Botany Full Theory
Botany Full Theory
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Lecture -1
Systemic Botany – Principles Involved in Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Botany - “The branch of science that deals about plants”
Botany of Horticulture - “ The branch of science that deals about horticultural crops”
Plant Taxonomy
“It is a science of classification of organisms (plant) according to their resemblance and
differences”
In Greek :
‘ taxis ’ – arrangement
‘ normous ’ – rules
Objectives of taxonomy
To prepare a scheme of classification that provides artificial, natural and
phylogenetic relationship among plants
To establish suitable method for identification, nomenclature and description of
plant taxa
To provide inventory of plant taxa that suits local, regional and continental needs
To create an understanding of the evolutionary process
Basics of Taxonomy
1. Identification
2. Description
3. Nomenclature
4. Classification
1. Identification
It is determination of a taxon based on overall similarities and differences with
other taxa. Proper and correct determination of taxon is a prerequisite for any study
based on it. Identification is generally done by comparing a representative specimen of a
given taxon with that of another which has authoritatively predetermined (a direct
method) Or with the help of key descriptions, illustrations etc (indirect method). In this
process no names are involved
2. Description
It is the orderly recording of maximum possible characters of taxon, individual
plant, plant part or object
3. Nomenclature
It is a naming of a taxon correctly.Once a taxon is determined on the basis of a set of
dependable characters, it become necessary to give it a scientific name.The name given
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in accordance with the rules of botanical nomenclature.It becomes effective tool for
communication of ideas in respect of the plant group in question
“Assessment of definite names to plants is called plant nomenclature”
A nomenclaturist is a taxonomist who assigns names to new taxa, determines the
right names for old taxa according to International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
and finalizes the right name for a specimen according to an established system.
b. Scientific Names
To overcome the difficulties raised by common names, taxonomist have given
scientific names to all the known plants.These are methodical and provide scientific
means for international communication.It is agreed by botanists of the world that
scientific names should be in latin language for international uniformity
c. Binomial Nomenclature
In the earlier days plants names were very long and descriptive, it creates
difficulties in communicating names.The Carlous Linnaeus great Swedish botanists who
devising and methodologically employing the binomial nomenclature.Linnaeus
employed this system in the first edition of his Species Plantarum in 1753.
According to this system the scientific name of a plant consist of two Latin or
Latinized words.The first is the name of the Genus i.e. generic name or generic
epithet.The second word designates the species name. The first name of the binomial is
the genus name and is always capitalized. The second name of the binomial is the
specific epithet. Binomial species names are always either italicized or underlined.
4. Classification
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It is highly impossible to study all plants individually.It is therefore necessary to
place them into small or large groups on the basis of their similarities or differences.
These groups then arranged according to their levels into categories in a sequential
manner. Each category has name which is in accordance with the rules of nomenclature.
Thus similar individuals may be grouped under a species similar species under a genus,
similar genera under a family and so on.
i. Artificial classification
ii. Natural classification
iii. Phylogenetic classification
a. Artificial classification
When plants are classified for the sake of convenience, using some arbitrary or
easily observable characters, often irrespective of their affinity, the classification is called
artificial classification
b. Natural classification
Based on the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin (1859).Present day plants
have descented from those existing in the ancient past through a series of evolutionary
process response to changing environment. This means that all plants existing today are
related each other in one or another. The closely related ones should naturally be
grouped together. This is called natural classification
c. Phylogenetic classification
Habitate
Natural home of a plant – factors, soil climate, characteristic flora – eg. Aquatic
plants, tropical plants and temperate plants, etc.,
Habit
‘The nature of the stem, height of the plants attain, and duration of their
lifedetermine the habit ‘
Annual
Those plants which completes its life cycle in one year or one season. Within this
period they grow, reproduce and die eg. Tomato, Bhendi
Biennial
These plants will live for two years. Attain their full vegetative growth in the first
year/season and produce flowers and fruits in the second year. Eg. Carrot, Radish
Perennial
These plants will live for a number of years and develop flowers and fruits every
year. Eg. Mango, Sapota
ii. Epiphytes
Thes are plants that grow upon other plants, but do not absorb food from them. Eg.
Vanda
iii. Saprophytes
These are plants that grow in places rich in decaying organic substances of plants
and animals and drive their nutrient from them. Eg. Monotropha
iv. Symbionts
when two organisms live together and are mutual help to each other called
symbions. Eg. Lichans
v.Carnivorous
Group of plants that capture insects and small animals and feed upon them. Eg. Pitcher
plant, butterwort
I. Root
II. Stem
III. Leaf
I. Root
i. Tap root system
Ii Adventitious root system
iii. Modified root system
1. Root
i. Tap root system
During germination of the dicot seed, the radicle grows and develops into primary
root.The primary root and its branches form the tap root system.Tap root normally grows
vertically downwards to a shorter or longer length.The branched roots grow obliquely or
horizontally downwards. The tap root system is normally meant to absorb water and
mineral salts from the soil. To give proper anchorage to the plant. Eg. Dicot plants
3.Conical root
The root is broad at the base and gradually tapers towards the apex like a cone, it is
said to be conical. eg. Carrot
4.Tuberous root
The root is thick and fleshy but does not have a definite shape, it is said to be
tuberous or tubercular. Eg. Mirabilis (4 o’ clock plant)
2. Mechanical Support
Prop or Stilt Roots
In plants like Banyan, India rubber plant etc., a number of roots are produced from
the main stem and often from the branches.These roots grow vertically or obliquely down
wards and penetrate into the soil.Gradually they get stouter and act as pillars supporting the
main stem and the branches or the plant as a whole.
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Climbing Root
Plants produce climbing roots from their nodes and often from the internodes to
ensure a foothold on neighboring objects. Eg. Pieper betle, Piper longum, p. nigrum
Buttress Root
Some of the stout roots around the base of the main trunk, show abnormal prolific
growth. They first grow obliquely downwards and then spread horizontally outwards at the
ground level. They are meant to give support to the huge trunk and maintain it in an upright
position
eg.Ceipa sp. – Kapok, Bombax sp. – Silk cotton
3. Vital Functions
Sucking or Haustoria
Parasites develop roots which penetrates into the tissue of the host plant and suck it.
Parasites , particularly non green ones, have to live by sucking the host plant , i.e. by
absorbing the food from it with the help of sucking roots.Eg. Cuscuta , Loranthus etc.,
Respiratory roots
In Jussiaea, an aquatic plants, the floating branches develop adventitious roots which
are soft, light, spongy and colorless. They useally develop above the level of water and serve
to store up water. Thus facilitate respiration.
Epiphytic Roots
Certain plants, commonly orchids, which grow on branches of trees.They develop a
special kind of aerial roots which hang freely on the air. Each hanging roots is surrounded by
a spongy tissue called Velamen. With the help of this velamen, the hanging roots absorb
moisture from the surrounding air
Assimilatory Roots
Branches of Tinospora climber produce long slender hanging roots. It develop
chlorophyll and turn green in colour. These green roots are assimilatory roots
II. Stem
“The stem is the ascending portion of plant, developing directly from the plumul
a. Trees
They are large plants a single stout trunk and hard & woody branches profusely
formed eg. Mango, Jack
b. Shrubs
These are medium sized sized plants with hardy and woody stems, which branch
profusely from near the ground having the bushy appearance.
c. Herbs
These are all small plants with soft stems
d. Climber
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“These have thin and long stems with diffuse branches. They climb by means of
some special organs of attachment or by their twining stem”
1. Rootlet climbers : Plants clime by means of small adventitious roots, which often form
small adhesive discs or claws or secrete sticky juice to act as holdfasts. Eg.Piper longum,
Hedera helix, Ficus pumila.
2. Hook climbers : The flower stalk produces curved hook, which facilitates to some extent
the climbing of the branches (Artabotrys). Often prickles and thorns are curved and hooked
in certain plants.
Eg. Climbing rose – curved prickles, Bougainvillea – Curved hooks
3. Tendril climbers : Plants which produce slender, leafless, spirally coiled structure known
as tendrils and climb object with the held of these organs. Tendrils twin themselfes round
the support. It may be modifications of stem. Eg. Cardiospermum, Lathyrus.
