ASNT

Reference
Manual

Eddy Current Testing

Theory and Practice
by
E. Dane Harvey

The American Society for

ASNT

Eddy Current Testing

Theory and Practice
by
E. Dane Harvey

The American Society for Ine.

Published by
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
17 11 Arlingatc Lane
PO Box 285 18
Columbus, OR 43228-0518

Copyright © 1995 by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, lnc.

AU rights reserved. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy
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ISBN 0-57 11 7-007-3

first printing 08195

second printing 05/02

2 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

CONTEN'I'S ~~-

5 Chapter 1 - Electric Fundamentals

9 Chapter 2 - Alternating Current
11 Chapter 3 - Magnetism
15 Chapter 4 - Electricity and Magnetism
23 Chapter 5 - AC Mathematics
27 Chapter 6 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (A)
33 Chapter 7 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (B)
37 Chapter 8 - Coils and Instruments
47 Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing
47 Nonferromagnetic Conducting Materials
48 Crack Detection Using Eddy Currents
49 Thickness Variations
52 Metallic Cladding
53 Delamination
54 Ferromagnetic Materials
56 Multiple Frequency Eddy Current Testing

59 Chapters 1 and 2 Quiz

61 Chapter 3 Quiz
63 Chapters 4 and 5 Quiz
65 Chapter 6 Quiz
67 Chapter 7 Quiz
69 Chapter 8 Quiz
71 Chapter 9, Quiz 1
73 Chapter 9, Quiz 2
75 Instructor Answer Key
CHAPTER 1 - Ele~tric Fundamentals
~~~~'~",.".- ~
=

A toms are made up of protons, neu trons, and electrons.

The atomic nucleus is composed of proton s and neutrons and is surrounded by electro ns.

There are the same number of electrons and prolons in a neutral atom.

The electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.

The ou termost electrons are shielded from the nucleus by the in ner electron shells and are free to
roam. These are called " free" electrons.

Material s with atoms that have many free electrons are "conductors."

Materials with atom s that have few free electrons arc "insulators" or "nonconductors."

Electric current consists of mOlion of charged particles such as free electrons.

Separation of charges resu lts in a "potential difference."

Electrical potential has the ability to move charges.

Elec lt; l:al potential difference is call ed voltage (£).

The unit of potential is the voll (V).

Charge motion due to electrical potenlial is called current.

Current (J) is measurcd in amperes (A) .

Ohm 's Law relates the electrical potential diffe rence and current to the electrical res istance (R):

R= Ell I
The electrical resistance is the ratio of voltage to current.

Resistance (ohms) equals volts divided by amperes.

Resistance depends on the type and dimensions of conductor.

1
Resistiv ity (p) = Cd ..
on ucuVlly
( )
a

Chapter 1 - Electric Fundamentals 5

Resistivity or its reciprocal, conductivity (cr, sigma), depends on the number of free electrons. This
is a measu re of how good a conductor a material is.

The resistance of a conductor is directl y proportional to resistivity (p) and length ( f ), and inversely
proport ional [ 0 the cross- sectional area (A) of the conductor;

R= p I/A = ' faA I

whe re; 1
a=-
p
Electrical con ducti vity of test materials is frequently wrinen in units that compare material
conductivity with the cond uctiv ity of pure annealed copper. Units of this system arc in % IACS
(percent of internarional annealed copper standard).
Voltmeter - Measures Voltage
Difference Between x and y

x
R

Ammeter - Measures Current I ____-<

"OW,", ~,~'" ""W,, A t
(+) H

Battery
(£ Volts)
Power is the rate at which work is done.

In electricity, voltage does work as it "pushes" charge through a conductor over a given time;

I Power P = E x I (voltage times current) I

Power is measured in watts (W):

P = IR x I = /2R I
OR

P = E x (EfR) = E'IR I
6 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice
lfIustrative Problems:

a) How mucb current does a 100 W, 115 V light bulb draw?

I = PIE = 10011 15 = 0.S7 A

b) 100 Ohms

- -@ A)-.II-- Ammeter
50 Volt Battery

T /
Switch

Questions:
I. What is the current through R as shown?

2. If the switch is closed, what is the current through R?

3. What is the voltage across R when the switch is closed?

4. What power is produced by battery B in either case?

Answers:
I. 0 A

2. .1!L
100
= 0.5 A
.

3. 50 V

4. As shown 0; when switch is closed,

Chapter 1 - Electric Fundamentals 7

CHAPTER 2 - Alt!rnating Current

When the voltage difference across a conductor is changed in polarity back and fonh (alternated ),
the current reverses direction, flo wing first one way then the other.

Thi s is called alternating current (Ae ).

Most power generating today is done with dynamos or generators that produce AC by means of a
rotating armature in a magnetic field.

Current I
+

roT
360 0
o 2rc

The wiggly shape of the AC produced by the generator is known as a "sine wave ."

Each lime the generaro[ annarure rotates o ne complete turn, that is, 360 degrees rotaLion, the sine
wave picture al so moves 360 degrees.

Often. radian measure is used in place of degrees. Once around a circle is 360 degrees, or 2rr radi ans
in radian measure.

One rad ian, therefore, equals 36012n or 180l1t degrees.

The w,wcform on the right has a "frequency" f numericall y equal LO Lhe number of revolutions per
second of the rotating armature.

(0 is the "angular frequency" defined as 2rcf

ro = 2nd
roT represents the angle through which the annaLure has turned.

Chapter 2 - Alternating Current 9

CHAF'I'ER-J - Magnetism

Atoms indiv iduall y act as tiny magnets, each hav ing a nOl1h and south pole.

Atoms of three clements - iron, cobalt, and nickel - have an additional property; these atoms
clump together to form tiny magnetic domai ns. Such a material is called "ferromagneLic."

When the domains in a piece of ferromag netic material are sufficiently lined up, the piece is said to
be magnetized.

-'Ar.-: __
--)-)--"~)'Y-J--
!--;""'--
, , ,

If the domains Lend to remai n li ned up, a permanent magnet is the result.

If this aligning of do mains occurs when a cUiTent-carrying coil of wire is wrapped around a
ferromagnetic piece, the dev ice is called an electromagnet.

Magnets always have two poles, called north and south.

If a magnet is placed under a th in piece of cardboard and iron fi lings afC sprinkled on the cardboard ,
a definite pattern is observed.

This pattern illustrates the magnetic fi eld surrounding the magnet.

Here, each litt le arrow represents part of the overall magnetic field. The arrows come "out of ' the
north pole and "go into" the sOUlh pole.

These arrows represent magnetic "lines of force."

Chapter 3 - Magnetism 11
These lines of force never cross one another. If one is displaced sideways, its neighbors must move
out of its way.

The strength of the magnetic field is represented by bunching of the lines of force, that is, how close
together they are.

The aggregate number of lines of force is called "magnetic flux" (<b) and the number of lines of
force in a given area is "nux density" (8).

This magnetic flux is caused by a magnetizing force (If).

