Botany - Prelims Notes

PHARMA.
BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100

1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
1. Recognize a problem - or
MODULE 1 an unanswered question
2. Develop a hypothesis - to
Botany
explain the problem
- The scientific study of plants (also
3. Design and perform an
called as plant biology)
experiment - to test the
- At first, interest in plants was
hypothesis
practical. Centered around in the
4. Analyze and interpret the
production of food, fibers, fuel,
data - to reach a conclusion
and medicine.
5. Share new knowledge -
- Eventually, an intellectual interest
with the scientific
arose. Led to plant study
community
becoming a science.
- Science involved the observation, Origin and Evolution
recording, organization, and - Organisms were originally simple
classification of information. and increased in complexity
through evolution by natural
Scientific Method
selection.
- Describes the procedures of
- Natural Selection - organisms
developing and testing
reproduce and have non-identical
hypotheses.
offspring whose features pass to
- Hypothesis - tentative, unproven
more offspring; offspring with
explanation of an observation.
features that are well-adapted to
- Experiment - test to determine if a
the environment reproduce more.
hypothesis is correct
- Must be repeatable Plants
- Variables - aspects of the - Origin of Plants
experiment that can be changed ● Life on Earth began about
or held constant; Good 3.5 billion years ago with
experiments consist of two parts prokaryotes (bacteria and
(variable changed and variable archaeans)
held constant = control) ● Photosynthesis arose 2.8
- Data - results from the billion years ago in a
experiment cyanobacterium
- Principle - useful generalization - Diversity of Plants
derived from experimental data ● Over 297,000 plant species
- Theory - grouping of related exist today; wide diversity
principles of adaptation is important.
- Steps in doing scientific method For any aspect of the
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
environment, many types climates by examining the

of adaptation are possible width and other features of
● There is no single, perfect tree rings.
adaptation. 2. Plant Physiology
● There are alternative - Concerning plant function,
adaptations it was established by J.B
● There are ways of coping van Helmont (1577-1644),
with different a Flemish physician and
environments and the chemist, who was the first
multitude of factors within to demonstrate that plants
them. do not have the same
Fields of Botany nutritional needs as
1. Plant Anatomy animals.
- Internal structure of plants 3. Plant Taxonomy
was established through - Involves describing,
the efforts of several naming, and classifying
scientific pioneers. organisms
- Early plant anatomists of - It is the science of
note included Marcello developing methods for
Malpighi (1628-1694) of grouping organisms
Italy, who discovered - Oldest branch of plant
various tissues in stems study, begun in antiquity,
and roots ● But Linnaeus did
- Nehemiah Grew more for the field
(1628-1711), who than any other
described the structure of person in history.
wood more precisely than ● Thousands of plant
any of his predecessors. names used today
- Knowledge of plant are those originally
anatomy is used to help us recorded in
find clues to the past as Linnaeus’s book
well as for many practical Species Plantarum,
purposes. published 1753.
- For example, the related 4. Plant Ecology
discipline of - The study of the
dendrochronology deals interaction of plants with
with determining past
one another and with their potential for continued

environment development of better
5. Plant Morphology agricultural, medicinal, and
- The study of the form and other useful plants. Future
structure of plants was control of human, animal,
developed during the 19th and plant diseases is also
century, and during the anticipated.
20th century, much of our 7. Plant Cell Biology
basic knowledge about the - Previously called cytology,
form and life cycles of the science of cell structure
plants was incorporated and function, received a
into plant sciences as we boost from the discovery of
know them today. how cells multiply and how
6. Genetics their various components
- The science of heredity, perform and integrate a
was founded by the variety of functions,
Austrian monk Gregor including that of sexual
Mendel (1822-1884), who reproduction.
performed classic - The mid-20th-century
experiments with pea development of electron
plants. microscopes further
- Today, various branches of spurred cell research and
genetics include plant led to vast new insights
breeding, which has greatly into cells and new forms of
improved yields and quality cell research that continues
crop plants and genetic to the present.
engineering. 8. Economic botany and
- Genetic engineering ethnobotany
includes the transfer of - Focus on practical uses of
genes from one organism plants and plant products,
to another and has already had their origin in antiquity
improved the pest, frost, as humans discovered,
and disease resistance of used, and eventually
some crop plants. cultivated plants for food,
- Although some aspects of fiber, medicines, and other
genetic engineering are purposes.
controversial, it holds
Cells throughout the plant by