4. Leaf climbers: The petiole / leaf apex is slender and coil round any neighboring objects
that helps the plant to climb. Eg. Leaf stalk – Clematis, Leaf apex - Gloriosa
5. Stem climbers or twiners: These are plants with long and slender stems and branches.
They climb by twining bodily round trees, shrubs and hedges. Eg. Ipomea, Clitoria, Quis-
qualis
6. Lianes : These are very thick and woody perennial climbers. Twin themselves round tall
tree in search of sunlight and ultimately reaches their top.eg. Wood rose
e. Modifications of stems
1. Underground modifications
Rhizome : Rhizome is a prostrate thickened stem, creeping horizontally under the
surface of the soil. It is provided with distinct nodes and internodes.eg. Ginger,
Turmeric
Tuber : This is the swollen end of a special underground branch. The underground
branch arises from the axil of a lower leaf. Eg. Potato
Bulb : This is an underground modified shoot, consisting of terminal bud and
numerous scaly leaves. Eg. Onion
Corm : It is a condensed form of rhizome consisting of a stout ,solid, fleshy
underground stem. Eg. Gladiolus, Amorphophallus.
I.Lateral branching
1. Racemose type / indefinite
2.Cymose type / definite
CLASSIFICATION – EMBRYOLOGY
I. The inflorescence
1. Racemose inflorescence (or) Indefinite
‘ Main axis of inflorescence does not terminate in a flower, but continues to grow
and give off flowers laterally in acropetal succession ’
3. Special types
Which are all not coming under the above two categories.
i.Racemose inflorescence
a. Raceme
The main axis in this is elongated and it bears laterally a number of flowers which are
all stalked, the lower or older flowers having longer stalks than the upper or younger one
eg. Cassia sp., Caesalpinia sp. Etc.,
The main axis is branched and lateral branches bear the flowers, the inflorescence is
said to be the compound raceme or panicle. Eg. Delonix sp.,
b. Spike
The main axis in this is elongated and it bears laterally a number of flowers which are
all not stalked or sessile. Eg.,Polianthes sp., Aranthus sp.
c. Spikelets
These are very small spikes with one or a few flowers (florets). Spikelets are arranged
in a spike, raceme or panicle and may be stalked or sessile on the main inflorescence.
Eg. Rice, grass sp., bamboo etc.
d. Catkin
This is spike with a long and pendulous axis which bears flowers only. Eg. Pepper,
Mulbery
e. Spadix
This is also a spike with a fleshy axis, which is enclosed by one or more large, or often
brightly coloured bracts called spaths. It is found monocotyledons only. Eg. Banana, Palms,
Colocasia
f. Corymb
The main axis is comparatively short, and the lower flowers have much longer stalks
or pedicles than the upper ones, so that all the flowers are brought more or less to the same
level. Eg. Candytuft
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g. Umbel
The primary axis is shortened and it bears at its tip a group of flowers, which have
pedicles of more or less equal lengths, so that the flowers are seen to spread out from a
common point . Eg Umbelliferae.
h. Head or Capitulum
The main axis is suppressed, becoming almost flat, and the flowers are also without
any stalk so that they become crowded together on the flat surface of the receptacle.
Although the whole inflorescence looks like a single flower.
* Ray floret – Periphery
* Disc floret - Central
Eg. Marigold, Sunflower etc.
2. Cymose inflorescence
The growth of main axis is soon arrested by the development of flower at its apex
and develops lateral axis below the terminal flower also ends in a flower
3. Special types
a. Cyathium
There is a cup shaped invalucre, encloses a single female flower (reduced as pistil) in
the centre, number of male flowers (reduced as stamen) around female flower. Eg. Special
type of inflorescence in Euphorbia sp.
b. Hypanthodium
The fleshy receptacle forms a hallow pear shaped cavity. The flowers are borne on
the inner wall of the cavity. The female flowers develop at the base of the cavity and male
flower develop towards the mouth. Eg. Fig, Ficus sp.
Flower
Flower is a specialized shoot of limited growth, bearing reproductive organs
Flower serves as a means of sexual organs
A complete flower consists of four whorls
*Two lower accessories – Calyx and corolla
* Two upper accessories – Androecium & Gynoecium or Pistil
FLOWER
Individual units of calyx are sepals
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Individual units of corolla are petals
Perianth – Undifferentiated calyx & corolla
Individual units of perianth tepals
Androecium – Stamens or Microsporophylls – filament - anther
Gynoecium – Carpels or Megasporophylls – ovary – style - stigma
Bisexual or Hermaphrodite-Flowers having Androecium and Gynoecium
Unisexual – Staminate (male) & Pistilate (female)
Monoecious – Plant bearing both male and female flower
Dioecious – A plant bearing either male or female
Polygamous – A plant bearing bisexual and unisexual flowers
Achlamydeous – flower without calyx and corolla
Monochlamydeous – Flower with any one whorl
Thalamus or receptacle
It is supressed swollen end of the flower axis on which the floral leaves are inserted
viz., sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
Anthophore – The elongated internode between calyx and corolla
Androphore – The elongated internode between corolla and androecium
Gynophore – The axis between androecium and gynoecium is elongated
Androgynophore – Both androphore and gynophore develop, they are together
Ii. Perigyny : The margin of the thalamus grow upward and form a cup shaped structure,
which enclosing the ovary but remain free from it and carrying with it the sepals, petals
and stamens. The ovary is said to be half inferior. Eg., rose, plum, peach etc.,
Iii. Epigyny : The margin of the thalamus grows further upward and completely
enclosing the ovary and getting fused with it and bears sepals, petals and stamens above
the ovary. The ovary is said to be inferior. Eg. Banana, Guava, cucumber, apple, pear etc.
2. Spathe : Large and boat shaped in nature, enclosing a cluster of flowers or even an
inflorescence (spadix).eg Banana, palm, maize etc.,
3. Petaloid :Brightly coloured looking some what like petals. Eg., Bougainvillea and
pointsettia
4. Involucre : One or more whorls of bracts , normally green in colour, present around a
cluster of flowers.eg. Characteristic of Compositeae – marigold, sunflower etc.,
5. Epicalyx : one or more whorls of bracteoles developing at the base of the calyx.
Characteristic of Malvaceae eg.,Cotton, Bhendy / Rosaceae – Strawberry.
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6. Scaly Bracteole: Base of the individual florets of the head or capitulam of compositae,
is thin, membranous in nature.
7. Glumes : It is a special bracts small, dry and thin found in the spikelet of Gramineae
family.
CALYX
i. Position
Polysepalous : Sepals free
Gamosepalous : Sepals united
Pappus : Modified into pappus
ii. Duration
Caducous : Calyx falls off soon after bud opens
Decideous : It falls off when the flowers withers
Presistant : Remain adherent to the fruit
COROLLA
Forms of corollas
i. Regular (radially symetrical) and polypetalous
ii. Regular and gamopetalous
iii. Zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical) and polypetalous
iv. Zygomorphic and gamopetalous
AESTIVATION
‘ Mode of arrangement of the sepals and petals ‘
i. Valvate : Members of the whorl make contact with each other by their margins or
when they lie close to each other without overlapping.
ii. Twisted or contorted : One margin of the sepal or petal overlaps that of the next one.
iii. Imbricate : One of the sepals or petals is internal, overlapping on both margins , one
of them is external and each of the remaining ones over lapes one margin and overlapes
the next one on the other margin. Eg. Cassia, Delonix etc.,
iv. Vexillary : There are five petals, of which one largest posterior petals and covers two
lateral petals. The lateral petals over lapes the two small anterior petals. Eg.
Paplionaceae
ANDROECIUM
I. Attachment of filament to the anther
1. Basifixed or innate : Filament is attached to the base of the anther. Eg. Radish, water
lily etc.,
2. Adnate : The Filament runs up the whole length of the anther from base to the
apex.Eg., Michelia, Magnolia etc.,
3. Dorsifixed : Filament attached to the back of the anther. Eg. Passion flower.
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4. Versatile : Filament attached to the back of anther at one point only, so that the
anther swing freely in the air. Eg., Grasses, Palms etc.,
2. Diadelphous : All filaments are united into two bundles but the anthers remain free.
Eg. Paplionaceae family.
3. Polyadelphous : Filaments are united into number of bundles but anthers are free.
Eg. Bombax, Lemon
4. Syngenesious : The anthers are united into a bundle or tube, the filaments remaining
free, the stamens said to be syngenesious. Eg.,Compositae family.