The relationship between the magnetizing force (If) and the flux density (B ) is expressed as:

where:
)..l (Greek mu) is called magnetic penneability.

In a vacuum, )1. is a constant, )..lo. For a vacuum:

where:
)1.0 is a constant.

For air and most materials, )1. is almost equal to J..lo:

IB~~{fll
For ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, J.l is greater than )1.0.

It is convenient to introduce )..lrel for ferromagnetic materials:

I B = ~,,,c~o H) = ~,,/B") I
where:
)1.rel is the ratio of the flux density B in a material to the flux density B in air (Ba ) .

For ferromagnetic materials, J.l re1 is usually much greater than one.

For most ferromagnetic materials, J.lre/ is not constant but varies with magnetizing force H.

12 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

There is a value of B for which the magnetic material is "saturated." No matter how much greater H
is made, B gets no larger.

Bs - ---- --- -------- -

FUithermorc, in some materials, when H is broughl back to zero, B does not return to zero.

---:::==---------- --
- - ----------~--

Bresidual [

~~----------------~__ ~oH

The value of R when H relUms [ 0 zero is called residual magnetism (Bmidua) . This effec t is called
"retentivity ." A pemlanent magnet has been formed. The amou nt of H necessary to reduce B to
zero is called the "coercive force."

Chapter 3 - Magnetism 13
This relationship between H and B illustrates an effect called "magnetic hysteres is." The entire
hysteresis curve appears as:

Bresidual
~
~o H

t
--1~~ .......1------

Coercive Force

Typical Magnetic Hysteresis Curve

14 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

CHAPTER-4- -:;-Elect
-=
..iGity and Magnetism '"
~

Electric currents are always surrou nded by magnetic fields.

I

When a current-carrying wire is formed into a coil, the magnetic fields of individual turns combine
lO concentrale the overall flux inside the coil.

One Turn Two lUrns

i
Many Turns

[0 1837 Michael Faraday discovered that the energy in a changing magnetic field was converted into
electrical energy.

Chapter 4 - Etectricity and Magnetism 15

Faraday' s law states that a changing magnetic field produces an electromotive force (EMF), a source
of voltage:

where: ~<p
E is source of voltage due to ----z;;,t ' the rate of change of magnetic flux ¢l with time t.

[The (-) sign shows that the voltage opposes this flux rate of change.]

A coil rotating in a magnetic field produces alternating electrical voltage.

This forms the basis of electric power generation.

Voltage

:> ~~----~----,-~~Time

Point of Rotation

16 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

When the output of such an alternating voltage generator is connected to a "load ," alternating current
flows in the load. Usuall y, this "AC" current and "AC" voltage alternate together but out of step
(phase) with each other:

Voltage

~ Current

Time

If an alternating current is introduced into a coil, the magneti c flux wi ll alternatc right along with it.

.. Flux

(in step)
(In phase)
Current

For this si[Uation, Faraday's law is:

I E= - N t><!>
i1t
I
where:
E = voltage produced
N = Number of turn s in coil
64> = Rate of change of nux with time
III

Chapter 4 - Electricity and Magnetism 17

A second coil placed close lo the first will intercept many of the alternating flux lines and an
alternating vollage will appear in the second coil, too.

1 2

The second coil is said to be energized by induction.

Every coil possesses the quality of induction.

Induction is closely associated wi th the concentration of the magnetic field caused by winding the
conductor into a coil.

An alternate way of stating Faraday's law is:

where:
E = "induced" voltage
W LM
E= - -
61

L = Inductance
M = Change in current with time
6T

Compare this with Faraday's law to give:

6<1> M
E= - N - =-L -
At 61

This leads to a definition of inductance:

I L = Nipll I
where:
L = inductance
N = number of turns
<I> = total flux in coi l
I = current in coil

18 Eddy CUflent Testing Theory and Practice

Alternately, one may th ink of inductance as the amount of voltage produced divided by a given
current change:

If the above co ils arc wound one on top of the other, so that they are intimately woven together, all
of the alternating flux due to the AC in Coil 1 passes through eaeh turn of Coil 2.

Changing current in Coil I --.~ flux - -.. changing voltage in Coil 2

1·...
4 - - - - - Coil 2

... Coil 1
/!J
!J./

Each turn of Coil 2 picks up an E (EMF) voltage. These all add up to form the total voltage. For
example, if there are 100 turns to Coil 2, a voltage of 100 E appears across the output of Coil 2.

Voltage across Voltage across

Primary Coli Secondary Coil

3 Turns 150 Turns 50 X V1

Thi s is the basis of the transformer.

Chapter 4 - Electricity and Magnetism 19

 Alternat ing Flux

Current Induced into

Conductor As if it
Were a One-Turn Coil

If a conducting plate is present in stead of a second coil, the conductor acts like a shorted single-turn
secondary coil and an induced current appears in it.

Such an induced circular, swirling currenl is called an "eddy current."

The distance between the coil and the conducting plate determines lhe degree of induct ive
"cou pli ng. "

} - COil_[

Relatively few lines of More flux lines Most lines of flux

flux intercept conductor, Intercept conductor, intercept conductor,
hence small eddy more eddy current greatest eddy
current in conductor in conductor current

20 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

The degree of coupling is primarily due to the coil-to-conductor distance and is called "lin-off."

A similar situation exists whenever an energized coil is wound around a metal rod.

Eddy Currents

AC

(end view) Coli

Here, the inductive coupling depends on the ratio of the areas of rod and coil.

Coil Filled 10% Filled

with Conductor

A Lot of Coupling Little Coupling

. . A"", _ rr(d'/ 4l _(d)'

TIllS raUo A.m, - ,,( D' I4 l- D is tenned "fill factor." The symbol for fi ll factor is 11 (Greek eta).

It is alway!'; less than 1.

If the coil is inside a hollow tube, the same fonnu la applies with smaller diameter over larger diameter,

(10 Coil)

j+-Tube

As above, the fill factor is the area ratio and is always less than 1.

This type of coil is called an " ID" or "bobbin" coil, and is used a great deal in the electric p<Jwer
industry for tube inspection , and in pipeli ne inspection.

Chapter 4 - Electricity and Magnetism 21

GHAFl'ER ~- ---1'

When allernating current "excites" an empty coil, an opposing. or "back" electromot ive fo rce (EMF),
is induced in the coiL
E,

The E voltage alternates with the same frequency, but is 90 degrees ahead of the current that created it.

-.---Current

This EMF is called "back" EMF because it opposes the original alternating voltage.

In an electric motor, the back EMF subtracts fro m the applied AC vohage across the motor. As the
motor gets up to speed, less and less net voltage is across the armatu re winding.

When the fonn ul a

is applied [0 sinu soidal allemating current, the result is:

I E= - (roLll •

where:
the EMF is alternating, but 90 degrees out of phase with I, as above

where:
(0= 2It times the frequency