- Discovery of cells is tightly cells of the vascular tissues.
connected with the development ● The energy of sunlight is
of microscopy. In 1665, Robert used in leaf cells to convert
Hooke looked at cork under a carbon dioxide and water
microscope and saw multiple to carbohydrates.
chambers called “cells” ● Plant reproduction is also
- In 1883, Schleiden and Schwann based on cells and cell
stated that all plants and animals biology
are composed of cells and that cell Membranes
is the most basic unit of life - Membranes perform many
- In 1858, Virchow stated that all important tasks in cell
cells arise by reproduction from metabolism.
previous cells. These three - They regulate the passage of
statements became the base of molecules into and out of cells and
the cell theory. Without the organelles.
contribution of these mentioned - They divide the cell into numerous
above, we would never have compartments, each with its own
studied cells and its significance to specialized function.
our daily life. - They act as surfaces that hold
- Cell Structure enzymes.
● All organisms are - Biological membranes are
composed of cells composed of proteins and a
● Plant cells consist of a phospholipid bilayer.
box-like cell wall - Intrinsic proteins are at least
surrounding a mass of partially immersed in the lipid
protoplasm bilayer.
● The protoplasm contains - Extrinsic proteins are located
organelles such as nuclei outside the membrane.
and mitochondria
● Cells are the physical
framework within which a
plant’s metabolism occurs
● Water and salts are
absorbed from soil by root
cells. They are transported
● Molecular pumps bind to a

molecule on one side of the
membrane, change shape,
and release the molecule
on the other side (Active
transport - requires
energy)
- Transport of materials
● Vesicles - membrane
bubbles that can carry
materials with the
cytoplasm
● Exocytosis and endocytosis
- Permeability
● All biological membranes
are selectively permeable
● Allows for
compartmentalization
● Dynamic - constantly
changing in response to age
and environment
- Membrane Permeability
● Membranes are more
permeable to hydrophobic
substances than anything
carrying an electric charge.
● Movement of charged
substances is assisted by
large intrinsic proteins that
span the membrane
(Facilitated diffusion)
Diffusion hypertonic solution (hyper

- Osmosis = greater than normal). The
● A specific type of diffusion net flow or water will be
● It is the passage of water out of the cell.
from a region of high water ● The concentration of solute
concentration through a in the solution can be equal
semipermeable membrane to the concentration of
to a region of low water solute in the cells. In this
concentration.. Water situation, the cell is in an
moves in or out of a cell isotonic solution (iso =
until its concentration is equal or the same as
the same on both sides of normal). The amount of
the plasma membrane water entering the cell is
- Semi permeable membrane the same as the amount
● Very thin layers of material leaving the cell.
that allow some things to ● The concentration of solute
pass through them but in the solution can be less
prevent other things from than the concentration of
passing through. solute in the cells. This cell
● Cell membranes are an is in a hypotonic solution
example of semi permeable (hypo = less than normal).
membranes. Cell The net flow of water will
membranes allow small be into the cel.
molecules such as oxygen,
water, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen to pass through but
do not allow larger
molecules like glucose,
sucrose, proteins, and
starch to enter the cell
directly.
● The concentration of solute
in the solution can be
greater than the
concentration of solute in
the cells. The cells are
described as being in
- Water and many other substances

cannot simply diffuse across a
membrane. Hydrophilic
molecules, charged ions, and
relatively large molecules such as
glucose all need help with
diffusion.
- The help comes from special
proteins in the membrane known Cell Types
as transport proteins. - All cells are either prokaryotic or
- Diffusion with the help of eukaryotic.
transport proteins is called - Prokaryotic cells are structurally
facilitated diffusion. There are more simple than eukaryotic cells.
several types of transport They are found in domains such as
proteins, including channel Bacteria and Archaea.
proteins and carrier proteins. - Eukaryotic cells contain a
- Channel proteins form pores, or membrane-bound nucleus and
tiny holes, in the membrane. This organelles. They are found in
allows water molecules and small plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
ions to pass through the
membrane without coming into
contact with the hydrophobic tails
of the lipid molecules in the
interior of the membrane.
- Prokaryotes
● Prokaryotes are
single-celled organisms to
the domains Bacteria and
Archaea.
● It is much smaller than
eukaryotic cells, have no
nucleus, and lack
organelles
● All prokaryotic cells are
encased by a cell wall.
Many also have a capsule
or slime layer made of
polysaccharide.
● Bacteria, archaea, and
cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae)
- Eukaryotes
● Eukaryotic cells have a
nucleus enclosed within
the nuclear membrane and
form large and complex
organisms. Protozoa, fungi,
plants, and animals all have
eukaryotic cells. They have
been classified under the organelles. They are

