Moving Industry

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Measurement Best Practices

for Troubleshooting Motors and Drives
EASA Convention 2012
Gaylord Opryland® Resort & Convention Center
Nashville, TN
June 26, 2012

Presented by

Adam Willwerth
Electro Static Technology, An ITW Company
Mechanic Falls, ME

Hilton Hammond
Fluke Corporation
Everett, WA
 MEASUREMENT BEST PRACTICES FOR TROUBLESHOOTING MOTORS AND DRIVES

By Adam Willwerth
Electro Static Technology, An ITW Company
Mechanic Falls, Maine

Hilton Hammond
Fluke Corporation
Everett, Washington

INTRODUCTION: safely say that providing troubleshooting capability will

increase your customer’s uptime and save another
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, electric valuable item: their effort, time, and cost of
motors consume 65% of all energy produced in the troubleshooting and maintenance. So why is motor
United States and an estimated 70 percent of troubleshooting important to you and your work? What
electricity used in manufacturing. And while the services does your organization offer? Why is motor
importance of electric motors cannot be overstated as preventative maintenance and troubleshooting
a critical function in our everyday lives, keeping them diagnostics important to your work? How does your
running through planned and predictive maintenance organization manage your customer’s motor
provides the best return on the investment for any problems?
manufacturing and commercial operation.
In this paper we will learn what tools and
Motors today are more efficient than ever with the measurements can be used to isolate possible causes
National Electrical Manufacturers Association’s NEMA of failure, understand how to apply the test tool and
Premium standard increasing efficiency by two to eight use measurement to isolate fault conditions, reduce
percent greater, and while this is a significant increase, downtime by improving troubleshooting practices, and
further energy savings of 20% to 30% may be focus on making your troubleshooting more effective.
achieved when variable frequency drives (VFD) with
pulse width modulation (PWM) are used to control A brief overview of the motor and drive system is
these motors. Considering that over 95% of the discussed in figure [1] from the drive input power, to
motor’s total cost of ownership is from electrical power, the drive output power and to the motor and driven
it is vital to maintain the motors with peak efficiency equipment.
and to provide services that can monitor and detect
potential problems with the motor’s critical parts like FIGURE 1: VFD/MOTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
the windings, bearings, and power.

But the motor’s total operating costs cannot be

defined only by the cost to purchase, install, maintain
and operate the motor over its life. An even greater
value must be assigned by the process in which the
motor is installed. The value of this process and
potential downtime costs should the motor fail are
usually orders of magnitude greater than what is
referred to as total cost of ownership. Good
preventive and predictive maintenance practices have
the highest payback when considered in this light and
best practices in protecting critical parts of the motor
like the motor’s bearings, windings, and power are the The alternating current (AC) to the VFD is first
key to ensuring maximum uptime and reliability. rectified to DC and residual ripple or noise is filtered
out. Then direct current (DC) voltage and electronic
Well maintained motors create significant energy switches/gates provide a pulse width modulated
savings in all environments and especially mission (PWM) output signal that is voltage and frequency
critical processes. One may well ask “how much do controlled by timing to the insulated gate bipolar
you know about your customer’s motors?” One can transistors (IGBT) so that the motor may produce

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torque and motion controlling mechanical load. The deliver more output at a faster speed. Torque and
core of the modern 3-phase motor system, the part horsepower increase when speed increases. Variable
that makes them so efficient and flexible, is the torque loads include pumps and fans. Finally, a
inverter, also known as the VFD or simply the drive. constant horsepower load (CH) is a load that requires
high torque at low speeds and low torque at high
In the variable frequency drive application, the speeds. Constant horsepower loads include paper,
objective of the inverter is to take an input voltage of metal, and fabric winding equipment used in
constant amplitude and frequency, convert it to an production manufacturing facilities.
output where the voltage and frequency can be
precisely controlled. By controlling the inverter output The environmental conditions where motors and
voltage and frequency, you can now precisely control drive installations operate vary with equipment location
the energy to the motor thereby controlling the within plant, (indoors or even exposed outdoors)
resultant mechanical motion produced by the rotating proximity to other devices, varying operating
motor shaft. environments (humidity, dust, pollutants etc.), distance
between drive and motor, load conditions, and
There are essentially three types of Variable operating frequency. Any one of these can impact the
Frequency Drive (VFD) motor operating environments: operation and performance of a drive and may require
(1) constant torque (CT), variable torque (VT), and more or less maintenance and will impact the system’s
constant horsepower (CH). To achieve any of these performance and reliability.
operating environments, it is important to identify
potential failure points in the schematic of the interior SAFETY FIRST
of a typical three phase motor [Figure 2]. All of these
moving parts are subject to wear and damage and Whenever maintenance and repair takes place
electrical problems with the drive can cause or speed safety is of particular concern. While there are many
up this damage, causing failures. safety standards and requirements for working in
industrial and commercial mechanical rooms and
FIGURE 2: MOTOR FAILURE POINTS facilities, the following discussion highlights a few that
relate to the use of testing equipment.

Measuring tool safety rating is outlined in

International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 61010
CAT I through to CAT IV and some of its important
provisions specify:

• The closer to the power source, the greater

the user and test tool is susceptible to
transients hazards and potential for harm in
the form of shock, fire, arcing or explosion.

• IEC 61010 requires that the test tool shall not

cause harm even if subjected to operator
error.