roL is called "inductive reactance;" that is, XL = 21tfL = coL

XL is measured in ohms, as is the resistance (R) of the wire forming the coil.

Chapter 5 - AC Mathematics 23
XL an d R form the two components of a vector, Z, called "impedance."

Imaginary Axis

Complex " impedance

plane"
z

Real Axis

Vectors, such as Z picturcd above, in a plane like Z arc formed from two perpendicular components,
here XL and R.

The length of Z is determined from the Pythagorean theorem:

Z'~X/ +R2 1
The direction or "phase" (8) is gi ven by:

Thi s value is easily obtained using a pocket calculator.

Example:
g iven R = 200 Q ,
XL ~ 300Q,

what are Z and 8?

z ~ ,j(200)' + (300)' ~ 360 ohms

e= ran ,( -300
200
) = 56.3 degrees

on some calculators

8 = INVTAN( -300) = 56.3 degrees

200

24 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

When a coil is brought near a conductor. the change in inductancc due to the coupling causes a
change in impedance 8Z: thi s change in length and in phase (direction), can be considered a change
in resistive (M) and inductive reactance (ML ) as seen below:

"Empty" Coil

~~...
___ Coil near
Conductor

R
t> R

The inductive reactance value dropped considerably; the resistance value increased.

Since the plane contain ing Xu R and Z is called the "impedance plane," eddy current testing done
using these parameters is called "impedance plane testing."

ZEmpty Coil

Z Stainless Steel

ZBrass

Chapter 5 - AC Mathematics 25
When AC (primary) current, J , is flo wing through a coil and the coil is placed near a conductor (test
object), secondary eddy currefrts, Is' are generated in the conductor. The eddy currents produce a
secondary field that opposes the primary fie ld in the coil. The field due to the coil can be called B
(primary field), and the secondary field induced in thc conductor BI;" P

Current relationships between the coil and conductor are as follows:

.. ~ I Coli
I Eddy

-•

Field rel ationships between the coil and conductor are as foll ows:

Primary Flux
Incident (Primary) Flux
/'

Secondary
Flux

Test object properties that affect eddy currents include:

1. Electrical conducti vity (or resisti vity)
2. Magnetic penneability
3. Shape
4. Discontinuities
System characteristics that affect eddy currents:
I. Frequency of AC
2. Shape and size of coil
3. Test eoil-to-object di stance (lift-off for probe coil)

Chapter 6 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (AI 27

A primary problem faced in eddy current testing is suppression of undesired variables.

Variables that can bc controlled include operating frequency and coil size and shape.

If impedance plane testing is to be performed, the effects due to lift-off and conductivity can usually
be separated by correct choice of operating frequency.

For non ferromagnetic conducting materials, magnetic penneability, ~rd = 1.

Example:
Use eddy current technique to differentiate between nonferromagnetic materials A and B.

Empty Coil Change in Z

Due to Lift-off Empty Coil
Change in Z Due
~ to Lift-off
A
Aand B
Separated A
on Impedance (A Close to B)
B B
Plane

Good Frequency Choice Poor Frequency Choice

(Here, material A has lower conductivity than material B)

Ferromagnetic materials have !l're! > 1. This results in intensification of inductance, L, and hence
inductive reactance, (XL = ffiL ).

Coil Near High Ilrel Material

Change in Z
Due to Lift-off

Z.. Empty Coil

L - - - - - -..... R

28 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

The choice of operating frequency is also influenced by the depth of penetration of eddy currents in
the test object.

The variation of cddy current den sity with increasing depth decreases exponentially.
where :
& is the "standard depth of penetration."

Surface Value

Exponential Curve
Eddy Current Density

o 8 28 38 48

The standard depth of penetration is the distance below the surface of a flat specimen necessary to
reduce the eddy current density to 37% of it<; surface value.

Because the & of material reduces the eddy currents to 37 % of its surface value, 25 drops it to 37%
of 37% or 13.5%, 38 to 5%, and 4& to 2% of its surface value.

The standard depth of penetration is given by the formula:

where:
J.l ;;; relative penneability
0" = conducti vity
f = frequency of operation

For non-ferromagnetic materials, this can be approx imated as:

with units of:

& = inches
" = % lACS
f = Hertz

Chapter 6 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (AI 29

For a given non-ferromagnetic material, the standard depth of penetration decreases as the frequ ency
mcreases.

This is the basis for electromagnetic shielding.

Example:
Find the standard depth of penetration for an aluminum alloy having a conductivity of 50% IACS at
a test frequency of 100 kHz.

26xlO-J inches~116 'I

'- . ml s
'li S

As the eddy currents penetrate deeper below the surface, the phase changes.
This enables the operator to determine approximate depth of detected discontinuities.

The phase lag, unlike the magnitude, varies linearly with depth below the surface.

e ~xlo I
where:
e = phase lag in radians
x = depth
(5 = standard depth of penetration

As a result, subsurfacc cracks yield an impedance change in a significamly different direction than
those of surface-connected cracks.

Empty Coil Empty Coli

Surface
"Lift-off Connected Crack
Line"
_ _ Subsurface Crack
Material Material

30 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

In some eddy current literature. the impedance plane graph is modified by dividing an the values by
the inductive reactance of the empty coil. This is called " nonnalization."

To complete the "nonnalizcd" impedance plane diagram. RD. the resistance of the empty coil. is
subtracted from all values of R. This pul'\ the empty coil point at (0.1) on the graph.

XL (Ohms)

500W

0.5 1.0

Chapter 6 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (AI 31

Sorting of materials accord ing to their conductivity is accomplished by eddy current impedance
plane analysis.

5% lACS

Probe Coil

(constant
frequency)

The "lift-off li nes" from the air point to the various conductivi ty points are produced when the probe
coil is moved from the air to test objects with different conductivi ties.

When the probe coil is moved toward the test object, coil-ta-object (az) variations occur. The
resulting curve is called a "lift-off line."

AlrPt H

] Coil-object Distance

Touching (0 distance)

The effect of coil-la-object di stance variations on the conductivity curve follows:

10% ~O"
30%
2 mils from
Surface

~I--- Touching
100%

Chapter 7 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (B) 33

For encircling (00) and probe (10) coil system!;, si milar lines can be obtained for various fill factors 11.

1.0 -=:'
0.' "" , ~
0.8
\I\: ,~4\' ~'0-
Tl ~ 0.25 \I{"I ';l ,," "'\'
0.7
I ):(20 ,
n = 0.50
0 .•

0.4
/\' 00\ /' '"
1/ '" I'"
,'0-

0.3 '00 \I" I

n = 0.75 I a
0.2
0.1
t(,.1" ~
l -I1 +11°/-l err
/""
0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4

The above curves illustrate the effect of increasing lift-off or decreasing fi ll factor on test sens itivity.

In the case of lift-off, the number of flu x lines intercepting the test object decreases as separation
increases.

}- COII_[
Coil
Conductor