kingdom Eukaryota. present both in the
● They can maintain different prokaryotic cell and the
environments in a single eukaryotic cell.
cell that allows them to - Single membrane-bound
carry out various metabolic organelles
reactions. This helps them ● Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi
grow many times larger Apparatus, Endoplasmic
than the prokaryotic cells Reticulum are single
- Characteristics: membrane-bound
1. Eukaryotic cells have the organelles present only in
nucleus enclosed within a eukaryotic cell.
the nuclear membrane. - Double membrane-bound
2. The cell has mitochondria. organelles
3. Flagella and cilia are the ● Nucleus, mitochondria,
locomotory organs in a and chloroplasts are
eukaryotic cell double membrane-bound
4. A cell wall is the outermost organelles present only in a
layer of the eukaryotic eukaryotic cell.
cells. Cell Membrane
5. The cells divide by a - It is a selectively permeable
process called mitosis. membrane of the cells, which is
6. The eukaryotic cells composed of a lipid bilayer and
contain a cytoskeletal proteins.
structure. - The plasma membrane is present
7. The nucleus contains a both in plant and animal cells. It
single, linear DNA, which functions as the selectively
carries all the genetic permeable membrane, by
information. permitting the entry of selective
Organelles materials in and out of the cell
- An organelle is a subcellular according to the requirement.
structure that has one or more - In an animal cell, the cell
specific jobs to perform in the cell membrane functions by providing
- Organelles without membrane shape and protects the inner
● The Cell wall, Ribosomes, contents of the cell. Based on the
and Cytoskeleton are structure of the plasma
non-membrane-bound cell
membrane, it is regarded as the DNA. By structure, the

fluid mosaic model. nucleus is dark, round,
- According to the fluid mosaic surrounded by a nuclear
model, the plasma membranes are membrane. It is a porous
a subcellular structure, made of a membrane (like cell
lipid bilayer in which the protein membrane) and forms a
molecules are embedded. wall between cytoplasm
and nucleus.
● The primary function of the
nucleus is to monitor
cellular activities including
metabolism and growth by
making use of DNA’s
genetic information.
● Nucleoli in the nucleus are
responsible for the
- Cytoplasm synthesis of protein and
● Present both in plant and RNA.
animal cells.
● Jelly-like substances, found
between the cell
membrane and nucleus
● Mainly composed of water,
organic and inorganic
compounds.
● One of the essential
components of the cell
where all the cell
organelles are embedded.
- Nucleus
● Double-membrane
organelle found in all
eukaryotic cells.
● It is the largest organelle,
which functions as the
control center of the
cellular activities and is the
storehouse of the cell’s
- Chromosomes production of lipids,

● Thin and thread-like steroids, and also
structures which carry responsible for
another important detoxifying the cell.
structure called a gene.
● Genes are hereditary units
of organisms i.e., it helps in
the inheritance of traits
from one generation
(parents) to another
(offspring). Hence, the
nucleus controls the
characters and functions of
cells in our body.
- Ribosome
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Non membrane-bound and
● A network of membranous
important cytoplasmic
canals filled with fluid. They
organelles found in close
are the transport system of
association with the
the cell, involved in
endoplasmic reticulum.
transporting materials
● Found in the form of tiny
throughout the cell.
particles in a large number
● There are two types:
of cells and are mainly
1. Rough Endoplasmic
composed of 2/3rd of RNA
Reticulum -
and 1/3rd of protein.
composed of
● They are named as the 70s
cisternae, tubules,
(found in prokaryotes) or
and vesicles, which
80s (found in eukaryotes).
are found
The letter s refers to the
throughout the cell
density and the size known
and are involved in
as Svedberg’s Unit. Both
protein
70S and 80S ribosomes are
manufacture.
composed of two subunits.
2. Smooth
● Either encompassed within
Endoplasmic
the endoplasmic reticulum
Reticulum - storage
or are freely traced in the
organelle,
cell’s cytoplasm.
associated with the
● Ribosomal RNA and helps in the transformation

