Botany - Prelims Notes
Botany - Prelims Notes
Botany - Prelims Notes
1. Recognize a problem - or
MODULE 1 an unanswered question
2. Develop a hypothesis - to
Botany
explain the problem
- The scientific study of plants (also
3. Design and perform an
called as plant biology)
experiment - to test the
- At first, interest in plants was
hypothesis
practical. Centered around in the
4. Analyze and interpret the
production of food, fibers, fuel,
data - to reach a conclusion
and medicine.
5. Share new knowledge -
- Eventually, an intellectual interest
with the scientific
arose. Led to plant study
community
becoming a science.
- Science involved the observation, Origin and Evolution
recording, organization, and - Organisms were originally simple
classification of information. and increased in complexity
through evolution by natural
Scientific Method
selection.
- Describes the procedures of
- Natural Selection - organisms
developing and testing
reproduce and have non-identical
hypotheses.
offspring whose features pass to
- Hypothesis - tentative, unproven
more offspring; offspring with
explanation of an observation.
features that are well-adapted to
- Experiment - test to determine if a
the environment reproduce more.
hypothesis is correct
- Must be repeatable Plants
- Variables - aspects of the - Origin of Plants
experiment that can be changed ● Life on Earth began about
or held constant; Good 3.5 billion years ago with
experiments consist of two parts prokaryotes (bacteria and
(variable changed and variable archaeans)
held constant = control) ● Photosynthesis arose 2.8
- Data - results from the billion years ago in a
experiment cyanobacterium
- Principle - useful generalization - Diversity of Plants
derived from experimental data ● Over 297,000 plant species
- Theory - grouping of related exist today; wide diversity
principles of adaptation is important.
- Steps in doing scientific method For any aspect of the
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
- Transport of materials
● Vesicles - membrane
bubbles that can carry
materials with the
cytoplasm
● Exocytosis and endocytosis
- Permeability
● All biological membranes
are selectively permeable
● Allows for
compartmentalization
● Dynamic - constantly
changing in response to age
and environment
- Membrane Permeability
● Membranes are more
permeable to hydrophobic
substances than anything
carrying an electric charge.
● Movement of charged
substances is assisted by
large intrinsic proteins that
span the membrane
(Facilitated diffusion)
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
- Prokaryotes
● Prokaryotes are
single-celled organisms to
the domains Bacteria and
Archaea.
● It is much smaller than
eukaryotic cells, have no
nucleus, and lack
organelles
● All prokaryotic cells are
encased by a cell wall.
Many also have a capsule
or slime layer made of
polysaccharide.
● Bacteria, archaea, and
cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae)
- Eukaryotes
● Eukaryotic cells have a
nucleus enclosed within
the nuclear membrane and
form large and complex
organisms. Protozoa, fungi,
plants, and animals all have
eukaryotic cells. They have
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
- Carbohydrates
● Carbohydrates (or sugars)
were originally believed to
be “hydrates of carbon”,
because they have the Association of Cells
general formula Cx(H2O)y.
- Cells of multicellular organisms
● “Optically active
interact and must communicate.
polyhydroxy aldehydes or
● Interacting cells sense that
ketones or the compounds
they are part of a larger
which produce units of
organism and identify how
such type on hydrolysis.”
they should differentiate.
● This requires extensive
intercellular
communication.
- Cells can secrete messenger
compounds
- Plant cells cannot communicate
via direct physical contact.
● In plants, the cell wall and
middle lamella are a
barrier.
● Plasmodesmata allow
direct communication
- Plasmodesmata are small
channels that connect adjacent
cells
● The plasma membrane
passes through them and
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
- Vacuole
● The vacuole evidently
received its name because
of a belief that it was just
an empty space; hence, its
name has the same latin
root as the word vacuum
(from vacuus–meaning
“empty”)
● Vacuoles, however, are
filled with a watery fluid
called cell sap, which is
slightly to moderately
- Plastids
acidic. Cell sap, which helps
● The plastid is a
to maintain pressures
membrane-bound
within the cell.
organelle found in the cells
of plants, algae, and some
other eukaryotic
organisms.