The effect of coil di ameter, d, is a fa clor. If the coil is small, a small lift-off becomes significant. If
the coi l is tiny, d and D are Liny. One way to think of this is to regard lift-off distance, D, in terms of
coil diameter, d.

As the lift-off distance is increased to about 1 1/2 coil diameters, a practical limit of sensitivity is
reached.

As an example, a 'I O-mil diameter coil has a correspondingl y small tield.

10 mils

34 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

Not only must the coil be within about 15-20 mils from the test object, but the field itself does not
penetrate very deepl y into the object, even if the coil is touching the test object.

A larger coil must be uscd to give a correspondingly deeper penetration.

100 mils

This effecl on penetration must be considered along with the depth of penetration variation with
frequency . Therefore, to obtain deeper eddy current penetration, lower frequencies and larger coils
must be used.

The signal is always averaged over the entire field and therefore over the entire test object volume in
which the field is present.

Large coils give the trade-off of strongcr indications and inspection speed at the cost of pinpointing
the spot where the discontinuity actually is present.

In the case of OD and ill coils, the position of the discontinuity cannot be located circumfercntially,
only that it is at a certain spot along the axis.

("\ ("\ ("\ ("\ ("\

\
~ Cracks
)
l-'Jv

Chapter 7 - Basic Eddy Current Theory (B) 35

A probe coil with a diameter significantl y larger than the surface roughness of the test object will
average the signals, effectively giving a lift-off indication.

probeil

Relative Signal
Response \ \ ..
The overall magnetic field of the coil may extend enough to sense the presence of conducting
fixturing or posilioning materials as well as the test object.

Therefore, good practice is to use non-conducting materials for this purpose.

The lift-off variable enables eddy current gaging of non-conductive coatings.

oil Probe Coil

Non-conducting Coating
(e.g. paint, plastic coating)

Conducting
Base Metal

Standard thicknesses such as plastic shims are uscd to calibrate lift-off.

If the conductive material varies in thickness, a high operating frequency typically would be selected
to keep the eddy currents from penetrating to the far side of the conductor.

Thi s same technique can be used to gage conductivity of a conductive coating on a conductive
material. The idea is to ensure that the eddy currents are almost entirely confined to the coating or
cladding.

Success in gaging thickness of a conductive cladding on a conductive material also depends on the
depth of penetration and the difference in conductivity of the two material s.

36 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

CHAPTER 8 =-_Coils and Instr!lmeq.!;S ~

A single simple coil is rarely used all by itself. Most eddy current coil configurations or systems arc
built on two·coil principles.

A single coil is called an "absolute" coil. Usually the si gnals from two such absolute coils are
compared much like a balance:

Instrument

(
r r
) ()
r r
) Standard
t
Object Being
V V V v v v Weight Weighed
(reference)
Reference Test
Object Object

Such systems have been employed for many years:

Reference
Standard 0 0 Test Part
L- 0
0 0 0
0
-.J
00 00
Reference Coil Test Coil

If the magnitude of the impedance difference between the reference standard and tbe te st part.
exceeds a preset value, dye can be sprayed on the part to mark the out-of-specification portion.

Sometimes the reference coil is located next to lhe test coil on the same object. This setup is called
"self compari son."

Two Identical Coils Comparing

One Location with Another on a
00 00
Given Material

Chapter B -. Coils and Instrumenls 37

If the two coils are adjacent to each other:

Their adjacent wires can be combined to join the coils electrically.

This gives a three-wire (rather than four) assembly and is essentiall y a "center-lapped" (CT) coil.

A center-tapped coil can be arranged so that the difference between the two hal ves (either side of
centcr tap) is detected by the eddy current tester.

This is ca ll ed a "differential coil."

38 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

 ttt
ABC

11 1-" 1 Wires to Instrument

? .. Tube Moving
Through Coil

Discontinuity

If tubing is moved as shown, a discontinuity will first be detected by the right side of the coil. As
the discontinuity passes the center tap, the s ignal~ balance momentarily before the left side sees it.

If a memory-oscilloscope display is used, a signature of the discontinuity with a differential coil is

recei ved.

Chapter 8 - Coils and Instruments 39

 ( / .-+--- Right Coli Signal Stronger
-\- ~.-I--- Centered
~ .-----1--- Left Coil Signal Stronger

Due to self comparison, very little signal change is produced by gradual chan ges in properties or
dimensions of the Lest object. Gradu al changes, therefore, arc suppressed by the differential coi l.
Because of this, the system gain can be increased to make the eddy current lester selectively
sensitive to abrupt changes such as localized disconti nuities.

A two-wire version of the differential coil consists of two halves wound in opposite directions.

( )

,.,
)l

The action of this coil is much the same as the three-wire version.

Coils can be and are arranged so that one coil induces the field and a second coil picks up the
signal - a pitch-catch arrangement.

OUT
B
,...
IN

40 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

The through-transmi ssion setup, B, has the advantage of lift-off suppression. The object can move
in the gap between coils with little effect on signal. This setup is used for very accurate thickness
gaging of thin conducting foils.

Another very sensitive coi l arrangement is the reflection coil. A dri ver coil surrounds a pair of
pickup coils as shown.

Identical Pickup Colis \ Driver Coil

000 .... ..
... \\
Ir ....
.......
I
000
000
000
...
.... .. .....
.. 000
000

The pi ckup coils are identical and form two legs of an impedance bridge. The top and bottom
receiver coils are balanced (i.e. produce cancelling signals) in air. When a conducting object is
placed close to the coi ls, the bouom coil receives a much stronger signal than the top co il. This
arrangement is very sensitive, very stable, but more expensi ve than regular probe co ils.

A typical eddy current in strument consists of an oscillator, buffer/amplifier, and bridge.

Buffer!
Oscillator Bridge
Amplifier

Coils

The oscillator generates the signal at a selected frequency. The buffer/amplifier isolates the
oscillator and amplifies the signal. The bridge detects the impedance changes, which arc then
di splayed.

Basicall y, there are two types of instruments: "amplitude sensitive" and "phase sensitive."

Amplitude-sensitive instruments typically display a signal on a meter, which is representative of the

magnitude of the impedance change.

Phase-sensitive instruments generally display both magnitude (length) and phase (direction)
diffe rences from impedance changes. This is typically accomplished by a readout of magnitude and
phase (digital or analog meters) or by motion of a spot on an osci lloscope.