Ribosomal protein are two of the molecules.
components that together ● For instance, glucose is
constitute ribosomes. converted into adenosine
● The primary function of the triphosphate–ATP
ribosome includes protein ● Mitochondria have their
synthesis in all living cells own circular DNA, RNA
that ensure the survival of molecules, ribosomes (the
the cell. 70s), and a few other
- Mitochondria molecules that help in
● Powerhouse of the cell as protein synthesis.
they produce energy-rich
molecules for the cell
● The mitochondrial genome
is inherited maternally in
several organisms
● It is a double
membrane-bound,
sausage-shaped organelle,
found in almost all
eukaryotic cells. - Golgi Apparatus
● The double membranes ● Also termed as Golgi
divide its lumen into two Complex
distinct aqueous ● It is a membrane-bound
compartments. The inner organelle, which is mainly
compartment is called the composed of a series of
“matrix” which is folded flattened, stacked pouches
into cristae whereas the called cisternae.
outer membrane forms a ● This cell organelle is
continuous boundary with primarily responsible for
the cytoplasm. transporting, modifying,
● They usually vary in their and packaging proteins and
size and are found either lipids to targeted
round or oval in shape. destinations.
● Sites of aerobic respiration ● Golgi Apparatus is found
in the cell, produces energy within the cytoplasm of a
in the form of ATP and cell and is present in both
plant and animal cells.
- Carbohydrates
● Carbohydrates (or sugars)
were originally believed to
be “hydrates of carbon”,
because they have the Association of Cells
general formula Cx(H2O)y.
- Cells of multicellular organisms
● “Optically active
interact and must communicate.
polyhydroxy aldehydes or
● Interacting cells sense that
ketones or the compounds
they are part of a larger
which produce units of
organism and identify how
such type on hydrolysis.”
they should differentiate.
● This requires extensive
intercellular
communication.
- Cells can secrete messenger
compounds
- Plant cells cannot communicate
via direct physical contact.
● In plants, the cell wall and
middle lamella are a
barrier.
● Plasmodesmata allow
direct communication
- Plasmodesmata are small
channels that connect adjacent
cells
● The plasma membrane
passes through them and
creates a contiguous ● The main structural

membrane from cell to cell component of cell walls is
● A small stream of the cellulose, which is
cytosol and a section of the composed of 100 to 15,000
ER also pass through the glucose monomers in long
plasmodesmata. chains, and is the most
● These occur singly or in abundant polymer on
clusters called primary pit earth.
fields. ● In addition to cellulose, cell
- Plasmodesmata connect walls typically contain a
protoplasts to create symplast. matrix of hemicellulose (a
- Many cells do not talk about each gluelike substance that
other tightly, so there is holds cellulose fibrils
intercellular space between. All together), pectin (the
intercellular space and cell walls organic material that gives
together are called the apoplast. stiffness to fruit jellies), and
- The symplast and apoplast glycoproteins.
together make up the entire plant. ● A middle lamella, which
consists of a layer of pectin,
is first produced when new
cell walls are formed.
● Secondary walls, which are
produced inside the
primary walls, are derived
from primary walls by
thickening and inclusion of
lignin, a complex polymer.
● During secondary wall
- Cell Size formation, cellulose
● Cells of higher plants microfibrils become
generally vary in length embedded in lignin, much
between 10 and 100 like steel rods are
micrometers. embedded in concrete to
- Cell Wall form prestressed concrete.
● The first cell structure
discovered by Robert
Hooke in 1665 was the cell
wall.
- Vacuole
● The vacuole evidently
received its name because
of a belief that it was just
an empty space; hence, its
name has the same latin
root as the word vacuum
(from vacuus–meaning
“empty”)
● Vacuoles, however, are
filled with a watery fluid
called cell sap, which is
slightly to moderately
- Plastids
acidic. Cell sap, which helps
● The plastid is a
to maintain pressures
membrane-bound
within the cell.
organelle found in the cells
of plants, algae, and some
other eukaryotic
organisms.
● They are considered to be
intracellular endosymbiotic
cyanobacteria.
● Examples include
chloroplasts (used for
photosynthesis),
chromoplasts (used for
pigments synthesis and - Cytoskeleton
storage), leucoplasts ● The cytoskeleton is
(non-pigmented plastids involved in movement
that can sometimes within a cell and in a cell’s
differentiate). architecture. It is an
- Chloroplast intricate network
● The liquid portion of the constructed mainly of two
chloroplast is a colorless kinds of
fluid matrix called stroma, fibers—microtubules and
which contains enzymes microfilaments.
involved in photosynthesis.
- Microtubules diameter of 6 nanometers.