5. Synandrous : The stamens are united throughout their whole length by both the
filaments and the anthers. Eg., Cucurbitaceae & Araceae family
2. Tetradynamous : In Cruciferae there are six stamens of which the inner four are long and
the outer two are short.
V. Dehiscence of anther
1. Longitudinal : eg. Cotton, Datura
2. Transverse : eg.,Basil
3. Porous : eg.,Potato, brinjal
3. Valvular : eg. Cinnamon
GYNOECIUM OR PISTIL
Simple pistil
Compound pistil
1. Syncarpous pistil : Carpels united together.
2. Apocarpous pistil : Carpels free eg. Lotus
Placentation
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‘ Placenta - Parenchymatous out growth in the inner wall of the ovary to which the
ovule or ovules remain attached’
1. Marginal :The ovary is one chambered, and the placenta develops along the two margins
of the ovary.
2. Axile : The ovary two or many chambered. The placenta bearing ovules develop from the
central axis.
4. Central : The ovary become one chambered and the placenta bearing the ovules develop
from the central axis.
5. Free central : In free central placentation, the placenta arises from the base of the overy
and bears the ovules all over its surface. eg. Primulas
6. Basal : The ovary is unilocular and the placenta develops directly on thalamus, bearing
single ovule at the base of the ovary. Compositae
7.Superficial : The ovary is multilocular, the carpels being numerpus, as in axile placentation.
Placenta developes all round the inner surface of the partition walls. Eg Water lily.
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CLASSIFICATION – POLLINATION
Pollination
The transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma
Types of pollination
I. Self Pollination – Autogamy
II. Cross pollination - Allogamy
2. Homogamy
Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at the same time is called homogamy.
3. Cleistogamy:
When pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud, it is known as
cleistogamy. It ensures self pollination and prevents cross pollination.
Ex. Oats & grass species.
4. Chasmogamy :
Opening of flowers only after the completion of pollination is known as chasmogamy
and this promotes self pollination . Ex. wheat, barley, rice .
5. Position of Anthers :
In some species, stigmas are surrounded by anthers in such a way that self
pollination is ensured. Such situation is found in tomato and brinjal.
In some legumes, the stamens and stigma are enclosed by the petals in such a way
that self pollination is ensured.
Ex. greengram, blackgram, soybean, chickpea and pea
2. Dichogamy
It refers to maturation of anthers and stigma of the same flowers at different
times. Dichogamy promotes cross pollination even in the hermaphrodite species.
i) Protogyny - When pistil matures before anthers, it is called protogyny . Ex. Sapota
ii) Protandry. - When anthers mature before pistil, it is known as protandry. Ex. Carrot
3.Heterostyly
When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it is called
heterostyly.
4.Herkogamy
Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as presence of
hyline membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy. Such membrane does not
allow the dehiscence of pollen and prevents self-pollination such as in alfalfa
5. Self incompatibility
The inability of fertile pollens to fertilize the same flower is referred as self
incompatibility
It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination.
Self incompatibility is found in Brassica, Radish.
6. Male sterility
In some species, the pollen grains are non functional. Such condition is known as
male sterility.
It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. It is of three types:
viz. genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic.
It is a useful tool in hybrid seed production
IV. Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism.
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The fruit
‘Fertilization stimulates the growth of the ovary.As it grows and matures, it becomes
converted in to the fruit ’
Fruit
- Pericarp
- Seed
Pericarp
- Epicarp
- Mesocarp
- Endocarp
True Fruit – Ovary of the fruit grows into fruit
False Fruit - Other parts of the flower such as thalamus, receptacle, calyx etc.
1.Simple Fruit
i. Dehiscent fruit - At maturity dry and splits open
a. Legume or pod - Dry monocarpellary fruit developing from the superior ovary. One
chambered ovary and dehiscing by both the sutures. Eg. Legume
b. Follicle
It dehisces by one suture only. Eg. Calatropis
c . Siliqua
This is a long narrow many seeded fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary
ovary. It dehisces from below, upwards along two ventral sutures. Eg.Cruciferae members.
d. Capsule
This is a many seeded, uni or multilocular fruit developing from a superior, bi or
polycarpellary ovary, and dehiscing in various ways. Eg. Poppy, Bhendi, Datura
b. Achene
Small dry one seeded fruit developing from a superior or inferior, monocarpellary
ovary with the pericarp of this fruit is free from the seed coat. Eg. 4’o clock plant.
c. Cypsela
Small dry one chambered and one seeded fruit developing from an inferior,
bicarpellary ovary with the pericarp and the seed coat free. eg. Compositae members.
d. Samara
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Dry, one or two seeded fruit developing from a superior, bi or tricarpellary ovary
with one or more flattened, wing like outgrowths. Eg. Yam, Hiptage
e. Nut
Dry, one chambered and one seeded fruit developing from a superior, bi or
polycarpellary ovary with the pericarp hard and woody.eg. Cashew nut,
b. Cremocarp
Ddry indehiscent two chambered fruit developing from an inferior or bi carpellary
ovary. When ripe the fruit splits apart into indehiscent ,one seeded pieces called mericarps.
eg. Umbelliferae members – Coriander, cumin, fennel, carrot
c. Double Samara
In Maple (Acer) fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary ovary. When mature, it
splits into two samaras, each with a wing and a seed. Such a fruit is called double samara.
d. Regma
It is a dry indehiscent fruit developing from a syncarpous pistil. It splits away from
the central axis into as many parts. Each part containing one or two seds. Eg. Castor,
jatropha,
e. Carcerule
It is a dry indehiscent, four chambered fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary
pistil. The fruit remain enclosed by the persistent calyx and later splits into four chambers,
each enclosing a seed. Eg. Members of Lamiaceae.
I. ANACARDIACEAE,
Economic Importance
Anacardiaceae is importance for the mango, cashew, pistachio, resins, oils, tannic
acid, ornamentals etc.
Mangifera indica (Mango) is universally known for its delightful and delicious fruit as
well as for pickles and timber
Anacardium occidentale (Cashew) is famous for its edible nuts
Pistacia vera (Pistacia) it is the source of famous edible nuts used in sweet, meats,
ice creams etc.
Schinopsis lorentzii is used in leather tanning industry
Toxicodendron vernicifera provides us resins and oils
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Sapindales
Distribution
A family of about 80 genera and over 600 species.
Anacardiaceae are mostly tropical in distribution but also found in temperate regions
of Mediterranean regions, America and Eastern Asia.
About 23 genera and over 115 species have bean reported in India
Important genera
• Mangifera indica - Mango
• Anacardium occidentale - Cashew
• Pistacia vera - Pistacia
• Schinopsis lorentzii
• Toxicodendron vernicifera
Botanical description of Mango - Mangifera indica
Origin
Propably has originated in Indo – Burma region and grow wild in the forest of India
Important species
M. foetida
M. zeylanica
M. odorata
M. caesia
M. caloneura
M. longipes
M. sclerophyla
Habit
Evergreen, erect, branched, large tree (10 to 40 m)
Leaf
Simple, exstipualte, shiny, smooth, dark green; petiolate, pulvinus at base; shape
elliptic, oblong, entire.
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Inflorescence
Terminal branched Panicle. Contains 1 to 6 thousand flowers
Flower
Polygamous – Male and perfect (Bisexual flower) flower in the same inflorescence.
Pentamerous, prominent disc (necterine), actinomorphic, hypogynous (superior ovary)
Calyx
Sepals 5, yellowish green, free, inserted at the base of the disc, imbricate aestivation
Corolla
Petals 5, creamish, with 3-5 dark yellow ridges on inner surface, free, almost twice as
long as calyx; disc - prominent, imbricate aestivation
Androecium
Stamens 5, inserted on the outer margin of disc, 1 or 2 are fertile, others staminode,
anthers pink,at anthesis turns purple red,
Gynoecium
One locule and One ovuled, set on disc, stigma same length as that of fertile stamen.
Chromosome no. 2n = 42
Originated in the north eastern BraziI
The english name cashew is adapted from Portuguese word Kaju
India is one of the major cashew producer and exporter
In India, first planted in Goa to malabar coast in Kerala by Portuguese in the 16 th
century.
Presently it has naturalized throughout the west coast.