Stri p charts can be hooked up to record either magnitude (2) and phase (9) or res istance (R) and
inductive reactance (XL)'

Chapter 8 - Coils and Instruments 41

Some instruments display a sine wave input signal compared with a phase shifted wave from the
detector.

/ '\
Input Signal
,, \ .;
,, ,
,, 917 '\
,, ,, \...-J Detected Signal

Still others form elipses.

Each of these displays contains vector impedance information as is detected by an impedance bridge.

Meter Offset
o ~"//
o x

Gain
o o R

o o o o
Some small , portable, meter-readout eddy current instruments cnable suppression of one of two
unwanted variables by allowing selection of an "off null operating point" (ONO?) on the impedance
plane.

42 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

A pair of IO·turn pots, one reading R and the other XI.' are set to a point on the impedance plane
where the length (magnitude) of the impedance vector does not change significantly when the
undesired variable changes.

In thi s fi gure. lift·off is effectively supprcssed; the magnitude (distance from the preset operating
point) does not change substantially with lift-off (little change in meter reading).

A conducti vity change, however, docs result in a magnitude change and a corresponding change in
meter reading. Selection of the ONOP is usually made by graphing the data.

Any nondestructive test is only as accurate as the standards used. This is true, therefore, for eddy
current testing.

Standardi:ted thicknesses of plastic shims are uscd to calibrate lift-off for noneondueti ve coating
gaglOg.

2 Calibration Points
1.5 (shim thickness of
1 1, 2, and 3 mils)

o 25 50 75 100
Meter Reading

In this example, a meter reading of 67 corresponds to a thickness of about 1.5 mil s.

Chapter 8 - Coils and Instruments 43

"Crack" blocks/specimens, manufactured out of the same material as used in the test parts, provide
data relating to unknown surface cracks.

Cracks of Known
Widths and Depths Lift-off

/ C
B
A
U
A
U
B
u
c

Transverse Discontinuities Longitudinal Discontinuities

--- ------0
-------

Tubing Standard with Machine Simulated Discontinuities

Thickness Standard

The effect of each standard condition on the impedance plane assisL~ in identification of observed
discontinuities.

It is important that the probe be positioned away from edges to achieve symmetrical flux; otherwise
a false reading due to "edge" or "end" effect will result.

Probe

Part -+-I Lines of Force

'M<' 4 - - - Not in Material

Fixturing/positioning equipment mu st be utilized to avoid edge effects and probe wobble.

44 Eddy Current Testing Theoty and Practice

Frequentl y, fix turing costs more than the test equipment. The cost is dependent on the shape and
size of Lhe part to be tested, type of test desired (including speed desired), conditions to be tested for,
and degree of sophistication of the test.

The maxi mum sensitivity of an eddy current test is achieved when the current direction is
perpendicular to the discontinuity and thereby forced to detour around it.

Discontinuity

Eddy Current
Vectors

Since electrical current is perpendicular to magnetic flux , the eddy current veCfors are always
perpend icular to the magnetic flux vectors.

Flux
Lines

Eddy
Currents ---,7"'=----.. ~@--- Delamination

The delamin ation is parallel to the current flow and thus is not detected.

Chapter 8 - Coils and Instrument~ 45

 Impedance plane analysis with memory osc illoscope di splay has greatly simplified eddy current
testing.

Most effects that produce a definite cbange in impedance can be identifi ed by their signature on the
impedance plane.

Nonferromagnetic Conducting Materials

50 kHz 500 kHz 2 MHz

Air Stainless Air Air

Steel Stainless
Steel Stainless
Bronze Bronze Steel
Alum inum Aluminum Bronze
Copper Copper Aluminum/Copper

These graphs show the importance of frequency selection for suppression of undesired variables.

For stamless steel:

I . Al 50 kHz, di ffere ntiation between conductivity and lift-off changes is difficult.
2. At 2 MHz, there is good separation between these variables.

For aluminum:
1. At 50 kHz, aluminum is clearl y separated from copper.
2. At 2 MHz, the lift-otl lines are practically superimposed.

For each material of given conductivilY, a theoretical1g (called "characteristic" or "limit" frequ ency)
can be calculated. A graph can be drawn for any conducting material in teons of the ralio of
operating frequency ft o limit frequen cy 19: flig.

(
Ratios
(g
16

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing 47

This graph can be used to select the operating frequency for any material , if me f. is known. For a
material with an/g of 1500 Hz, 4/g is 6kHz and IOG /g is 150kHz. II

The best separation between conductivity and li ft -off seems to be in the 16-25 range of the PIg ratio.

If the limit frequency for a given material is known, in principle, the optimum frequency can be
selected from the fll, graph.

For encircling coils containing cylindrical test objects. lhe limit frequency /g can be obtained from:

For probe coils:

f = 1354
g r.,
II (Jd 2 coil diameter

Crack Detection Using Eddy Currents

Theory predicts that phase shi ft increases li nearly with eddy current depth beneath the surface.

Phase Shift in 3
Radians 2
1
x
8
123

48 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

This relationship results in a wider separation between the lift-off line and crack indications for
deeper cracks.

ToAir Point

Lift-off
A
B
C
[TnC---"g__-,~
L_A__B__

Note: D and E are

Subsurface Cracks
As Viewed from Above

The eddy currents must detour around cracks in the material.

For surface-connected cracks, this forces the eddy currents deeper into the material.

This causes the phase to change.

For a wide shallow crack, the effect is similar to lift-off. This makes discrimination difficult because
the coil simply averages the di stances bit by bit.

11 JI
--'Vr----

As thc crack becomes narrower and deeper, the phase shift moves the indication away from the
lift-off line towards the conductivity curve.

Thickness Variations
Vector impedance changes as the thi ckness of a given material is reduced.

This enables eddy current thickness gaging results to be highly accurate.

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing 49

Thc method can be refined so well that the ultimate accuracy depends on the accu racy of the
reference standards and the degree of temperature and humidity control.

Bmh single and double (through transmission) probe techniques are used.

With the single probe technique for a non-ferromagnetic, flat material of fixed conductivity, the only
Olh~r variable is lift-off.

The impedance plane thickness curve for a highly conductive material, such as aluminum or copper,
is shown below.

Air Point
8 is Standard Depth
t:::::::-_~0.010 of Penetration

0.10
Thickness

0.50
20 10

The conductivity curves shown up to now assumed that the materials were at least 48 thick.

The curve approaches the air point as the thickness becomes infinitely thin.

50 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

Since ~ varies as ~ JtJl(jf ' frequency choice affects location on the thickness/thinness curve.