● Microtubules control the They are often in bundles
addition of cellulose to the and appear to play a role in
cell wall. They are also the cytoplasmic streaming
involved in cell division, (sometimes referred to as
movement of cytoplasmic cyclosis) that occurs in all
organelles, controlling the living cells.
movement of vesicles
containing cell-wall MODULE 2
components assembled by
Cellular Reproduction
dictyosomes, and
- Cell Cycle
movement of the tiny
● When cells divide, they go
whiplike flagella and cilia
through an orderly series
possessed by some cells
of events known as the cell
● Microtubules are
cycle. This cycle is usually
unbranched, thin, hollow,
divided into interphase and
tubelike structures that
mitosis; mitosis itself is
resemble tiny straws. They
subdivided into four
are composed of proteins
phases.
called tubulins and are of
● Interphase
varying lengths, most being
- Living cells that are
between 15 and 25
not dividing are said
nanometers in diameter.
to be in interphase, a
They are most commonly
period during which
found just inside the
chromosomes are
plasma membrane
not visible with light
- Microfilaments
microscopes.
● Microfilaments, which play
- For many years,
a major role in the
immature cells were
contraction and movement
considered to be
of cells in multicellular
“resting” when they
animals, are present in
were not actually
nearly all cells. They are
dividing, but we
three or four times thinner
know now that
than microtubules and
three consecutive
consist of long, fine threads
periods of intense
of protein with an average
activity take place and other

during interphase. substances directly
- These intervals are involved in mitosis
designated as gap are produced.
(or growth) 1, Coiling and
synthesis, and gap condensation of
(or growth 2) chromosomes also
periods, usually begin during G2
referred to as G1, S,
G2, respectively.
● G1
-Is relatively lengthy
and begins
immediately after a
nucleus has divided.
- During this period,
the cell increases in
size. Also,
ribosomes, RNA,
and substances that
either inhibit or
stimulate the S
period that follows
are produced.
● Synthesis
- During the S period,
the unique process
of DNA replication
(duplication) takes
place. - This animal cell has also made a
● G2 copy of its centrosome, an
- In the G2 period, organelle that will play a key role
mitochondria and in orchestrating mitosis, so there
other organelles are two centrosomes. (Plant cells
divide, and other generally don’t have centrosomes
organelles divide, with centrioles, but have a
and microtubules different type of microtubule
organizing center that plays a or large, makes no

similar role). difference in the way the
- Mitosis process takes place.
● All organisms begin life as a ● The daughter cells that
single cell. This cell usually result from mitosis each
divides almost immediately, have exactly the same
producing two new cells. number of chromosomes
These two cells, in turn, and distribution of DNA as
divide, with each of them the parent cell.
producing two more cells. ● Mitosis is a continuous
● It ensures that the two new process, which may take as
cells (daughter cells) little as 5 minutes or as
resulting from a cell long as several hours from
undergoing mitosis each start to finish. Typically,
have precisely equal however, it takes from 30
amounts of DNA and minutes to 2 or 3 hours.
certain other substances ● Mitosis is initiated with the
duplicated during appearance of a ringlike
interphase. preprophase band of
● The division of the nucleus microtubules just beneath
alone, but with a few the plasma membrane.
exceptions seen in algae ● Prophase
and fungi. - The beginning of
● In flowering plants, prophase is marked
conifers, and other higher by the appearance
plants, mitosis occurs in of the chromosomes
specific regions, or tissues, as faint threads in
called meristems. the nucleus.
Meristems are found in the - These chromosomes
root and stem tips and also gradually coil or fold
in a thin, perforated, and into thicker and
branching cylinder of tissue shorter structures,
called the vascular and soon, two
cambium. strands, or
● When mitosis occurs, the chromatids, can be
number of chromosomes in distinguished for
the nucleus, whether small each chromosome.
during mitosis. The