• The classification areas that test equipment

The work of the motor to achieve the desired
should be used.
operation requires connection to the load through
direct drive, gearing, belt, or chain drive and is • IEC 61010 requires that multimeters and
attached to the shaft and can be direct driven similar equipment shall not cause a shock,
equipment like pumps or fans, gearing used to change fire, arcing or explosion hazard even if
the speed and torque of the motor output, or belt and subjected to operator error (for instance,
chain drives. connecting the meter to an energized circuit
when set to the ohms position).
A constant torque load (CT) is a load in which the
motor torque requirement remains constant. Constant • Reliable manufacturers of test equipment not
torque loads include loads that produce friction, and only protect the user in such circumstances—
can operate at different speeds such as conveyors and they also protect themselves, and keep
gear driven machines. A variable torque load (VT) is working.
a load that requires a varying torque and horsepower
at different speeds. The motor must work harder to

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 Four Categories are discussed as follows and DRIVE PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE
depicted in Figure 3: TECHNIQUES

• CAT I: “Protected electronic equipment” is The following is a discussion on capturing operating

any high-voltage, low-energy source derived measurement data at each critical signal juncture or
from a high-winding resistance transformer, test point in the motor and drive system and includes
such as the high-voltage section of a copier. measurements of the drive Input, the drive DC Bus,
and the drive output PWM. In addition critical factors
• CAT II: “Receptacle connected loads” are such as the motor Load, motor Insulation, mechanical
outlets and long branch circuits, outlets at Vibration, thermal imaging of the motor’s critical
more than 30’ from CAT III source, and outlets components, testing for shaft voltages that can lead to
at more than 60’ from CAT IV source. CAT II electrical bearing currents and damage, and best
also includes appliance outlets with short practices to avoid PWM inverter induced electrical
connections to service entrance. bearing arcing/discharge failures and bearing currents.

• CAT III: “3 phase distribution” are equipment System performance data should be capture
in fixed installations, such as switchgear and periodically during a system life cycle beginning at
polyphase motors. Also, bus and feeder in system commissioning and further during specified
industrial plants and feeders and short branch intervals as part of a maintenance program under the
circuits and distribution panel devices. same operating conditions of Load and drive speed.
Lighting systems in larger buildings (note that Also critical is to perform testing before and after a
these are single phase but still category III). failure and archive test results that may be used to
Most motor and drive systems in commercial “red flag” any major changes.
and industrial applications are considered a
CAT III 600V measurement category. A change under similar operating conditions can
signal the start of potential drive component failure and
• CAT IV: “3 Phase at utility and outdoor will signal the time to monitor conditions with increased
connections” are rated based on origin of data capture frequency and maintain data as a
installation where low voltage connection is reference point to compare and contrast in the event of
made directly to utility power. It includes failure.
electric meters and primary overcurrent
protection equipment and overhead lines DRIVE INPUT MEASUREMENT
between buildings.
Poor power can cause several problems in the
FIGURE 3: CAT 1 TO IV AREAS variable speed drive, motor and even the mechanical
drive train so it is important to eliminate power as a
concern first. By checking the supply voltage, current,
and frequency, you can rule out issues that might
affect the motor drive or breaker circuits. This can
save you time and lead to a faster problem resolution.
The checks in figure 4 illustrate the most important
measurement areas.

FIGURE 4: INPUT POWER CHECKS

Using devices that meet the IEC certifications mean

safety and accuracy at the jobsite. It is also important
that when selecting test equipment that one avoids
meters that claim to be “designed to meet” IEC 61010
specifications. Of critical importance is to make sure
meters carry the test certification of an independent
testing lab such as UL, CSA, VDE, TÜV, or MSHA in
order to be confident that these meters meet all
requirements associated with the specifications for
their rating.

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DRIVE INPUT POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENTS distribution standards allow for deviations of no more
than 10%, but standards vary by country and location.
Use a power quality analyzer connected to the drive Nominal frequency should be within 0.5 Hz of
input to first measure at the input side of the drive and specification.
then if needed at the service entrance. Measure the
nominal supply voltage, current, and frequency using a FIGURE 6: 3 PHASE INPUT
three-phase power quality analyzer.

While you might use a Digital Multimeters (DMM) to

measure the voltage and frequency characteristics of a
single-phase circuit, using a three-phase power quality
analyzer facilitates easier and simpler measurements
of critical factors like voltage, current, and frequency.
Measuring three phases simultaneously as shown in
figure 5 is important as it can highlight interactions
between phases.

FIGURE 5: DMM CONNECTIONS

Check the supply voltage level, current, and

frequency at the local breaker and at the main service
entrance. You may need to consult with your power
utility if the voltage is constantly high. If the voltage is
low you should check whether the local circuit is
overloaded, this can be done by measuring the current
consumed on the circuit and comparing that with the
circuit breaker rating. If the circuit breaker is correctly
rated, you should check the sizing of the conductor
feeding the circuit to see whether the cable size is
within spec compared to NEC requirements.