● They are considered to be
intracellular endosymbiotic
cyanobacteria.
● Examples include
chloroplasts (used for
photosynthesis),
chromoplasts (used for
pigments synthesis and - Cytoskeleton
storage), leucoplasts ● The cytoskeleton is
(non-pigmented plastids involved in movement
that can sometimes within a cell and in a cell’s
differentiate). architecture. It is an
- Chloroplast intricate network
● The liquid portion of the constructed mainly of two
chloroplast is a colorless kinds of
fluid matrix called stroma, fibers—microtubules and
which contains enzymes microfilaments.
involved in photosynthesis.
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
● Metaphase
- In metaphase, the
spindle has captured
● Late Prophase all the chromosomes
- In late prophase and lined them up at
(sometimes also the middle of the
called cell, ready to divide.
prometaphase), the - All the
mitotic spindle chromosomes align
begins to capture at the metaphase
and organize the plate (not a physical
chromosomes. structure, just a
- The chromosomes term for the plane
become even more where the
condensed, so they chromosomes line
are very compact. up).
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
MODULE 3
Tissues
- Meristematic Tissues
● Plants have permanent
regions of growth called
meristems, or meristematic
tissues, where cells actively
- Early G1 divide.
● When cytokinesis finishes, ● Small, six-sided, boxlike
we end up with two new structures, each with a
cells, each with a complete proportionately large
set of chromosomes nucleus, usually near the
identical to those of the center, and with tiny
mother cell. The daughter vacuoles or no vacuoles at
cells can now begin their all. As the cells mature,
own cellular “lives,” and – however, they assume
depending on what they many different shapes and
decide to be when they sizes, each related to the
grow up – may undergo cell’s ultimate function; the
mitosis themselves, vacuoles increase in size,
repeating the cycle. often occupying more than
90% of the volume of the
cell.
- Apical Meristems
● Apical meristems are
meristematic tissues found
at, or near, the tips of roots
and shoots, which increase
in length as the apical
meristems produce new
cells. This type of growth is
known as primary growth.
Three primary meristems,
as well as embryo leaves
and buds, develop from
apical meristems. These
primary meristems are
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- Sclerenchyma
● Sclerenchyma tissue
consists of cells that have
thick, tough, secondary
walls, normally
impregnated with lignin.
Most sclerenchyma cells
are dead at maturity and
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
Complex Tissues
- Epidermis
● Which forms a protective
layer covering all plant
organs, consists primarily
of parenchyma or
parenchyma-like cells, but
it also often includes
specialized cells involved in
the movement of water and
gases in and out of plants,
secretory glands, various
● Fibers may be found in hairs, cells in which
association with a number
of different tissues in roots,
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo
- Phloem
● conducts dissolved food
materials (primarily sugars)
produced by
photosynthesis throughout
the plant, and is composed
mostly of two types of cells
without secondary walls.
The relatively large, more
or less cylindrical sieve
tube members have
narrower, more tapered
companion cells closely
associated with them.
● Sieve tube members, like
vessel elements, are laid
end to end, forming sieve
tubes. Porous regions of
sieve tube members are
3. Rays called sieve plates.
- Ray cells, ● Sieve tube members have
which also no nuclei at maturity, even
function in though their cytoplasm is
food storage, very active in the
are actually conduction of food
long-lived materials in solution
parenchyma throughout the plant.
cells that are ● Living sieve tube members
produced in contain a polymer called
horizontal callose that stays in
rows by solution as long as the cell
special ray contents are under
initials of the pressure.
vascular - Epidermis
cambium. ● The outermost layer of
cells of all young plant
organs.
PHARMA. BOTANY WITH TAXONOMY PBS100
1st Sem | Mr. Ervin Michael Abasolo