Cashew has 20 species in central and south America, but only occidentale was the
one species which was introduced to outside world and is described in detail
Important Species
A.braslience
A.humile
A.parviflora
A.rhinicorpus
A.gigantum
A.nanum
A.macrocarpum
Habit
Tall tree (12 m or more), evergreen, crown spreading, dome shaped
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Leaf
Simple, alternate, leathery; shape - obovate, oblong ; colour – reddish pink when
young later turn into dark green, shining ; petiolate, base swollen; mid rip and veins more
conspicuous on the lower end
Inflorescence
Terminal drooping branched Panicle, measuring about a foot length.
Flower
Polygamous – Male & hermaphrodite flowers ; Fragrant in nature ; actinomorphic,
pentamerous. Hypogynous (superior ovary).
Calyx
Sepals 5, pubescent, free, imbricate aestivation,
Corolla
Usually 5 petals, free, imbricate; colour – whitish at anthesis, turns pink and red
Androecium
10 stamens, 9 are short and 1 long, only long stamens produce viable pollen;
Gynoecium
Style single, simple, reaches the same length as that of the fertile / long stamen;
ovary unilocular, single ovule
Condiments
Zanthoxylum alatum, Z. limonella.
Ornamental plants
Phellodendron sp., Zanthoxylum sp., Murraya sp.
Oil
Citrus sp., Feronia sp., Murraya sp.
Systematic position
Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Geraniales
Origin and Distribution
The cultivated species of citrus are believed to have originated in tropical and sub
tropical parts of South East Asia.
A family of about 150 genera and over 1500 species.
About 25 genera and 80 species of this family have so far been reported in India
Important Genera
Fagara – 250 sp.
Zanthoxylum – 200 sp.
Ruta – 60 sp.
Glycomis – 60 sp.
Eriostemon – 32 sp.
Atlantia – 18 sp.
Citrus – 12 sp.
Murraya – 12 sp.
Aegle – 3 sp
Habit
Short trees (5m tall), much branched irregular in outline, heavily marked with short
spines.
Leaf
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Exstipulate, simple, petiolate (Winged petiole), alternate, small, ovate – elliptic,
sometime reduced to spines, margins crenulate.
Gynoecium
Style stout, above the stamens, cap like stigma; 4 to 5 carpels / locules, united, 1-2
ovules in each locule, axile placentation
Pollination
Entomophilous – Flies, bees etc. Dispersal of seeds takes place mainly by animals and
also by man.
Botanical Description of Sweet orange - C.sinensis L.
Habit
Trees (6-12m tall), crown rounded, young twigs angular, often with stout spines (on
young seedlings)
Leaf
Leaves are dark green, shiny, ovate elliptic, round at base, apex short pointed;
margins slightly serrated / crenate; petiole small, narrowly winged
Flower
Bisexual flowers, 2-3 cm in diameter, actinomorphic, pentamerous, fragrant,
prominent disc, Hypogynous (superior ovary)
Calyx - Sepals 5, lobed, free, imbricate
Gynoecium
Style single, slender with globose stigma, ovary with 10-14 locule
Fruit
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Hesperidium; sub globose, 4-12 cm diameter, peel / rind about half centimeter thick,
adhering tightly to juicy sub acidic vesicles, yellow to orange red in colour, central axis solid
Leaf
Simple, small dark green, shiny, green above and pale below, narrow at both apices,
margin crenulate; petiole, narrowly winged.
Flower
Bisexual, small, pentamerous, actinomorphic, white, small, fragrant, Hypogynous –
superior ovary
Gynoecium
Style single, 10-15 carpels / locules, united, 1-2 ovules/seed in each locule, axile
placentation
Fruit
Fruit – Hesperidium; depressed globose or sub globose, 5-8 cm diameter, yellow or
orange red when ripe, rind thin, loose separating easily from segments, Which are sweet
juicy, orange in colour.Seed – small, pointed at one end, embryo green, polyembryonic.
III. Musaceae
Economic importance
Musa paradisiaca subsp. Sapientum - one of the most famous tropical fruits, eaten
through out the world. Green banana used as vegetables and dried powder is a good baby
food used in the manufacturing of biscuits, chocolate etc. Starch is prepared from banana
stem. Fiber obtained from leaf sheathes. M.textiles L. also provides a useful fiber known as
Manila hemp.
Ravenala madagascariensis (Traveller’s Tree), Strelitzia reginae, Heliconia sp., and
Orchidantha are most favored for decorative and ornamental purpose
Ensete ventricosa inflorescence are used as vegetables
Systematic position
Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Musaceae
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Origin and distribution
A small family of 6 genera and 130 species, distributed only in tropical regions.
Banana (M.paradisiaca subsp. sapientum) is the most common plant of the family, found
also in India
Important genera
Musa, Ensete, Orchidentha, Heliconia, Ravenala, Strelitzia
The genus Musa is divided into 5 sections
1. Eumusa
2. Rhodochlamys
3. Callimusa
4. Australimusa
5. Incertae sedis
Habit
Large perennial herb, often tree like in appearance; containing un branched, tall
aerial pseudo stem formed by the leaf sheath; plants sometimes attain a height of 10 to 15
meters; plants persist by underground rhizome.
Leaf
Large (up to 2 meters in length), alternate, sometime spirally arranged; oval or
oblong with a stout mid rib; entire; numerous parallel vein extending up to the margins.
Inflorescence
Complex spike borne at the end of the peduncle; flowers subtended by bracts or
spathes; usually single terminal inflorescence develops from the rhizome and comes out at
the top of pseudostem
Flower
Mostly unisexual, plants monoecious having male flowers within the upper bracts
and the female flower within the lower bracts of inflorescence; Zygomorphic; trimerous;
epigynous (inferior ovary)
Perianth
Tepals 6, arranged in two whorls of 3 each; petaloid in nature; 1 posterior tepal of
inner whorl is free and boat shaped; remaining 5 tepals are united to form a tubular body.
(5+1)
Androecium
Stamens 6, arranged in two whorls of 3 each; of these 6 stamens 5 are fertile while
posterior stamen of the inner whorl is represented by a staminode;
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary; syncarpous; ovary inferior; trilocular; with one to numerous ovules in
each locule; axile placentation; style filiform; stigma capitate
Important genera
1. Ficus – 800 sp.
2. Dorstenia – 170 sp.
3. Atrocarpus – 47 sp.
4. Maclura – 12 sp.
5. Morus – 10 sp.
6. Broussonetia – 8 sp.
Botanical description of Fig (Ficus sp).
Important species
Ficus carica – Fig
F. bengalensis – Banyan
F. religiosa – Peepul
F. elastica – Indian rubber plant
F. pumila – Indian ivy
Habit
Large shrub or low growing deciduous tree, about 10 m tall, with milky juice and
smooth to shallow, fissured bark.
Leaf
Simple, alternate, persistant, large, entire, 3-5 lobed, palmately veined, cystoliths are
present in some geners (Ficus & Morus)
Inflorescence
Appear on leaf axils, hypanthodium
Flower
Monoecious, male and female flowers are produced inside globose pear shaped
receptacles with narrow mouth (ostiole) inter locked by small green scale. Actinomorphic
Perianth
There are 4 tepals, free. They are persistent in the fruit; valvate
Male flower
(Androecium)
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Near the ostiole male flowers are borne, Stamens are equal in number and opposite
to the tepals. They are some time reduced to 1 or 2 stamens.
Female flower
(Gynoecium)
Towards the stalk female flowers are present with ovary, long styled. 2 carpels,
syncarpous; one locular (one carpel usually abortive) resulting one seed, hypogynous,
tetramerous.
Gall flowers
Resembles female flowers, short styled, ovary swollen, hybers fig wasp, dose not set
seed
Fruit
The fleshy fruit or Syconium is formed by the swelling of entire recepticle which
encloses number of small male and female flowers. The true fruit is achenes develops from
female flowers.
Pollination
Pollination is affected by very small wasp (Blastophaga sp.,) . As the fig with gall
flowers ripen the adult wasp comes out of ovary and moves between male flowers, the
body is loaded with pollen grain. It then flies to another tree or fruit to oviposite
(Caprifigation).
ii. Botany of Vitiaceae (Grape Family)
Economic Importance
Vitaceae are important for the table grapes, wine grapes, raisins, grape juice, and for
several ornamental and medicinal purposes
Fruits: Principle economic plant is Vitis vinifera. Whose several varieties are grown
for their edible fruit , the source of raisins, wines etc.,
Ornamental plants
Parthenocissus tricuspidata - Japanese creeper
P. quinquefolia - Virginia creeper and
Several other species Ampelopsis, Cissus etc. are cultivated as ornamental vines on
walls.