If the voltage is within 10% of intended voltage, you

can most likely rule out voltage level problems, but
only during the period you measured. Certain
It is important to be sure to connect the power quality conditions may cause the voltage to go outside of the
analyzer correctly for the circuit type (wye or delta) in acceptable limits. You cannot rule out intermittent
use as this affects the way in which the results are voltage level problems based solely on the point-in-
calculated. Reliable power quality analyzers guide you time use of a power quality analyzer. You can,
through making the proper connections for each circuit however, use the logging function of your power
type. quality analyzer to identify intermittent power supply
problems.
A nominal supply voltage, current, and frequency
with a measurement of more than 10% out of range If there are reports of the drive circuit resetting, or
means there is potentially a supply voltage problem circuit breakers opening, the next troubleshooting step
during the measurement period. Attach a power is to install a power quality analyzer to log condition
quality analyzer for long-term troubleshooting. Next, until the next fault occurs. If all supply voltage,
check for unbalance of the three phase input [figure 6]. current, and frequency measurements are within
During this step compare the RMS voltage against the range, the next troubleshooting step is to check for
intended nominal voltage, which will usually be 120V, voltage or current unbalance which should not be
208V, 240V, or 480V and then compare the measured more than 2%. For applications with non-drive
frequency against the specified frequency intended for controlled motors, for every 1% voltage unbalance,
that circuit. Nominal voltage should be within 10%, motor current unbalance will be 3% to 4%. A drive
plus or minus, of the intended voltage. Typical power will typically compensate for some unbalance but

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extensive un-balance condition will usually result in an is lightning strikes on utility infrastructure which can be
error. transmitted to the service entrance of a building
rudimentary voltage suppression can eliminate this
CURRENT UNBALANCE source. A typical source of transients inside the plant
is switching electronic loads; these too can be
The ideal current unbalance should not be greater eliminated by voltage suppression devices. However,
than 6% but depends on load current and circuit finding the source of these transients can be difficult
capacity. Current unbalance produces excess heat in due to infrequency of the occurrences and the fact that
the motor windings and will create additional wear in the symptoms can present themselves in different
the motor and its bearings – with an inverter drive this ways. For example a transient may appear on control
unbalance should not be present at the motor cables that don’t necessarily cause equipment
terminals as the inverter should eliminate the damage directly but may disrupt operations. The
unbalance at the input. A common cause of voltage installation of a surge or transient arrestor is a simple
unbalance is single-phase loads dropping in or out on solution to the problem of transients – finding the right
the same feed as the three-phase motor drive. location for such a device is a more difficult task.
Increasing the kVA rating of the transformer or
providing a separate feed for the motor drive can help MEASURING HARMONICS
minimize or eliminate this type of problem. After
measuring voltage unbalance, you can rule You should investigate voltage total harmonic
unbalanced voltage out as one possible cause of distortion (THD) exceeding 6% on any phase. Total
motor overheating, however this diagnostic does not harmonic distortion is a measure of all of the
rule out other possible causes of motor overheating, harmonics from the 2nd harmonic to the 50th
like overloading, harmonics, vibration, electrical harmonic. Harmonics above the 50th may occur but
bearing damage, lubrication deterioration or wear. these are usually insignificant. If you measure voltage
THD greater than 6%, then identify which harmonics
CAPTURING TRANSIENTS AND HARMONICS are contributing the most distortion to the THD
reading. Different harmonics indicate different
Capturing transients pictured in figure 7 is potential problems. For example, strong even-order
accomplished by setting the transients capture (second, fourth, etc.) harmonics indicate that there
function threshold to greater than 50V above nominal may be DC voltage being reflected from a device
voltage. Transients greater than 50v above nominal connected to the circuit you are measuring, often this
voltage are potentially problematic so if you suspect is due to a faulty rectifier making up part of the load.
transients are occurring because of nuisance fault
protection tripping or other symptoms, then measure Note that some current harmonic distortion is normal
for a longer period of time. on any part of the system serving electronic loads. In
addition you should monitor current levels and
FIGURE 7: TRANSIENTS temperature at transformers to be sure that they are
not overstressed. Each harmonic [Figure 8] has a
different acceptable level of distortion, which is defined
by standards like IEEE 519-1992.

FIGURE 8: THD

Transient voltages can come from a number of

sources, these sources can either be inside or outside
of the plant. The most recognized source of transients

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MEASURING POWER FACTOR Monitor these points to determine if the health of the
drive or motor installation is deteriorating.
A power factor of less than 1 indicates that the circuit
is not operating at full efficiency. A measurement of FIGURE 10: DRIVE AND DRIVE OUTPUT CHECK
less than 0.9 indicates a potential problem but in some LIST
conditions a power factor less than 0.9 may be
acceptable. Use a three phase power quality analyzer
set to power and energy with both voltage and current
probes connected using correct polarity and with the
arrow pointing toward the load being measured.