spindle grows
between the
centrosomes as they
move apart.
- The nucleolus (or
nucleoli, plural), a
part of the nucleus
where ribosomes
are made,
disappears. This is a
sign that the nucleus
is getting ready to
● Early Prophase
break down.
- In early prophase,
the cell starts to
break down some
structures and build
others up, setting
the stage for
division of the
chromosomes.
- The chromosomes
start to condense - The chromatids are
(making them easier themselves
to pull apart later independently
on). coiled and are
- The mitotic spindle identical to each
begins to form. The other.
spindle is a - The coils appear to
structure made of tighten and
microtubules, strong condensed until the
fibers that are part chromosomes have
of the cell’s become relatively
“skeleton.” Its job is short thick, and
to organize the rodlike, with areas
chromosomes and called centromeres
move them around holding each pair of
chromatids - The nuclear

together. envelope breaks
- The centromere is down, releasing the
located at a chromosomes.
constriction on the - The mitotic spindle
chromosome. grows more, and
- A kinetochore, some of the
which is a dense microtubules start
region composed of to “capture”
a protein complex, is chromosomes.
located on the outer
surface of each
centromere; spindle
fibers become
attached to the
kinetochore.
● Metaphase
- In metaphase, the
spindle has captured
● Late Prophase all the chromosomes
- In late prophase and lined them up at
(sometimes also the middle of the
called cell, ready to divide.
prometaphase), the - All the
mitotic spindle chromosomes align
begins to capture at the metaphase
and organize the plate (not a physical
chromosomes. structure, just a
- The chromosomes term for the plane
become even more where the
condensed, so they chromosomes line
are very compact. up).
- At this stage, the

two kinetochores of
each chromosome
should be attached
to microtubules
from opposite
spindle poles.
- Before proceeding
to anaphase, the cell
will check to make
sure that all the ● Anaphase
chromosomes are at - In anaphase, the
the metaphase plate sister chromatids
with their separate from each
kinetochores other and are pulled
correctly attached towards opposite
to microtubules. ends of the cell.
- This is called the - The protein “glue”
spindle checkpoint that holds the sister
and helps ensure chromatids together
that the sister is broken down,
chromatids will split allowing them to
evenly between the separate. Each is
two daughter cells now its own
when they separate chromosome. The
in the next step. If a chromosomes of
chromosome is not each pair are pulled
properly aligned or towards opposite
attached, the cell ends of the cell.
will halt division - Microtubules not
until the problem is attached to
fixed. chromosomes
elongate and push
apart, separating the
poles and making
the cell longer.
- All of these
processes are driven
by motor proteins, - The chromosomes

molecular machines begin to decondense
that can “walk” and return to their
along microtubule “stringy” form.
tracks and carry a - Cytokinesis
cargo. In mitosis, ● The division of the
motor proteins cytoplasm to form two new
carry chromosomes cells overlaps with the final
or other stages of mitosis. It may
microtubules as start in either anaphase or
they walk. telophase, depending on
the cell, and finishes shortly
after telophase.
● In animal cells, cytokinesis
is contractile, pinching the
cell in two like a coin purse
with a drawstring. The
“drawstring” is a band of
filaments made of a protein
● Telophase called actin, and the pinch
- In telophase, the cell crease is known as the
is nearly done cleavage furrow.
dividing, and it ● Plant cells can’t be divided
starts to like this because they have
re-establish its a cell wall and are too stiff.
normal structures as Instead, a structure called
cytokinesis (division the cell plate forms down
of the cell contents) the middle of the cell,
takes place. splitting it into two
- The mitotic spindle daughter cells separated by
is broken down into a new wall.
its building blocks.
- Two new nuclei
form, one for each
set of chromosomes.
Nuclear membranes
and nucleoli
reappear.
MODULE 3
Tissues
- Meristematic Tissues
● Plants have permanent
regions of growth called
meristems, or meristematic
tissues, where cells actively
- Early G1 divide.
● When cytokinesis finishes, ● Small, six-sided, boxlike
we end up with two new structures, each with a
cells, each with a complete proportionately large
set of chromosomes nucleus, usually near the
identical to those of the center, and with tiny
mother cell. The daughter vacuoles or no vacuoles at
cells can now begin their all. As the cells mature,
own cellular “lives,” and – however, they assume
depending on what they many different shapes and
decide to be when they sizes, each related to the
grow up – may undergo cell’s ultimate function; the
mitosis themselves, vacuoles increase in size,
repeating the cycle. often occupying more than
90% of the volume of the
cell.
- Apical Meristems
● Apical meristems are
meristematic tissues found
at, or near, the tips of roots
and shoots, which increase
in length as the apical
meristems produce new
cells. This type of growth is
known as primary growth.
Three primary meristems,
as well as embryo leaves
and buds, develop from
apical meristems. These
primary meristems are
called protoderm, ground - Cork Cambium