Notice that, fo r a cenain region, the lift-off lines arc perpendicular (0 the curvc.

Less Than 90 0

Greater Than 900

~ can be varied by frequency selection to locate operation at this region.

The entire impedance plane can be rotated to render lift-off horizontal, and thickness vertical.

Lift-off
To Air Point Thickness

Voltages from thc vertical output, either read directly or recorded on a strip chart, will provide
thickness data.

For a thin metallic coating on a thin non-conductive substrate, metallic coating thickness and
substrate thickness can be simultaneously obtained.

u
Non-Conducting Coating
Metal

Non-conductive
Metallic
Thickness
Material Thickness

This type of gagin g has been used as an in-process conLrol for plating copper onto plastic to make
precision ribbon transmi ssion line.

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing 51

Metallic Cladding
Eddy currents can be used to gage claddi ng of one conductive materia] on another if the
conductivities of the two materials arc sufficienLly different.

I Higher" Cladding
Standard
Lower "

For a given appli cation, a standard could be fabri cated of the two metals to be gaged.

As an alternative, a series of parts with known cladding thicknesses could be used as a "standard ."

Frequency is typicall y chosen by ex periment, keeping in mind that good penetrati on of the cladding
material is needed.

The syslt;:m must "sec" th e bottom material through the top material.

If th e cladding is of higher conductivity, the system sees the cladding becoming thinner.

If the cladding is of lower conducti vity, the system sees lift-off from the base material .

Putting these ideas together, one gets:

" Curve
Lower cr~

Higher"

If these are considered separately:

(probe on top)
Cladding Lower " Cladding Higher"
Than Base Than Base
1 2 3 4 5

~"
High? )3: I~~-=------LL--L--J00~W"
---,:!iW1cr ~
1 2 1 2 3 4 5
(probe on bottom)

52 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

Delamination
In general, the orientation of the eddy c urrent vec tors is such that a delamination is not detected.

Howe ver, an actual separation or gap can be seen. It is interpreted as a second layer of the same or
different conductive material.

)~ )
? (
The coil must be large enough for the field to extend imo both layers,
(

1 2 3

Standard

Corrosion under a boh hole can be detected in the same way.

TItanium
c - - - - f - Gap Due to
Corrosion
Aluminum

In all of these tests, the accuracy of the test depends on the quality of the standards used.

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing 53

Ferrom agn etic Materials
For materials with J.l n.,> 1, me conductivity curves look like this (after H . Libby):

XL
XLO
5 ,
~ ,., 4
3 ,
,,
2
1
R-Ro
XLO

Because of this, lift-off lines and lines of varying J..l,t/ are virtually aligned.

(almost aligned)

Lift-off Lines

Air

This means 11 I is praclically indistin guishable fro m li ft -off.

"
If J.l,cl changes are to be gaged, li ft-otf changes must be suppressed by fi xturing.

C racks in ferromagnetic materials, as in nonferro magnelic materials, lie at a sig nificant phase
separation fro m the lift-off/llrtl lines.

C
- 0
B
A A - Shaliow Crack
B - Deep Crack
C - Subsurface Crack

54 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

This is due once again to the phase change wilh depth .

(note ~)

Notice mat deep cracks lie along me cr curve and can be confused with a di screte, localized cr
variation.

Because of the effects of varying Jl rel , sometimes an additional pair of coils are utilized to saturate
the fie ld in the ferromagnetic materi al. Thi s effectively reduces the Jlre/ of the material to about 1
and non ferromagnetic test procedures can then be used with carc.

If case-hardened depth is to be gaged, care must bc taken to assure adequate penetration into the
part. The frequency mu st be low enough to get several standard depths of penetration for the desired
depth. The coil diameter must be large enough for the fi eld to extend into the steel.

Standards of known case-hardened depth must be used. The points should be pl otted first on the
impedance planc, then a calibration chart for the chosen off null operating point should be plotted.

Cladding thickness of a nonferromagnetic metal on a steel base can be measured readily.

r~~~~3~~4~~~
1 2

Steel
} - Aluminum

Actual data points on thi s curve depend on the choice of frequency.

If an oscilloscope display is not availabl e, a phase sensitive meter-type instrument can be used.

An off null operating point could be selected to minimize li ft-off.

1-Steel

• 2
• 3

• 4
• 5-Aluminum

A simple test for selecting optimum frequency fo r separation of steel bars of different heat
treat ments illustrates a fun damental use of cddy current testing.

Equipment is avail abl e that will provide meter reading of any desired vector length.

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing 55

 Variable Frequency
Test Instrument
00 o 0

Reference Test
Coil Coli

Reference Bars A-O, Each

Bar Having a Specific
Heat Treatment

Can be Separated
at 60 Hz o
B
C
A

60 Hz 200 Hz 800 Hz 1 kHz

Thi s shows that 60 Hz is the best frequency to use. 60 Hz produces an eddy current signal that will
select the speci fi c heat treatment as desired.

Multiple Frequency Eddy Current Testing

Impedance plane analysis, in general, allows suppression of only one undesired vari able.

One way around this limitation is to drive the eddy current coil with two or more frequencies
simultaneously using multiplexi ng techniques.

As an example. consider the inspection of heat exchanger tubing with an ID differenti al coil.

-----------------------------------------------------------

~ -----------------------------------------------------------
<.-.. >
10 Probe in Tubing

56 Eddy Current Testing Theory and Practice

In order for the probe to move through the tubing and around gentle curves, it is significantly smaller
than lhe tubing ill. As it moves, this allows it to "wobble" around the tubing ID. This probe wobble
appears on the signal at all frequencies. It is desirable to suppress thi s signal because it generally has
no information of interest.

At very high frequencies (VHF), only lift-off (here probe wobble) and surface discontinuities are
detected; there is no significant penetration of the wall.

At an intermediate or medium frequency (MF), both of the above variables are detected, plus the
tube wall is penetrated to give wall thickness andlor OD crack infoITIlation.

To suppress probe wobble, the probe is driven at a very high frequency and a middle frequency
simultaneously.

The information provided by the VHF signal is subtracted from that provided by the medium
frequency signal. This leavcs only the wall thickness/crack infonnatioo.

Probe wobble on the VHF signal display might look like this:

The medium frequency display would have this plus wall/OD crack information:

By suitably rOlating and adjusting the gains, Lhe upper di splay can be subtracted from the lower
display. The resulting composite display essentially has wall/OD crack infonnation only.

An experienced operator can take this composite signal and combine it with the low frequency