A purely resistive load such as a heater has a power

factor of 1.0. Inductive loads such as motors,
transformers, and high-intensity lighting introduce
reactive power into a power system and typically
cause lower power factors. A measurement of less
than 0.9 may contribute to a poor power factor for the
facility (which may incur financial penalties and require DC BUS MEASUREMENTS
improvement due to contractual obligations with the
utility), while a measurement from 0.9 to 1 indicates a Measuring DC bus voltage - An oscilloscope can be
well-behaved motor drive. used to measure the absolute value of the rectified DC
voltage, when AC coupled it can also be used to zoom
The power factor of a motor will vary depending on into the signal to view the extent of ripple [figure 11].
its loading, typically the closer to full load the better the In general the DC bus voltage is ~1.414 x the RMS
power factor [Figure 9]. Power systems must be able line voltage. The DC bus voltage is relative to the
to accommodate both the active power and reactive peak voltage of the main input. An example, for a 480
power of its loads; circuits may have to be derated Vac drive, the DC bus should be ~ 678 Vdc. A too low
where a consistently low power factor occurs. When DC voltage can trip the motor drive. The root cause -
thinking about low power factor think low efficiency – the main input voltage is too low or the input sine wave
it’s costing more to run your equipment since the is distorted by flat topping.
overall losses will be higher. Reactive power requires
supply capacity but gives no work output while high A slight ripple can be visible but often is load
reactive power translates to low power factor. dependent. If the peaks of the ripple have a different
repetitive level we may expect that one of the rectifier
FIGURE 9: POWER FACTOR diodes is malfunctioning. Ripple voltages above 40V
can be caused by, malfunctioning capacitors or if the
drive rating is too small for the connected motor and
load.

FIGURE 11: RIPPLE

DRIVE AND DRIVE OUTPUT

Measuring critical parameters of the drive or drive

output signal can ensure that no damage is being
caused to the motor. Figure 10 provides a simple
check list of what should typically be measured.

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MEASURING VOLTAGE UNBALANCE OUTPUT REFLECTIONS

Next, measure the voltage on each terminal at the When there is an impedance mismatch or change in
drive output and then check the voltage at the motor the circuit output reflections may occur. They may
terminals. Any unbalance could be problematic for the have a wide range of waveforms, amplitudes, and
motor. durations [Figure 13] and show up as spikes on an
oscilloscope display. Reflections occur as a result of
CAUTION! Use only an oscilloscope with isolated an impedance change in the current transmission path
inputs. and in a motor drive circuit the peak of the reflection
could be as high as the DC bus voltage level
Use a multi-channel oscilloscope to check for motor
voltage unbalance across the three output phases. FIGURE 13: OUTPUT REFLECTIONS
You’ll need to measure the voltage on each terminal,
and record each measured voltage for use in the next
step. It is important to measure voltage unbalance at
full load. Use a multimeter or ScopeMeter with a low-
pass filter function (Vpwm) to measure the effective
voltage to the motor. The Vpwm function emulates the
impedance characteristics of the motor and filters the
waveform such that is gives a true correlation of drive
setting and the voltage at the motor terminals [Figure
12].

FIGURE 12: VOLTAGE UNBALANCE

Reflections or transients greater than 50% of

nominal voltage are problematic and are due to the
fast switching DC voltage from the IGBT’s extremely
rapid change in voltage during the nanosecond time of
the voltage change.

This is referred to as the (dV/dt). Reflections of the

PWM signal as a result of a too long cable can be two
to three times the motor’s operating voltage so it is
important to ensure that this level does not exceed the
motor insulation rating, usually required to be class F
or H per the NEMA Motors and Generators
specification MG 1 Part 31.

The VFD’s IGBTs function like a very fast ON/OFF

It is important to note when output voltage and switch. The IGBT puts a DC voltage as a PWM signal
current Imbalance greater than 2% may be on an inductive load. This causes very high inductive
problematic but if within this limit the measurement voltages over a very short (switching) time the dV/dt.
rules out motor overheating due to voltage unbalance, The IGBT has a built-in free-wheel diode to
however it can’t rule out other overheating causes. compensate for this, however transients are visible
Voltage unbalance of greater than 2% could eventually when the oscilloscope “glitch detect” setting is
result in excessive heat in the motor windings. switched on.

Possible causes of voltage unbalance on the drive Transients are also caused by reflections of the
output are: One of the phase drive circuits is only PWM signal when a long cable is used. A long cable
partially conducting or there is a voltage drop between will result in reflections along the length, measurable
the VFD’s output and the motor terminal on one of the as transients [Figure 14] when the output impedance
phases due to a poor connection. For every 1% of the VFD and the impedance of the motor do not
voltage unbalance, motor current unbalance will be 3% match.
to 4%. Check conductors and consider that the drive
may have failed. If possible, power the motor directly,
bypassing the drive to determine if the drive is the
problem.

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 FIGURE 14: MEASURABLE TRANISNTS After the volt per hertz ratio measurements is made,
if V/Hz ratio is correct but the speed is off, check the
drive program. An incorrect volts-per-hertz ratio can
create a variety of problems including motor
overheating, loss of torque, rough running motor and
varying speed of the motor.

MOTOR AND DRIVE TRAIN

Checking the operating conditions of the motor can

vary and change over time. To maintain optimal
running conditions several monitoring checks should
be performed including insulation, bearing wear and
temperature, vibration in system, and bearing currents
from shaft voltages.

During these checks, maintenance requirements

may be needed to correct problems as they are
VOLT PER HERTZ RATIO discovered in order to ensure uptime and reliability. In
addition, VFDs can cause a special problem with the
The ratio of voltage to frequency determines the motor bearings that may require implementing best
amount of torque produced by an AC induction motor. practices to prevent bearing currents which could
By keeping this ratio constant the magnetic field inside otherwise fail prematurely.
the motor is kept at a constant level which results in a
constant torque. Above the nominal frequency of 60 These failures may be prevented early on by taking
Hz, the voltage will not increase anymore and the a shaft voltage reading and following up with periodic
torque will decrease. Measure volt per hertz ratio with vibration and shaft voltage measurements. The
a DMM with Vpwm option or oscilloscope with pwm common checks are listed in figure 16.
function. The Vpwm reflects the amplitude of the
FIGURE 16: MOTOR AND DRIVE TRAIN CHECK
fundamental frequency and a current clamp may be
LIST
used measure the frequency. Portable oscilloscopes
can simultaneously display the frequency of the pulse
width modulation (PWM) output and a voltage
comparable to the motor nameplate rating. Here you
use the current signal for frequency measurements
and the measured voltage must be the Vpwm value
where the Vpwm reflects the amplitude of the
fundamental frequency. This can only be done with a
dmm with Vpwm option or with a oscilloscope with
pwm function. A typical oscilloscope reading is
depicted in Figure 15.