meristem, and ● The cork cambium, like the
procambium. The tissues vascular cambium, is in the
they produce are called form of a thin cylinder that
primary tissues. runs the length of roots and
- Lateral meristems stems of woody plants. It
● Produce tissues that lies outside of the vascular
increase the girth of roots cambium, just inside the
and stems. Such growth is outer bark, which it
termed secondary growth. produces.
- Vascular Cambium - Intercalary Meristems
● Referred to simply as the ● Grasses and related plants
cambium, produces have neither a vascular
secondary tissues that cambium nor a cork
function primarily in cambium. They do,
support and conduction. however, have apical
● The cambium, which meristems, and, in the
extends throughout the vicinity of nodes (leaf
length of roots and stems in attachment areas),
perennial and many annual ● They have other
plants, is in the form of a meristematic tissues called
thin cylinder of mostly intercalary meristems. The
brick shaped cells. intercalary meristems
● The cambial cylinder often develop at intervals along
branches, except at the stems, where, like the
tips, and the tissues it tissues produced by apical
produces are responsible meristems, their tissues
for most of the increase in a add to stem length.
plant’s girth as it grows. Simple Tissues
The individual remaining - Parenchyma
cells of the cambium are ● Parenchyma tissue is
referred to as initials, while composed of parenchyma
their sister cells are called cells, which are the most
derivatives. abundant of the cell types
and are found in almost all
major parts of higher
plants. They are more or
less spherical in shape - Collenchyma

when they are first ● Collenchyma cells like
produced, but when all the parenchyma cells, have liv-
parenchyma cells push up ing cytoplasm and may
against one another, their remain alive a long time.
thin, pliable walls are Their walls generally are
flattened at the points of thicker and more uneven in
contact. thickness than those of
● The type of parenchyma parenchyma cells.
tissue—with extensive ● Collenchyma cells often
connected air spaces—is occur just beneath the
referred to as aerenchyma. epidermis; typically, they
● Parenchyma cells are longer than they are
containing numerous wide, and their walls are
chloroplasts (as found in pliable as well as strong.
leaves) are collectively They provide flexible
referred to as support for both growing
chlorenchyma tissue. organs and mature organs,
Chlorenchyma tissues such as leaves and floral
function mainly in parts.
photosynthesis, while
parenchyma tissues
without chloroplasts
function mostly in food or
water storage.
- Sclerenchyma
● Sclerenchyma tissue
consists of cells that have
thick, tough, secondary
walls, normally
impregnated with lignin.
Most sclerenchyma cells
are dead at maturity and
function in support. Two stems, leaves, and fruits.

forms of sclerenchyma They are usually much
occur: sclereids and fibers. longer than they are wide
● Sclereids may be randomly and have a proportionately
distributed in other tissues. tiny cavity, or lumen, in the
For example, the slightly center of the cell.
gritty texture of pears is
due to the presence of
groups of sclereids, or
stone cells.
Complex Tissues
- Epidermis
● Which forms a protective
layer covering all plant
organs, consists primarily
of parenchyma or
parenchyma-like cells, but
it also often includes
specialized cells involved in
the movement of water and
gases in and out of plants,
secretory glands, various
● Fibers may be found in hairs, cells in which
association with a number
of different tissues in roots,
crystals are isolated, and 2. Tracheids