Medicinal
Leaves and roots of Cayratia carnosa are used in high fever
Tubers of Cissus adnata used as blood purifier
The essential oils of Leea aequata is used against tuberculosis.
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, disciflorae, Celastrales
Origin & Distribution
A family of only 12 genera and 700 species.
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Vitiaceae are mostly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
8 genera and 70 species have been reported in India, mostly growing in plains.
Important genera
Vitis , Parthenocissus, Ampelopsis, Cissus, Rhoicissus, Cayratia
Botanical Description– Vitis vinifera L.
Important species of Vitis
V . Vinifera - Cultivated grape
V. aestivalis - Summer grape
V. labruska - Fox grape
V. cordifolia - Winter grapes
V. monticola - Sweet mountain grape
V. longi - Bush grape
Habit
Woody, perennial, climbing, vigorous vine ,may reach a height of 15-20m or more.
Leaf
Simple, light green, alternate; stalk- thin, long, round, petiole divides 5 large veins
each extending into 5 leaf lobes; palmately lobed, coarsely toothed, light to dense
pubescence
Inflorescence
Panicle, that appears in the leaf axiles (opposite to the leaves) of current seasons
growth.
Flower
Bracteate, actinomrphic, Bisexual, Pentamerous, borne in clusters, small; light yellow
to green in colour; hypogynous
Calyx
5 sepals, very small, polysepalous, cupular, valvate
Corolla
5 petals, polypetalous, caducous and fall easily when the flower open (Calyptra fall),
petals are free at base and united at apices; valvate
Androecium
Stamens 5, positioned opposite to each petal, arise from the base of the disc,
anthers bi lobed, free
Gynoecium
Style one, short, stigma capitate; ovary - Bi locular, superior ovary, 2 ovules per
locule, axile placentation, syncarpous,
Floral Biology
Petals and sepals are (five in number) fused and during anthesis the petals detach
from the base forming a cap like structure called 'calyptra'.
Anthesis starts early in the morning and continues beyond 5.00 p.m., the peak
between 6.00 to 10.00 a.m. The time taken for completion of anthesis varies from
half a minute to one day, depending upon the variety, temperature etc.
Stigmatic receptivity has been characterized by the presence of sugary secretion on
the stigma, giving it a bright appearance.
Once the stigmatic surface dries, it becomes black, indicating the loss of receptivity.
Stigma becomes receptive one day prior to anthesis and remains so, a day after, with
maximum receptivity on the day of anthesis
Economic Importance
Edible fruits
Carica papaya – Papaya is a vary wholesome fruit and is placed next only to mango
as a source of Vitamin A precursor, also has vitamin B2, C, Riboflavin and other
mineralsEx. Carica papaya – Papaya
Important species
Carica papaya
C.pubescens
C.quercifolia
C. gracilis
Habit
Herb like, grows to the ht. of 2-10 m, contains latex vessels, unbranched, some time
branched, cylindrical stem (1 foot dia.), hallow inside with spongy fibrous tissues, stem
marked with leaf scares.
Leaf
Leaves are large upto 75cm across, found in spiral manner, divided deeply into about
7 palmate lobes; greenish or purplish green in colour; veins prominent; petiole long (1m)
and hallow
Flower
Three type of flowers
i. Male flower
Borne in panicles (25-100cm) which are erect / pendent
5 small calyx, free or slightly connate, toothed, cupshaped
5 petals, pale yellow, 2-2.5cm long, gamopetalous, trumpet shaped, five lobes
Stamens 10, arranged in two rows, free, filaments light yellow, epipetalous.
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ii.Female flower
Flowers appears singly or few flowered cyme in the axiles of the leaves, larger then
males (3.5 to 5 cm across); more or less sessile
Calyx 5, cupshaped with 5 narrow teeth, free, yellow green in colour
Petals 5, yellow, free, united at base, valvate
Stigma 5, fan shaped; carpels 5, one locule, syncarpous; many ovules; superior ovary.
iii.Hermaphrodite flower
There are two types a. Elongata b. Pentandria
a. Elongata – Flowers in clusters with short pedicles, free/petals partially united,
stamens 10 in two whorls; ovary elongate; superior ovary
b. Pentandria – Flowers are similar to female flowers, but has only 5 stamens.
Fruit and seed
Hallow fleshy berry, 5 grooved, spherical, cylindrical,
Pollination
Anthesis occurs from 6.30 a.m. to 8.30 a.m.
Anthers dehisce after anthesis
Receptivity at the time of anthesis
Different sex forurs – Monoecious, dioecious, polygamous etc.
Systematic Position
Monochlamydeae or Apetalaea, Unisexuales
Origin & Distribution
A family of about 300 genera and 7500 sp. They are abundant in both tropical and
temperate regions. Over 60 genera and 350species have been reported from India
Important genera
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Euphorbia – 2000, Croton / Codiaeum – 750, Emblica / Phyllanthus – 600, Acalypha –
450, Jatropha – 175, Manihot – 170, Sapium – 120, Tragia – 100, Clutia – 70,
Manadenium – 47, Ricinocarpos – 16, Hevea – 12, Ricinus – 1
Habit
Large tree, branches scattered in all directions, bark ash coloured
Leaf
Leaves small, entire, alternate, pinnate leaves; later shed or fall and leaves behind a
prominent scar.
Inflorescence
Auxillary, solitary
Flowers
Male flower
Numerous, borne at axiles of lower leaf lets, pedicellate ; 6 sepals; 3 stamens,
filaments and anther lobe are connate (united) appears single.
Female flower
Small, minute, borne at axiles of the upper leaf lets, short pedicelled / sessile, 6
sepals (cup shaped), free, greenish yellow, or red tinched, valvate;
Ovary
Superior; 3 locules; syncarpous; stigma 3 (more than half of the style connate)
Pollination
Female flowers in leaf axil, 14 to 17
No. of female flower per shoot- 0.5 to 4.69
Male female flower ratio = 1 : 1.1
Anthesis – 6.00 – 7.00pm, do not open after 8.00pm
Anther dehiscence – 10 to 15 min after anthesis
Stigma receptivity third day after anthesis - 48 hrs
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Initial fruit set 12 and 18 per cent
Fertilization complete within 36 hours of pollination
Most of the flowers drop within 3 weeks of flowering
v.Botany of Myrtaceae
Economic Importance
Edible fruits
Psidium guajava - Guava
P. cattleianum - Strawberry guava
Eugenia uniflora - Surinam cherry
Syzygium cumini or
Eugenia jambolana - Jamun
Oil plants : Eucalyptus oil obtained from the Eucalyptus globulus, E.citridora
and several other sp. are used widely in medicine, perfumery and other
industries
Spices : the unopened dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum and unripe
berries of Pimenta dioica used as spices.
Ornamental plants : Some sp. of Eucalyptus are grown as ornamental plants
Timber : Valuable timbers are obtained from several sp. of Eucalyptus,
Eugnia, Barringtonia and coreya.
Paper : Eucalyptus wood is used for paper manufacturing
Gum : Valuable gum is obtained from Eucalyptus globulus (Blue gum),
E.maculata (citron gum) and E.rostrata (Red gum)
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Calyciflorae, Myrtales
Origin & Distribution
A family of about 140 genera and 3400 species, distributed mainly in subtropical
regions of the world.
Family is particularly abundant in Australia where some Eucalyptus trees are worlds
tallest angiosperms.
Myrtaceae is represented in India about 15 genera and over 170 sps.
Important genera
Eugenia – 1000
Eucalyptus - 500
Syzygium – 500
Myrcia – 500
Psidium – 140
Myrtus – 100
Melaleuca - 100
The flavored fruit best for eaten as raw both when ripen and unripe. Potential source
of vit.C and pectin. Pulp made into jam, jelly juice etc.,
Important species
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Psidium guajava – Cultivated Guava
P. cattelianum – Strawberry guava
P. guineense – Guinea guava
P. fredricrichsthalianum – Costa Rican Guava
P. montanum – Mountain guava
P. araca – Brazilian guava
Habit
It is a small shrub or spreading tree, may attain height of 10m, branches more or less
erect generally appear from the base of the trunk. Bark bright and smooth, later dry dead
flakes fall off its own.