display, and suppress both wobble and wall/DO signatures to effectively "see" only tube support
information.

Chapter 9 - Eddy Current Testing 57

1. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and electrons.

2. A neutral atom has the same number of protons and electrons.

3. Conductors arc made of materials hav ing relatively few free eleclrons.

4. Ohm' s law relating current, potential , and resi stance is expressed as R = I x E.

5. The potential or electrical potential difference, £, is expressed in units of volts.

6. Resistance is a material property.

7. The type of conductor and its dimensions are things that influence resistance.

8. Resistivity and conductiv ity are in versely proportional to each other.

9. The symbol for conducti vity is _ _ _ _ , for resisti vity , _ _ __

10. The unit of potential di fference is the ampere.

II. Thc unit of resistance is the ohm.

12. The un it of current is the vol l.

13. Materials with few free electrons are called insulators.

14. Resistance is related to resistivity p, length €, and cross-sectional area A , by R = f/ pA.

15. Tn most alt.ernating current circuits, the current is out of phase with the voltage.

16. Once around a circle is 360 degrees or 2n radians.

17. A 6 V battery is connected to a 30 Q resistor. What current flows through the

resistor'? What power is being produced? _ _ __
6V

18. A generator rotates through 10 ful1 tums. How many degrees has it rotated
through? How many radians? _____

19. Batteries produce alternating current.

20. " 120 V AC" means the instantaneous voltage is zero part of the time.
_ 1. An elec(fomagnet is a conductor wi th a current-carrying coil of wire wrapped around it to
ali gn the magnetic domains.

2. Magnetic "lines" of force (favel in closed loops.

3. All magnets have two poles, eallcd north and south.

4. The strength of a magnet is represented by the number of "lines of force" per unit area it
produces at a designated position.

5. Flux dens ity is represented by the symbol <I> (Greek phi).

6. Magnetic flux per unit area is the definition of nux density.

7. Magnetizing force is directly related to flux density and inverse ly related to magnetic
permeability.

8. The symbol for magnetic pem1eability is 11 (Greek mu).

9. For air and most materials, Il rd is nearly equal to 1.

10. For ferromagnetic materials, Ilul is constant and usually greater than 1.

11. Saturation refers to the fact that in certain materials beyond a certain value of magnetizing
force H, (he flux density B will not get any larger.

12. Retentivity refers to a residual fl ux density after the saturation magnetizing force has been
applied.

13. The graph descrihing the variation of B with H around a closed loop is called

14. The amount of magnetizing force (hat needs to be applied to reduce the nux density in a
magnetized object to zero, is referred to as _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

1S. For nonferromagnetie materials, Il-rt l is approximately J.lo '

 1. Electrical currents are surrounded by magnetic fields.

2. A longitudinal magnetic field is created by applying current to a long straight wire.

3. The energy in a changing magnetic field can be converted into electricity.

4. One way of expressing Faraday ' s law is to state that voltage or electromotive force
(EMF) is directly dependent on the number of turns in a coil and the rate at which the
magnetic flux changes with time.

_ _ 5. Another way of expressing Faraday's law is that the EMF is propoflional to the
inductance times (he rate of change of current.

6. A coil of a conducting material has the ability to induce current in another coil.

7. A coil can and docs induce an EMF in itself.

8. The symbol for inductance is l.

9. Inductance is defined as the number of turns in the coil times the coil's total flux, divided
by the current through the coil.

10. The longitudinal CUTTcnt induced in a conducting plate near a coil that is carrying
alternating current is the "eddy current."

11. Lift-off. the di stance between a coil and a conductor, refcrs to the amount of inductivc
coupling between the two.

12. Fill fac tor is a measure of inducti ve coupling between a coi l an d a rod or tube.

13. Fill factor is the ratio of the diameters of rod and coi l and is always less than I (less than
)(xl%).

14. Fill factor for an inside diameter (lD) probe is the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of rod
and coil and is always greater than I (or 100%).

15. A bobbin coil is a type of ou tside diameter (OD) coil.

Ghapter6
1. When alternating current is applied to a coil, another eleClIomotive force (EMF) is
induced that lags the current and is 90 degrees out of phase with (he current.

2. Inductive reaClance is represented by 2rrroL.

3. Inductive reactance is related to inductance but not to freque ncy (that is, the frequency of
the alternating current).

4. The phase angle between current and E is always 90 degrees.

5. The phase angle between Rand Z is always 90 degrees.

6. Bringing an energized coil ncar a conductor lowers the phase angle between Z and R.

7. A vector has length and direction.

8. A vector in a plane has two perpendicular components.

9. Inductive reactance is a vector.

10. The Pythagorean theorem can be used to calculate resistance if impedance and inducti ve
rcaclance are known.

II . Vector impedance Z has magnitude and also direction, or phase.

12. The plane defined by XL as the y-axis and R as Ihe x-axi s is called the impedance plane.

13. The unit of resistance is the ohm.

14. The unit of inductive reactance is the ohm.

15. A change in inductance resulls in a change of resis tance.

16. Impedance can be calculated by using the fonnula Z = (XL + R) ln.

17. If the angle 8 (Greek Theta) is 45 degrccs (1t/4 radi ans), then XL = R.
 l. Variables that can influence eddy currcnt test resu lts include properties of the test
specimen as well as characteristics of the testing device.

2. When a probe coil is used, the induced magnetic field is longitudinal.

3. An advan tage of eddy current testing is the large number of variables that affect eddy
currents.

_ _ 4. A disadvantage of eddy current testing is the large number of variables (0 which eddy
currents are sensitive.

5. One material properly that eddy current testing cannot make use of is resistivity.

6. Suppression of one variable, such as permeability, to concentrate on detecting changes in

another variable of greater interest such as conductivity, can be aided by the choice of
frequency.

7. The higher magnetic penneability of ferromagnetic materials means that the magnetizing
force H is greater than for nonferromagnetic materials.

_ _ 8. The Il-rt1 of greater than I for ferromagnetic materi als means impedance will have a larger
R component.

_ _ 9. The depth to which eddy currents are induced in a given tcst object is increased by raising
the frequency of operation.

10. The symbol for standard depth of penetration is 5 (Greek delta).

11. The definition of the standard depth of penetration is, for a flat specimen, the thi ckness
required to reduce the eddy current density to half its value at the surface of the part.

