made; the NEC prohibits having splices inside con-
duits. (Splices are permitted in wireways and troughs with removable covers). Pull
boxes are placed in conduit runs where it is necessary to interrupt the raceway for a
wire pulling point. This depends on the pulling friction in the system. The size of the pull
boxes depends on the number and' size of incoming conduits, the direction in which
conduits leave, and whether or not splices will be made in the box.

72
When a box is equipped with a hinged door and contains some equipmef!t other than
wiring, such as terminal board, it is referred to as a cabinet. All boxes must be equipped
with tightly fitting, removable covers.

CI ~ILONn~
IN BJV<NcH ~Bll:: Sj;T

SttE£:T M=r-,A.L
. PIJLL BoX

,. ·'JNTERIOR.~TION CF
' 6l1X CONNEC'Tt>R 'Wi-+I C.
~'1'6 INn> ne
S.)fft=.l21orz. .ss-cneti

73