Leaf
Simple, petiole short thick, opposite, light green, elliptical to oblong, glabrous above
and soft pubescence below
Inflorescence
Axillary or terminal cyme; Solitary or 2-3 flowered, borne in leaf axiles of current
season growth
Flower
Braceteoles(2no.),Hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, measures in 3cm diameter.
Calyx
4-5 sepals, gamosepalous, calyx tube completely encloses the flower, the calyx splits
into irregular segments, persistent, green, valvate
Corolla
4-5, polypetalous (free), white, imbricate
Androecium
Stamens numerous, free, with long filament
Gynoecium
Style one, extends beyond ovary, capitate stigma, Inferior ovary, 4 locules, numerous
ovules, axile placentation, syncarpous
Fruit
Berry, round or ovoid, persistent calyx; skin green yellow or green; flesh white
yellow, pink or red
Seed
Small light yellow or yellowish brown, which makes the central core.
Pollination
Guava flowers twice a year April – May, August – September.
Flower buds requires 38-42 days for full development.
Time of anthesis between 5 to 8.0 a.m.
Anthers start dehiscing 15 minutes before anthesis, pollen grain of guava are
generally triangular. Pollen viability i.e. 84 - 96%.
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Stigma receptivity starts even two days before anthesis and extends upto 4 th days
after anthesis.
Self pollinating crop.
Gynoecium
Protogyny, stigma oblique, ovary superior, ovary multichambered. Syncarpus, no.of
carpels = no. of ovules, axile placentation
Fruit
Berry, persistant calyx, at the apex of the fruit with style is presistent; shape – round,
ovoid, ovate; epicarp rusty brown colour; mesocarp is yellowish brown tender granular
containing gelatinous material. Unripe fruit are astringent in taste; ripe fruits are rich in
flavour and sweetness.
Seed
12 in number, some of the ovary may not be fertilized, sometimes embryo is
aborted; seeds are hard black colour, laterally compressed shinning easily separated from
the pulp ; spreads out in the central axis like the spokes of a wheel.
Systematic position
- Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Bromeliaceae
Distribution
- It is represented by about 45 genera and over 2000 sp. And distributed in Tropical
America and West Indies. It is believed to have originated in Brazil.
Important genera
1. Ananas, 2. Bromelia, 3.Billbergia, 4.Tillandsia
Leaf - Numerous, sessile, long and linear ; serrate or thorny margin; spinescent at the tip,
produce 40 leaves
Inflorescence - Takes 11-12 months for flowering; Terminal stalked spikes; 15 cm long
Flower
> 100 spirally flower arranged; bracteate; actinomorphic; trimerous ; hermaphrodite
flowers; blue – violet or pale lilac colour; base white; 1.5 to 2.5 cm
Perianth - 6 tepals in 2 series, of which outer 3 calyx like free and inner 3 corolla like free
Seed
- Self incompatability presents, fruits develop partenocarpically. Some cases cross
pollination by humming birds
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ii. Botany of Punicaceae
Economic Importance
Edible Fruit
Pomegranate is a good source of protein, cerbohydrate, mineral matters and
appreciable quantities of oxalic acid and nicotinic acid, thiamine and riboflavin
Important species
Punica granatum
P. protopunica
Habit
Small shrub or tree (6 – 10 m tall), evergreen under tropical condition.
Leaf
Clustered, opposite on small axillary branchlets, shiny, oblong, lanceolate, midrib
prominent; short petiole, broadly furrowed
Inflorescence
Cyme and due to heavy drop of secondary and tertiary buds they appear to be
solitary in clusters.
Flower
Flowers are borne in either terminally or in leaf axils in clusters of 1-5, campanulate
(Bell shaped). Two types of flowers a. Male flower& b. Bisexual flower
Calyx
Calyx 6, gamosepalous, tubular, persistent, red to pale yellow in colour.
Corolla
Petals 6 in number, free, inserted between the calyx lobe, petals red orange/
varigated, valvate
Androecium
Stamens numerous, epipetalous, placed irregularly on the calyx tube, unequal in
length, filament short, two celled, dorsifixed.
Gynoecium
Ovary embedded in the calyx tube, inferior ovary, several locules (3-7), many ovules;
style solitary with swelled base, yellow red stigma, suppresses the stamens.
Fruit
Round or globose berry called Balusta, persistent calyx; Aril - The out growth of seed
forms the edible part; It is juicy and of variable colours, red, pink, or yellow white.
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Pollination
Anthesis – 11 am – 2 pm
Opt. temp. for anthesis – 37 to 380C
Dehiscence – few hrs before anthesis to 24 hrs later
No. of pollen grains/anther – 16,000 to 23,000
Pollen viability – 92 days at 90C
Stigma receptivity - a before anthesis, peak at the time of anthesis
Economic Importance
Annona squamosa
– cultivated for its edible fruits.
Artabotrys odoratissmus
– Cultivated for its ornamental and scented flowers.
Polyalthia longifolia and P.pendula
– Are grown for their beautiful green drooping branches on road sides and
inresidential buildings.
Systematic position
- Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Ranales
Distribution
- It is largest families of order Magnoliales. It is represented by about 130
genera and over 2300 sp. Over 25 genera and 200 sp.have so far been reported in India,
mostly from peninsular region.
Corolla
Petals 6, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 with larger outer whorls and fleshier inner whorls;
polypetalous; valvate
Androecium
Stamens numerous; stamens inserted below the ovary, spirally arranged and forming
a ball or flat-topped mass with short and stout filaments; linear to oblong anthers which
face outward and open longitudinally.
Gynoecium
Multicarpellary; capels spirally arranged on receptacles; ovary superior; unilocular;
marginal placentation; Each flower can have from one to many pistils; ovary superior. The
stigmas are arranged in a cone in the flower center.
Fruit
A type of aggregate fruit known as Etaerio of berries. Berries are embedded in a
fleshy thalamus
Seed
Large endospermic
Anthesis and pollination
- Anthesis throughout the day and night continuously
- Maximum 5.30 to 8.30 am
- Dichogamy (Proptogyny)
Edible fruits
Zizyphus mauritiana L.
Z.nummularia
Z.vulgaris
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Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Celastrales
Important genera
Rhamnus – 150
Phylica – 150
Zizyphus – 100
Ceanothus – 55
Frangula – 50
Colletia - 17
Leaf
Simple, alternate, oblong-elliptic; 3-nerved, finely wavy-toothed on edges, shiny
green and hairless above; dense, whitish, soft hairs underneath; stipulate, stipules modified
into spines (stipular spines)
Flower
Small, greenish cream, pedicellate, bracteate, pentamerous, bisexual, prominent
disc, star shaped ; actinomorphic; Hypogynous,
Calyx
5 sepals, free or basally connate, shortly tubular, broad at the base and narrow
towards the apex, valvate
Corolla
5 petals, white, small, free, smaller than calyx lobes, concave, reflexed, alternate
with sepals, valvate
Androecium
Stamens 5 (as many as petals), opposite to the petals, and enclosed by them,
conspicuous disc; anthers dithecous
Gynoecium
Bilocular, 2 carpels, 1-2 ovules in each locule; style simple, shorter than stamens,
bilobed; ovary superior to half inferior
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Fruit and seed
Fruit a drupe, globose to ovoid; skin smooth, glossy, thin but tough; yellowish to
reddish or blackish; flesh white, crisp, juicy, subacid to sweet.
Seed a tuberculate and irregularly furrowed stone, containing 1-2 elliptic brown
kernels each 6 mm long with straight embryo and little endosperm
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, calyciflorae, Rosales
Important genera
Rosae -250
Pyrus -
Prunus - 430
Eriobotrya
Rubus - 250
Spiraea - 100
Leaf
Unipinnately compound, alternate; stipulate, stipules paired, often adnate to the
petiole; serrate, pinnately reticulate venation
Flower
These are regular, bracteate, pedicellate, bisexual, usually perigynous; the receptacle
is hallowed and cupshaped; actinomorphic
Gynoecium
Hypanthium, Unilocular, many carpels, they are free (apocarpous); one ovule in each
carpel.