others that greatly increase - Dead at
absorptive parts of roots. maturity and
- Periderm have
● Which comprises the outer relatively
bark of woody plants, thick
consists mostly of cork secondary
cells. cell walls, are
- Xylem tapered at
● Important component of each end, the
the “plumbing” and storage ends
systems of a plant and is overlapping
the chief conducting tissue with those of
throughout all organs for other
water and minerals tracheids.
absorbed by the roots.
● Xylem consists of a
combination of
parenchyma cells, fibers,
vessels, tracheids, and ray
cells.
1. Vessels
- Long tubes - Bordered pits
composed of consist of a
individual pit
cells called membrane
vessel and a
elements. thickened
region called
the torus.
- Phloem
● conducts dissolved food
materials (primarily sugars)
produced by
photosynthesis throughout
the plant, and is composed
mostly of two types of cells
without secondary walls.
The relatively large, more
or less cylindrical sieve
tube members have
narrower, more tapered
companion cells closely
associated with them.
● Sieve tube members, like
vessel elements, are laid
end to end, forming sieve
tubes. Porous regions of
sieve tube members are
3. Rays called sieve plates.
- Ray cells, ● Sieve tube members have
which also no nuclei at maturity, even
function in though their cytoplasm is
food storage, very active in the
are actually conduction of food
long-lived materials in solution
parenchyma throughout the plant.
cells that are ● Living sieve tube members
produced in contain a polymer called
horizontal callose that stays in
rows by solution as long as the cell
special ray contents are under
initials of the pressure.
vascular - Epidermis
cambium. ● The outermost layer of
cells of all young plant
organs.
● The epidermis is usually functioning, it secretes a

one cell thick, but a few fatty substance, suberin,
plants produce aerial roots into the walls.
called velamen roots (e.g., ● The pockets of tissue
orchids) in which the protrude through the sur-
epidermis may be several ● face of the periderm; they
cells thick, with the outer are called lenticels and
cells functioning something function in gas exchange
like a sponge. between the air and the
● Most epidermal cells interior of the stem.
secrete a fatty substance Secretory Cells and Tissues
called cutin within and on - All cells secrete certain
the surface of the outer substances that can damage the
walls. Cutin forms a cytoplasm, if allowed to
protective layer called the accumulate internally. Such
cuticle. materials must be either isolated
● Leaves also have numerous from the cytoplasm of the cells
small pores, the stomata, in which they originate or moved
bordered by pairs of outside of the plant body.
specialized epidermal cells - Secretory cells may function
called guard cells. individually or as part of a
- Periderm secretory tissue.
● In woody plants, the - Among the most common
epidermis is sloughed off secretory tissues are those that
and replaced by a periderm secrete nectar in flowers; oils in
after the cork cambium citrus, mint, and many other
begins producing new leaves; mucilage in the glandular
tissues that increase the hairs of sundews and other
girth of the stem or root. insect-trapping plants; latex in
● The periderm constitutes members of several plant families,
the outer bark and is such as the Spurge Family; and
primarily composed of resins in coniferous plants, such as
somewhat rectangular and pine trees.
boxlike cork cells, which - Latex and resins are usually
are dead at maturity secreted by cells lining tubelike
● While the cytoplasm of ducts that form networks
cork cells is still throughout certain plant species.
Some plant secretions, such as

pine resin, rubber, mint oil, and
opium, have considerable
commercial value.

Botany - Prelims Notes

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PHARMA.

BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100

environment, many types climates by examining the

one another and with their potential for continued

Cells throughout the plant by

● Molecular pumps bind to a

Diffusion hypertonic solution (hyper

- Water and many other substances

been classified under the organelles. They are

membrane, it is regarded as the DNA. By structure, the

- Chromosomes production of lipids,

● Ribosomal RNA and helps in the transformation

creates a contiguous ● The main structural

- Microtubules diameter of 6 nanometers.

activity take place and other

organizing center that plays a or large, makes no

during mitosis. The

chromatids - The nuclear

- At this stage, the

by motor proteins, - The chromosomes

called protoderm, ground - Cork Cambium

less spherical in shape - Collenchyma

function in support. Two stems, leaves, and fruits.

crystals are isolated, and 2. Tracheids

● The epidermis is usually functioning, it secretes a

Some plant secretions, such as

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