FIGURE 15: VOLTS TO HERZ

OVERLOADING MOTOR MEASUREMENTS

Compare the measured current to the full load amps

times the service factor ratings from the motor
nameplate. On the motor nameplate, find the Full
Load Amps (FLA) and Service Factor (SF) or Service
Factor Amps (SFA) ratings. If SFA is not listen then
multiply these two numbers together to approximate
the periodic maximum current the motor is rated for.
For best performance, the measured phase currents
should be no more than 10% over the FLA*SF
number, and no more than 25% less than the FLA*SF
number. If the measured phase currents exceed the
FSA, you have a motor that is too heavily loaded.

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 This measurement can help you rule out motor load can identify trends and repair motor windings before
issues, but it can’t rule out other causes of motor they suffer catastrophic failure.
overheating like bearing issues or voltage and current
imbalance. In addition, this measurement is directly An Insulation Resistance Test (IRT) is performed
based on the current load of the motor, so if you while the motor is disconnected and in a de-energized
measure at a time when the motor is lightly loaded, state. An IRT can happen at the motor if the motor is
you may get a misleading measurement. If this accessible, or at the motor disconnect. An IRT at the
measurement indicates that the motor is drawing motor disconnect also includes the cabling between
current in excess of the rated FSA number, a good the disconnect and the motor. Testing for insulation
follow up measurement is to use a thermal imager or breakdown generally follows the following procedure:
IR thermometer to measure motor operating (1) Check motor and motor starter contacts for contact
temperature. quality, (2) Isolate and disconnect electronic controls
and other devices from the motor you are about to
MEASURING SINGLE PHASING test, (3) Set the insulation resistance tester to a
voltage that is appropriate for the motor you are
Use a DMM with a clamp accessory or a clampmeter testing, and (4) Measure the resistance of each of the
to measure current to individual motor phase currents motor windings to ground.
while the motor is running under full load. There are
several methods you can use to check for single A short in a motor stator winding will usually be
phasing, but measuring the current of each motor obvious, due to extremely poor motor performance or
phase using a clamp accessory is the best one other symptoms. However, the gradual increase of
because it requires no direct contact with motor insulation breakdown will not be apparent unless you
voltage, increasing safety and it is less confusing than have a periodic motor insulation testing schedule in
using a DMM to check phase voltages. Single phasing place. A good resistance measurement will show a
measurements are simple - no current to a motor high resistance value. The rule of thumb for stator
phase indicates that you have a motor that is single winding insulation values is greater than 1 Megaohm
phasing. If you determine that single phasing is per 1 Kilovolt. A problem resistance measurement will
occurring, you cannot rule out other motor output indicate a potential problem with a motor winding due
problems like bearing issues, motor load issues, or to contamination, excessive, heat, over voltage
vibration issues. transients or other factors. There are several
insulation testing approaches that each provide unique
MEASURING INSULATION BREAKDOWN IN benefits:
MOTOR WINDINGS
• Time-resistance tests: In time-resistance
Insulation breakdown occurs when the insulation testing, it is the test voltage that stays
between motor windings deteriorates, causing a short constant, and the resistance readings that
circuit in the windings. Excessive heat, high humidity, increase over time if the insulation is good.
contamination, or high voltage reflections or transients
can cause this breakdown. To measure for insulation • Ramp voltage test: The ramp test applies an
breakdown use an insulation resistance tester to test increasing voltage over time (this is typically
the resistance of the motor’s windings to ground. An done in five, one-minute increments). You are
insulation resistance tester (IRT) supplies non- not looking for the resistance to increase;
destructive DC voltages to the windings and insulation good insulation should maintain its resistance
points of a motor to measure the current leakage rate. reading. Bad insulation will decrease in
An insulation resistance tester is used to effectively resistance, and may even breakdown. A rule
stress test the insulation system of a motor or the of thumb is that the resistance reading should
motor cabling. It is important to note however that an not deviate more than 25 percent.
IRT only tests the insulation system to ground. It does
not test insulation resistance from winding to winding. • Spot test: A spot test is the simplest, but least
informative test type. In a spot test, you
The current leakage rate on motor windings disconnect the motor and measure the
gradually increases until the point of insulation failure, insulation resistance at a single point in time.
at which point a short circuit to ground occurs.
Because current leakage in the motor stator windings
tends to increase over time, testing for insulation If your testing schedule shows only normal declines
breakdown is best if done as part of a periodic in motor winding resistance, and this measurement is
predictive maintenance schedule. Record motor within acceptable manufacturer limits, then this
winding resistance values in a database so that you

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measurement rules out an insulation breakdown FIGURE 18: DIAGRAM OF MOTOR WITH CURRENT
problem, at least at the spot test measurement. PATH FOR SHAFT VOLTAGES