12. The formula for standard depth of penetration in inches, 26/(0/)112, assumes units of
_ _ _ _ for frequency, for conductivity, and holds for _ __ _
materials.

13. By the time the eddy currents have penetrated a thickness represen ting three (3) standard
depths of penetration, the density of eddy currents will have been reduced to about 5% of
their surface val ue.

14. The depth of a discontinuily is indicated by the shorten ing of the impedance vector.

15. Nonnalization is a process th at renders the R and XL values dimensionless.

 ==
_ _ 1. Material sorting is an eddy current application primarily based on changing magnetic
permeability.

_ _ 2, On the vector impedance diagram, lines or curves beginning at the air poinl having
endpoints that make up the "standard curve" are caned lift-off lines for probe coils,

3, A symbol commonly used for fill factor is 11 (Greek eta),

4, A family of "standard curves" such as can be drawn for probe coils - that is curves made
up of endpoints representing a particular coupling - cannot be obtai ned for encircling
(OD) or probe (ID) coils.

_ _ 5. Because of sensitivity to lift-off, eddy current testing is impractical as a noncontacl test

method,

_ _ 6, The practical limi t for the distance a probe coil can be from the test object (and still be
suffi ciently coupled to perfoml a test) is measured in terms of the coil diameter.

7, A small diameter probe coil would most likely be used to detect discontinuities ncar the
_ _ _ _ (for example , ceOLer, surface, etc.),

8. To increase eddy current penetration, one would use _ _ _ _ coils (larger, smalier)
and frequencies (higher, lower),

_ _ 9. Small diameter probe coi ls allow more accurate locating of those discontinuities the coil s
are most sensitive to.

10, Encircling (0 0 ) coil s and probe (ID) coils have [he di sadvantage of not being able to
locate discontinui ties (circumferenlially, longitudinally).

11 , The type of coi l that reveals [he most about the actual location of discontinuities is a (an)
_ _ _ _ coil (for example, OD, !D, probe).

12, A material's surface roughness is a serious interference in eddy current tests, and usually
rules out the use of this test method.

13, The li rt-off sensitivity of eddy currents means that the thickness of nonconductors, such
as plastic coatings, can be measured accurately using eddy c urrent methods.

14, Various thicknesses of plastic (shim stock) can be used as standards for nonconductive
coating th ickness gaging using eddy current methods regardless of the composition of the
coating to be gaged.
1. A tcst system using a reference coil and a test coil is called ____________

2. Self-comparison te~t systems can be absolute or ditferential.

3. A center-tapped (Cf) coil can be used as a differential coil.

4. Using an oscilloscope display with a memory and a differential coil, an indication of a

discontinuity known as a signature can be obtained.

5. The discontinuities that a differential coil ~ystem would be lea~t sensitive to are _ _ __
changes.

6. A through-transmission coil setup has the advantage of being insensiti ve to lift-off.

7. The reflection coil is a high sensitivity, low cost coil design.

8. An oscillator is an essential component of an eddy current instrument and provides the

exciting signal.

9. The bridge circuit is a kind of balance that can have one or two coils.

10. An eddy current instrument with a single meter as its indicator is typically a phase sensiti ve
instrument.

11 . Phase sensitive instruments can employ an oscilloscope, stri p chart recorders, or meLers.

12. An oscilloscope that is "sweeping" cannot be used for eddy current tests.

13. An ellipse on an osc illoscope display shows only amplitude data.

14. A phasc sensitive eddy current instrument should be used in order to suppress an undesired
variable.

"IS. The tenn "off null opcrating point" means the location of the air point has changed.

16. "End effect" is a term that applies to tubing inspection.

17. Thc most desirable orientation of a discontinui ty to eddy currents is

18. The frequency of operation is determined by the frequency of the coil selected for a test.
 1. Multiple frequency eddy current analysis is a method widely used to separate variables.

2. For lower conductivity material s, discontinuity detection is usually accomplished by

operating at a low frequency.

3. The limit frequency Ig can be calculated for a probe coil using the formu la j~ = 1354/~refj2.

4. Phase shift changes linearly with eddy current dcpth beneath the surface of a conductor.

5. Eddy currents induced in a conductor can flow around cracks.

6. The probe coil must be positioned snugly against the coating material in order to gage
coating thickness accurately.

_ 7. Frequency selection is more critical for thickness gaging of a conductor than for surface
crack detection.

8. Surface crack indications move closer to the lift-off line with increasing crack depth.

9. Lift-off can be rcadily suppressed by using multi plexing (operating at 2 or more frequencies
simultaneously).

10. Samples used to locate points on a conductivity curve should be at least 35 thick.

11 . As the thickness of a conductive sample increases, the eddy current signal approaches the
air point.

12. Through-transmission eddy current tcchniques can be used to accurately gage conductive
specimen thickness.

13. It is critical for eddy current standards to havc the same conductivity as the specimen being
gaged.

14. Thickness gaging of metal-an-metal cladding can not be perfonned with eddy current
meLhods.

15. Eddy current testing using a surface probe coil has low sensitivity to delaminations.

16. Variations in eddy current signals due to changes in Ilre! for ferromagnetic materials can be
easily mistaken for lift-off variations.

17. Most ferromagnetic materials have a low conductivity.

18. Test frequencies used for eddy current examination of ferromagnetic materials are generally
much lower than for nonferromagnetic materials.

19. For a given frequency, eddy currents penetrate more deeply in a ferro magnetic material
than in a nonferromagnctic one.
 ~.

~ ::; :;.~

Chp.! and 2 Chp.3 Chp. 4 and 5 Chp.6

1. F I.F I.T I.T

2. T 2. T 2. F 2. F
3. F 3. T 3. T 3. F
4. F 4. T 4. T 4.F
5. T 5.F 5. T 5. F
6. F 6. T 6. T 6. T
7. T 7. T 7. T 7. T
8. T 8. T 8.F 8. T
9. (J (sigma) , p (rho) 9. T 9. T 9. T
10. F IO.F 10. F 10. T
11. F 11. T II. T 11. T
12. F 12.F 12. T 12. T
13.T 13. a hysteresis curve 13. F 13. T
14. F 14. coercive force 14.F 14.T
15. T 15. F 15.F 15. T
16. T 16. F
17. 0.2 amp, 1.2 Wall' 17. T
18. 3,600 degrees, 20"
19. F
20. T

Chp.7 Chp.8 Chp. 9, I Chp. 9, II

I.T I.F I. external companion I.T

2.F 2. T 2.F 2.F
3. T 3. T 3. T 3. T
4.T 4. F 4. T 4. T
5. F 5. F 5. gradual 5. T
6. T 6. T 6. T 6. T
7.F 7. surface 7.F 7. T
8. F 8. bigger, lower 8. T 8. F
9. F 9. T 9. T 9. T
10. T 10. circumferemially 10. F 10. T
11. F 11. probe 11. T II. F
12. Hertz, %IACS, 12.F 12. F 12. T
non ferromagnetic 13. T 13. F 13. T
13. T 14. T 14. T 14. F
14.F 15.F 15. T
15. T 16. T 16. T
17. perpendicular to 17. T
current direction 18. F
IS.F 19. F
The American Society for Order #471
Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ISBN 0·57117·007-3