Lycopersicon - 12 species
1. Eulycopersicon
Characterized by red fruitededible species with carotenoid and lycopene
pigmentation
The species present in this group are annual
L. esculentum – Cultivated species
L.pimpinellifolium – Wild relative
2. Eriolycopersicon
This group is characterized by green fruited in nature with anthocyanin pigmentation
L. pissisi, L. peruvianum, L. hirsutum, L. glandulosum, L. cheesmani
Habit
• It is herbaceous perennial but cultivated as annual. It has a tap root system with
numerous lateral roots
• Based on growth habit , it is further divided into two types
- Indeterminate : The terminal bud is always a vegetative bud. It continUous to grow
infavourable condition. It is climbing or trailing in nature.
- Determinate :The vegetative growth is restricted and the terminal bud is always a
flower bud. It plants become bushy and dwarf.
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Stem
Stem is green in colour, highly pubescent and moderately branched. Branches
usually sympodial, terminal bud aborts or produces an inflorescence The axis in continued
by development of axillary bud, each axis producers leaves at several nodes and terminates
in inflorescence.
Leaf
Spirally arranged, imparipinnate, opposite or alternate, ovate to oblong, irregular
toothed. Upper surface is pale green; lower surface is pale green
Inflorescence
Arise terminally; borne opposite, sometimes born between leaves; having 4-12
flowers, recemose with dichotomous branching.
Flower
Yellow in colour, Pendant, regular; hermaphrodite; pedicellate, pedicel 1-2cm long,
pubescent;The flower cluster is called truss; hypogynous,
Calyx
Calyx tube is short, 5-7 sepals, alternate with petals, sepals persistent and enlarging
in fruit;
Androecium
Stamens 5, greenish yellow, free at the base and united at the top; filaments short,
5mm long bright yellow; anthers attached at the base of the corolla (epipetalous); anthers
white and form anther cone; anthers dehisce longitudinally.
Gynoecium
Style and stigma green in colour; present within the anthredial cone; ovary superior;
5-6 locule; numerous ovule in each locule; syncarpous; axile placentation.
Chromosome no. 2n = 24
Brinjal is commonly known as egg plant or Aubergine
Most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world
Origin - It is probably originated in Indonesia and India
Solanus is alarge genus
Among 22 Indian species, the 5 closely related are
S. melongena, S. coagulans, s. xanthocarpum, S. indicum, S. maccanii
Stem
Erect bushy plant with compact and well branched stem and a deep root system.
Leaves
Alternate, simple, lobed, petiolate and lower surface of most cultivars covered with
dense wool like hairs; old plants robust spines are present.
Androecium
Stamens5, White or greenish stamens, anthers blueish, dehiscing longitudinally
Chromosome no. 2n = 4x = 48
Most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world
Origin - It is probably originated in South and Central America
In India potato was introduced in the beginning of the 17th century from Europe
Wild species of potato are
1. S. demissum – 2n=72, S. antiporzii - 2n=48, s. acaula - 2n=48, S. curtilobum - 2n=24
S. rybinii - 2n=24, S. phureja - 2n=24, S. phureja - 2n=24, S. chacoense - 2n=24
Habit - Branched, erect, herb; perennial
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Stem - Solid, hallow except at the nodes; ribbed and quadrangular
Leaves
Compound, pinnate, alternately arranged; petiolate; terminal leaflet is much bigger
and ovate, lateral leaflet short petiolate.
Gynoecium - Superior ovary;bi carpellary; many ovules; style simple; capitate stigma.
Fruit & Seeds - Fruit - Berry; Globular or oval; seeds - numerous
Botany of Malvaceae
Economic Importance
Cotton
Gossypium hirsutum - seed Fiber
G.barbadense – seed Fiber
Other fibers
Hibiscus sabdariffa – Stem fiber
H.cannabinus – stem fiber
Oils
Cotton seed oil – edible oil & for soap industries
H.cannabinus oil – edible & paint, varnishes
Ornamentals
H.rosasinensis, H.schizocarpus, Thespesia sp.
Vegetables
Abelmoschus esculentus – Vegetable
H.sabdariffa, H.cannabinus - Chutney
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae (Poly petalous & hypogynouss), Malvales
1.Bisexual and actinomorphic
2. Pentamerous with calyx valvate
3. Many sepals; epicalyx
4. Tri or multicarpellary
5. Axile placentation
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Important genera
Hibiscus –300, Sida – 200, Pavonia – 200.,Abutilon – 100, Alcea – 60, Malva – 40
Gossypium – 20, Althaea – 12
Flower
Regular, polypetalous, bisexual, hypogynous and copiously mucilaginous, they have
whorls of bracteoles known as epicalyx.
Corolla
5 petals, polypetalous, attached at the base of the staminal tube, twisted aestivation.
Androecium
There are many stamens which are monoadelphous (united into one bundle called
the staminal column or tube). Pollen grains are large and spiny
Gynoecium
There are 5 to numerous carpels, syncarpous; superior ovary, 5 to numerous locules,
each locules has one to many ovules;
- Style passes through the staminal column,
- Stigma are free, and the same number as the carpels.
Botany of Cucurbitaceae
Important crops
Economic Importance
• Curcurbitaceae is a family of several edible fruits which are cooked or eaten raw in
our daily food.
• Some of them include i.Cucumis sativus – Cucumber ii.Citrulus lanatus – Water
melon iii.Cucurbita moschata – Pumpkin etc.
• Some species of are having ornamental value.
• Some Luffa species provide sponges for oil filters and bathing
• Systemic Position
Polypetalae , Calyciflorae (Epigynous & Perigynous), Passiflorales
This genus comprises of about 30 species distributed over two distinct geographic areas
Sexforms in cucurbitaceous
A. Monoecious
i. Trimonoecious
Plants bearing staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers
(eg. Cucumber, Musk melon, Ridge gourd)
ii. Monoecious
Plants bearing staminate and pistillate flowers (eg. Most of the cucurbits)
iii. Androecious
Plants bearing only staminate flowers
iv. Andromonoecious
Plants bearing staminate and hermaphrodite flowers (eg. Musk melon)
v. Gynoecious
Plants bearing only pistillate flowerseg. Rider gourd, cucumber, musk melon
(Segregating population during hybridization)
vi. Gynomonoecious
Plants bearing pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers
vii. Hermaphrodite
Plants bearing only hermaphrodite flowers (eg. Cucumber)
viii. Gynomonodioecious
A group consisting of gynoecious and monoecious individuals
ix.Gynoidioecious
A group consisting of gynoecious and hermaphrodite plants
x. Androdioecious
A group consisting of androecious and hermaphrodite plants
B. Dioecious
A group consisting of androecious and gynoecious plants eg.
1.Trichosanthus anguina – Pointed gourd
2. Sechium edule - Chow Chow
3.Momordica cochinchinensis – Kakral (Sweet Gourd)
4. Momordica dioica - Kakral
5. Coccinia indica – Ivy Gourd
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i. Botanical description of Bitter gourd – Momordica charantia L.
Chromosome No. 2n = 22
Origin and Distribution
- Originated in Tropical Africa
- Genus momordica comprises of 23 sp.
- Mamardicin – Bitter principle of momordica
Related species
i. Momordica dioica (Roxb.) - Kakral
Chromosome no. 2n = 28; Dioecious; perennial;
Propagated through tubers
ii. Momordica cochinchinensis - Sweet Gourd
Chromosome no. 2n = 14
ii. M.balsamina – Balsam apple
iii. M. cymbalaria (M.tuberosa)
Stem
Stem is angular at the base, branching, prostrate; tendrils are produced on leaf axils.
Calyx
Sepals 5, tubular, gamosepalous, calyx lobs are alternate with corolla lobe, fused to
ovary wall in female flowers; imbricte or valvate aestivation
Corolla
5 petals/ lobed, united to form a campanulate, alternate with sepals; yellow in
colour; imbricte or valvate aestivation
Androceium
Stamens 3; Staminate flowers with long pedicle; filaments free, two stamens having 2
chambered & one unichamber.
Chromosome- No.2n=26
Origin & distribution - Native of India
Related Sp.