BEARING FAILURES – PREVENTION IS THE KEY

Two things happen when a motor bearing fails: the

bearing heats up, and its lubrication begins to break
down. These can lead to a total motor failure! There
are several tests that will indicate potential bearing
problems:

(1) Shaft voltage readings – best done at startup

and to determine potential bearing damage

(2) Vibration analysis – can predict the

progression of damage

(3) Heat detected by Infrared thermometer or

thermal imaging camera.
FGURE 19: DIABRAM OF BEARING AND
And since bearings are one of the most critical parts ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE
of the motor, good maintenance practices are
essential. The first step in identifying potential for
bearing damages in VFD driven motors is to test for
shaft voltages. The great advantage of such a test is
that it may be done at start-up and will quickly identify
if there is a potential for bearing currents from shaft
voltages. This test is done with an oscilloscope and
shaft voltage probe kit as seen in figure 17.

FIGURE 17: SHAFT VOLTAGE TESTING WITH

PORTABLE OSCILLOSCOPE AND SHAFT
VOLTAGE PROBE

The voltage, once it overcomes the insulation of the

oil film, arcs through the motor with an extremely high
energy arc and creates an electric discharge
machining effect in the bearing ball and race.

The electrical arc super-heats the steel in the

bearing race wall which quickly melts and cools
creating a pin-point crater, also known as a “fusion
crater” in the bearing ball and race [Figure 20].

FIGURE 20: EDM PITT IN BEARNG

SOURCE OF SHAFT VOLTAGES

High frequency PWM voltages are capacitively

coupled from the stator to the rotor because of the
capacitance created by the small gap between the
rotor and stator [Figure 18]. These shaft voltages may
rise from 10 volts peak to 80 volts peak before the
bearing lubrication breaks down and bearing currents
flow [Figure 19].

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 The melted and cooled metal then forms a brittle FIGURE 23: NEW GREASE ON LEFT WITH BURNT
layer around the pit in the race wall which can then GREASE ON RIGHT
break off or become deformed by the rolling element.
These pitting events can occur continuously as the
VFD is operating the motor potentially creating
thousands of pits in the motor bearing every second.
Over time the bearing race becomes frosted with
millions of pits in the race wall [Figure 21].

FIGURE 21: SEM IMAGE OF PITTED BEARING

RACE - FROSTING

VFD INDUCED BEARING FAILURES

Operating motors on VFDs present new stresses on

the motor bearings not found in sinusoidal operation.
VFD can generate high-frequency common mode
voltage, which shifts the three-phase-winding neutral
potentials significantly from ground. Because the
damaging voltage oscillates at high frequency and is
capacitively coupled to the rotor, the current path to
ground can run through one bearing or both.
Eventually a “fluting” pattern which looks like a
Mitigation of this damaging effect recommends
“washboard” on the steel bearing surface is created
insulating one or both bearings and installing shaft
[Figure 22.] through the mechanical and electrical
grounding rings to divert damaging currents away from
interaction of the rolling and stator elements in the
the bearings to earth ground. As the NEMA MG 1
bearings. As the rolling element rubs over this area it
standard points out, “insulating the motor bearings will
produces a loud screeching high pitched noise, easily
not prevent the damage of other shaft connected
detectable by the human ear. Of course by then the
equipment,” an important point when deciding on a
bearing is already in a failure state and must be
mitigating strategy.
replaced. This disruptive failure mode results in
unplanned down time and high repair costs. When the path to the bearings is simply blocked by
insulation, the damaging current seeks another path to
FIGURE 22: WASHBOARD EFFECT ON BEARING
ground. That other path is often through a pump,
RACE
gearbox, tachometer, encoder, or other connected
equipment which consequently can end up with its
own bearing damage. Therefore, installing a path to
ground using technology like a shaft grounding ring will
establish a reliable path to protect the bearings and is
highly effective when used in combination with bearing
insulation or ceramic bearings.

BEST PRACTICES FOR MITIGATING BEARING

DAMAGE

While these best practices are a good rule of thumb

During the constant arcing through the lubrication in in protecting motors from electrical bearing damage,
the motor’s bearings, the lubrication its self this paper will not go into the details of all sources of
deteriorates and becomes contaminated with metal bearing currents. Other publications such as ABB
and carbon particles. The performance of the bearing Technical Guide No. 5, “Bearing Currents in Modern
declines and friction increases. Typically the AC Drive Systems” and Dr. Annette Muetze et. al.
lubrication looks either grey or blue - but, with the “Calculation of Circulating Bearing Currents in
constant arcing, the grease becomes black as shown Machines of Inverter-Based Drive Systems” published
in figure 23: by the IEEE in 2004 provide detailed explanations.

In general, for motors up to 100 HP, where common

mode voltages and circulating currents could cause

11  
 
bearing damage, adding a shaft grounding ring to the FIGURE 26: SCOPEMETER USED FOR SHAFT
motor, either inside the motor or externally, provides VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS WITH A SHAFT
effective protection against bearing currents for motor VOLTAGE PROBE KIT
bearings as well as attached equipment [Figure 24].

FIGURE 24: SHAFT GROUNDING RING INSTALLED

ON MOTOR UP TO 100 HP

For motors above 100 HP there is also the possibility When the initial reading is taken one will usually see
of additional circulating currents (not discussed in this one of two conditions – a repetitive voltage pattern of
paper) as well as the CMV induced by the inverter the CMV, indicating no bearing discharges but the
onto the motor shaft. For these motors the best potential for discharges to occur if the oil film breaks
practice is to install the shaft grounding ring on the down after continued operation. The second
drive end and insulate the bearing or use a ceramic possibility is a random voltage pattern with spikes
bearing on the opposite end [Figure 25]. indicating actual discharges are taking place in the
motor bearings.
FIGURE 25: SHAFT GROUNDING RING INSTALLED
ON DE OF MOTOR AND INSULATED BEARING ON A repetitive pattern of the CMV is what is known as a
NDE FOR MOTORS OVER 100 HP “six-step” pattern [Figure 27].

FIGURE 27: WAVE FORM WITH NO BEARING

DISCHARGES – FULL COMMON MODE VOLTAGE
WITH “SIX-STEP” PATTERN

SHAFT VOLTAGE READINGS AND ANALYSIS:

Use an oscilloscope, like a portable ScopeMeter with

the shaft voltage probe kit shown in figure 26 and
installed on the ScopeMeter’s 10:1 probe to make
contact with the motor’s shaft and measure the shaft
voltages that can indicate bearing currents. With the
oscilloscope properly set up, the shaft voltage probe
tip may be directly applied to the motor shaft and While this is typical, the wave form depends on the
waveforms captured and saved. The following are pulse algorithm and timing from the VFD and the sum
examples of typical readings measured on the shaft of of the three phase input of the CMV and can look like
a VFD driven motor. a square wave pattern. When analyzing the wave
form shown, one can clearly see the six steps that
result from the three phases and at the leading and

12  
 
trailing edges of the transitions one can see evidence time well before critical failures occur. By providing
of the dv/dt spikes. The peak to peak voltage is 50.4 basic upfront equipment information to the tester and
volts - more than sufficient to cause bearing collecting vibration data using a tri-axial accelerometer
discharges. placed near each bearing location, the vibration tester
will diagnose the most common mechanical problems,
The next measurement captures a single voltage their severity and location. In addition thermal imagers
spike [Figure 28] spread out in time to identify the will identify heat caused by excessive friction in the
waveform components that would indicate specific bearing [Figure 29].
bearing discharges. When the oscilloscope
time/division in setting is changed to 1 FIGURE 29: THERMAL IMAGE OF HOT BEARING
microsecond/division, what looked like a single vertical
line in figure 12 is seen to take a distinct shape.

FIGURE 28: TYPICAL BEARING DISCHARGE

PATTERN OF BRIEF RISE IN VOLTAGE WITH A
SHARP COLLAPSE AS THE CURRENT IS ARCING
IN THE BEARING

A thermal imager makes it easier to troubleshoot

motor overheating problems because the visual
display of temperatures includes many points in the
motor, not just the single point or component that an
IR thermometer measures. If the bearing measures
the same temperature as a known good one under
similar operating conditions, you can rule out a
complete bearing failure as the cause of motor output
For the first 0.6 microseconds the voltage gradually trouble, although a different load on the same motor
is increasing until it reaches a positive 15 volt level. At may produce different diagnostic results.
this point the voltage drops rapidly to negative 15 volts
before returning back to zero. The rapid voltage With this measurement, you cannot rule out a
collapse – less than 0.05 microseconds in time, is the bearing that runs hot—thereby accelerating wear and
result of the oil film breaking down in the motor bearing eventual failure—under different operating conditions,
thus allowing a lightening-like current to flow through and you cannot rule out an intermittent problem that
the bearing causing a pit to be created. Typical occurs when you are not taking a temperature
bearing discharge frequencies are in a range of 20 to measurement.
100 MHz.
All of these test methods should be combined to
Testing for shaft voltages will directly contribute to provide preventative and predictive maintenance with
the sustainability of VFD driven systems by identifying the goal of improving system reliability and uptime.
a potential cause of bearing failure and applying an
effective mitigating solution. So it is best to identify MEASURING DRIVE TRAIN VIBRATION
failing or failed bearings during preventative
maintenance schedules, before a total motor failure Use a vibration tester to identify the vibration
occurs. problem to compare the data collected from its sensor
with an extensive database of vibration profiles and to
While shaft voltage readings are critical in identifying generate a diagnosis that indicates the most likely
shaft voltages that could harm motor bearings, cause of the vibration. Some sophisticated vibration
vibration Analysis will also detect the frequencies testers such as shown in figure 30, have built-in expert
produced in the early stages of the failure (up to 9 systems that allow the motor and equipment
months before failure) allowing you to plan for down parameters to be entered so that technicians without

13  
 
extensive experience can use the equipment and the motor-coupling system should be checked again
obtain meaningful results. after repair to make sure that other sources of
vibration are not present.
FIGURE 30: VIBRATION TESTE WITH BUILT IN
ANALYSIS SOFTWARE IMBALANCE TESTING

Imbalance is a condition of a rotating part where the

center of mass does not lie on the axis of rotation. In
other words, there is a “heavy spot” somewhere on the
rotor. Although you can never completely eliminate
motor imbalance, you can identify when it is out of
normal range, and take action to rectify the problem.
Imbalance can be caused by numerous factors,
including dirt accumulation, missing balance weights,
manufacturing variations, uneven mass in motor
windings, and other wear-related factors [Figure 32].

FIGURE 32: IMBALANCE ANALYSIS SCREEN WITH

MISALIGNMENT TESTING VIBRATION TESTER

Use a dial indicator or laser-alignment device to

correct misalignment problems. Once you have
identified the problem as misalignment, then use a dial
indicator or laser-alignment device to correct the
problem. Direct measurements like this require
stopping the motor in order to take the measurement.

If the diagnosis indicates that there is no shaft

misalignment, you cannot rule out an intermittent
condition, or other sources of vibration like bearing
looseness or vibration from the load that is fed back
into the motor through the coupling. The vibration
tester will diagnose these conditions [Figure 31] so you
may not need to do any further vibration testing on that
system.

FIGURE 31: MISALIGNMENT ANALYSIS SCREEN

WITH VIBRATION TESTER

If the diagnosis indicates that there is no imbalance,

you cannot rule other sources of vibration like bearing
looseness or vibration from the load being that is fed
back into the motor through the coupling. The vibration
tester will diagnose these conditions though, so you
If the diagnosis indicates that there is shaft
may not need to do any further vibration testing on that
misalignment, this problem should be addressed and
system. If the diagnosis indicates that there is

14  
 
imbalance, this problem should be addressed and the tester will diagnose these conditions though, so you
system should be checked again after repair to make may not need to do any further vibration testing on that
sure that other sources of vibration are not present. system. If the diagnosis indicates that there is
looseness, this problem should be addressed and the
LOOSENESS TESTING system should be checked again after repair to make
sure that other sources of vibration are not present.
Looseness occurs when there is excessive
clearance between parts. Looseness can occur in CONCLUSIONS
several places such as rotating looseness caused by
excessive clearance between rotating and stationary Good preventive and predictive maintenance
elements of the machine, such as in a bearing. Non- practices have the highest payback when considered
rotating looseness is looseness between two normally in the context of implementing preventive and
stationary parts, such as a foot and a foundation, or a predictive maintenance. Best practices in protecting
bearing housing and a machine. Like all other sources critical parts of the motor like the motor’s bearings,
of vibration, it is important to know how to identify windings, and power are the key to ensuring maximum
looseness and resolve the issue to avoid losing money uptime and reliability.
Figure 33].
Well maintained motors create significant energy
FIGURE 33: MISALIGNMENT ANALYSIS SCREEN savings in all environments and especially mission
WITH VIBRATION TESTER critical processes. Providing troubleshooting capability
will increase your customer’s uptime and reliability for
their motor and drive system. In this paper we have
covered the drive from input all the way through to the
mechanical drive train. This review provided an
extensive overview of the various testing
measurements and methods using testing equipment
suitable for these various preventive and predictive
maintenance needs. In addition these methods may
be used to troubleshoot customer problems, validate
performance and maintain their systems in peak
operating condition.

Proper tools and measurements can be used to

isolate possible causes of failure, understand how to
apply the test tool and use measurement to isolate
fault conditions, reduce downtime by improving
troubleshooting practices, and focus on making your
troubleshooting more effective. Motor and drive train
diagnostic benefits are many and when applied
successfully can detect and prevent premature wear or
damage and improve operating efficiencies.

Adam Willwerth
Electro Static Technology – An ITW Company
32 Winterbrook Rd, Mechanic Falls Maine 04256
[email protected]
www.est-aegis.com

Hilton Hammond
Fluke Corporation
6920 Seaway Blvd Everett, WA 98203
[email protected]
www.fluke.com

If the diagnosis indicates that there is no looseness,

you cannot rule other sources of vibration like bearing
imbalance or vibration from the load that is being fed
back into the motor through the coupling. The vibration

15  
 
REFERENCES:

Fluke Publications: MDT Chapter 2, pp26-29 .

References: MDT Book, pp27-29

Electrical measurements on adjustable speed drives

ten measurements that tell you a lot.pdf, pp10-12

Test tools for electrical motors_four workhorses of

troubleshooting and maintenance.pdf

Checking_voltage_frequency_ratio_on_-
variable_speed_drives_with_a_Fluke_-
ScopeMeter_190_Series.pdf

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. A. Muetze, A. Binder, “Calculation of Circulating

Bearing Currents in Machines of Inverter-Based Drive
Systems,” IEEE 2004.

2. A. Muetze, A. Binder, H. Vogel, J. Hering,

“Experimental Evaluation of the Endangerment of Ball
Bearing due to Inverter-Induced Bearing Currents”,
IAS2004, pp.1989-1995, 2004.

3. H. William Oh, A. Muetze, “Application of Static

Charge Dissipation to Mitigate Electric Discharge
Bearing Currents,” IEMDC2007, IEEE., 2007.

4. H. William Oh and Adam Willwerth 2008 “Shaft

Grounding-A Solution to Motor Bearing Currents”
ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 114, Part 2, 2008.

5. ABB Technical Guide No. 5, “Bearing Currents in

Modern AC Drive Systems.” 2011.

6. SKF publication, “Passage of Electric Current

through a Rotating Contact.” SKF web site
http://www.skf.com/portal/skf/home/products?newlink=
5_15_020700&lang=en&maincatalogue=1, 2012.

7. Electro Static Technology web site, aegis-

static.com, http://www.est-aegis.com/shaft-voltage-
probe.htm 2012.

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