Luffa acutangula (L.)Roxb. – Ridge gourd
L.cylindrica – Sponge gourd
L. Graveolens
L.echinata
Stem : Stem is slender at young and become angular on maturity; branching at base
Flower
4 flowering forms are available i. Monoecious ii. Andromonoecious
iii. Hermophrodite iv. Gynoecious. Flowers are solitary; pale yellow colour; Staminate flowers
borne in racemes; some time both staminate & pistillate flowers are borne on the same
node.
Chromosome =No. 2n – 40
Related Sp.
1. Cucurbita moschata (Duch.)Poir. – Pumpkin
2. C. pepo L. – Summer Squash
3. C. maxima Dusch – Winter squash / Red pumpkin
4. C. mixta - Winter squash / Red pumpki
Stem
Stem is thick, angular, branched and prostrate with branched tendrils. The trailing
vine strikes roots at every node.
Fruit
Fruit isPepo and varies in shape, colour, flavour and taste. Fruit rind is hard greenish
to reddish brown in &SEED.Fruit has hallow cavity. Seeds - many
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Watermelon – Citrullus lanatus Thumb. (C.vulgaris Scrad.)
Chromosome No.= 2n – 22
Related species
- Citrullus vulgaris var. fistulosus Schrad. - Tinda
Leaves
Simple, alternate, cordate at the base, deeply pinnated into 3 - 4 lobes; tendrils are
borne on the axils of leaves
Flower
Monoecious; Unisexual (both male and female flowers borne on the same vine);
flowers are light yellow in colour.
Fruit&Seed
Pepo – (Berry with hallow cavity & thick rind); parietal placentation; flesh red or pink
in colour; many seeds, dark brown in colour.
Floral Biology , anthesis & Pollination
The whole period of bud development stage is completed in 12- 16 days by the male
and in 11-13 days by female bud.The anthesis starts in the early morning at 6.00 a.m.
continuous up to 7.30 a.m. with peak between 6.30. - 7.00 a.m.The dehiscence of anthers
starts 1 hour before anthesis and continuous up to 6.30 a.m.The peak period varies from
5.15 a.m to 5.45 a.m The stigma become receptivity 2 hours before anthesis and continuous
upto 3 hrs. after anthesis.From the date of pollination to maturity it takes 30 to 40 days to
full maturity and ripening of fruits.
Leaves
Simple, large with petioles; alternate; green to dark green colour; palmately lobed
with hairs
Flower
Monoecious; Unisexual; solitary; axillary; yellow to deep yellow in colour; staminate
flowers are more than pistillate flowers.
Androceium : 3 stamens; yellow in colour; anthers are adhering to the corolla tube.
The pollen viability attain from the time of anther dehiscence upto 2.00 p.m.
The stigma receptivity takes plancr 12 hrs before flower opening and continuous to be till 6
to 7 hrs. after that.
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Botanical description of Musk melon – Cucumis melo L.
Chromosome No.= 2n – 24
Related Species
• Cucumis melo L. - Musk melon
• Cucumis melo var. reticulatus – Netted Melon
• Cucumis melo var. flexuosus – Snake Melon
• Cucumis melo var. utilissimus – Long Melon
• Cucumis melo var. momordica – Snap melon
Flower
Solitary, axillary, unisexual; yellow in colour; most of the cultivated forms are
andromonoecious (bisexual & staminate flowers in separate nodes of the same plant)
Calyx : Sepals 5, forms a tube, its lobes alternate with corolla lobes
Floral Biology
• Anthesis (Flower opening) takes place between 5.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m.
• The dehiscence of anthers takes place just before anthesis i.e 5.00 a.m to 6.00 a.m.
• The pollen viability lasts from 5.00 a.m. to 2.00 p.m. goes down as the day advances
from morning to evening.
• The stigma are highly receptive 2 hours before anthesis and receptivity continous up
to 2-3 hours after anthesis
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Lecture 10
Botany of Moringaceae
Botanical description of Moringa oleifera Lam. / (M. pterigosperma Goertu.)
M. concanensis
It is characterized by bipinnate leaves, leaflets 15-30 mm long, petals with red
streaks or reddish at base and the tree is large.
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Parietales
Habit : A small or medium sized tree; bark corky, soft, fissured; tuberous root.
Leaves
Usually tripinnate; 25-48 cm long, crowded at the distal end of the branches,
longpetioled; glands between the pinnate leaflets; leaflets stalked, ovate or obovate; entire,
dull green on both sides, lighter coloured abaxial side, pinnately nerved.
Flowers
Flowers are fragrant, bisexual, pedicellate, axillary, many flowered panicles, densely
pubscent, 0.7-1 cm long; zygomorphic.
Gynoecium
Superior ovary on a short gynophore; 3 carpelled, one locule, with many ovules;
parietal placentation.
Fruit
pod; pendulous, linear, ribbed, usually 20-45 cm long, sometimes 120 cm long; 3-
valved, valves spongy and thick. Seeds are numerous, globular, about 1 cm diameter, three
winged.
Botany of Fabaceae
• different shapes.
• The different shapes are then fried, seasoned and packaged.
Systematic Position
• Polypetalae, Calyciflorae, Rosales,
• Polypetalae – Corolla of separate petals
• Parietales - Flowers hypogynous to epigynous
- Stamens arranged in many whorls
- Gynoecium apocarpous to syncarpous
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- Ovary generally inferior to superior ovary
Habit
Herbaceous annual, glaucous, tendril bearing, climbing or trailing plant with white or
purple coloured flowers on long stalked axillary racemes.
Stem - Bush type, Pole type, Slender, circular and weak, trailing or bushy habit
Leaves
Pinnately trifoliate; terminal leaflets ending in branched tendrils; petiolate;stipules
very large and foliaceous and denticulate at base (foliaceous – stipule lamina directly
attached to the petiole); Leaves - ovate or elliptic, upto 6 in number, entire with undulating
margin.
Inforescence
Racemose raceme; Large and attractive, solitary, axillary, upto 3 flowers per raceme;
Bisexual; actinomorphic; Hypogynous
Corolla
Petals 5, free; white or purple, one standard petal is broad; 2 wing petals; 2 keel
petals(boat shape) fuse along their lower margin, .It encloses the reproductive parts of the
flower, which leads to self pollination; imbricate (desendingly)
Gynoecium
Unilocular; marginal placentation; provided with a small stalk at the base; superior
ovary; Style simple and unbranched, ovules in two alternating rows.
Fruit
Pod; Smooth, swollen or compressed; straight or curved on short stalks upto 12-
15cm with as many as 10 seeds
Botany of Alliaceae
Iflorescence
Inflorescence is umbels with numerous small flowers; Bisexual; flowers are white to
bluish in colour; flowers are form in simple umbels at the apex of floral stem which is
commonly hallow when mature; Umbel is enclosed by papery spathe, which splits open by
the pressure of flowering buds; number of flowers vary from 50 to 2000; actinomorphic;
trimerous;
Gynoecium :Superior ovary; trilocular; 2 ovules per locule; nectary at the base
A.sativum
- Leaf bases do not store food, but mature as dry scales enclosing cloves.
- Sterile diploid (inflorescence turn bears bulbils instead of flowers) so exclusively
vegetatively propagated plants.
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Lecture - 11
Botany of - Brasicaceae
Inflorescence
Raceme and without bracts or bracteoles; terminal, 10-50cm long, 20-40 flowers.
Flowers
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, complete, bisexual, tetramerous, actinomorphic,
hypogynous
Corolla
4 petals, polypetalous, pale yellow, cruciform (arranged in a cross), alternate with
sepals.
Androecium
6 stamens, arranged in 2 whorls, an outer whorl of 2 short stamens and inner whorl
of 4 long stamens (i.e. Tetradynamous); anthers dithecous; longitudinally dehiscent
Gynoecium
Bi carpellary, bilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary, numerous ovules, parietal
placentation; style 1, stigma capitates
Pollination
- Cabbage is naturally cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility
- Pollination by bees and flies (Entomophilous)
Botanical description of Cauliflower - B. oleraceae var. botrytis
Inflorescence
inflorescence raceme; flowers borne in the main stem and its branches; pedicle
slender only 1.5 to 2 cm long
Flower
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, white in colour, complete, bisexual, tetramerous,
actinomorphic,hypogynous
Corolla
4 petals, polypetalous, pale yellow, cruciform (arranged in a cross), alternate with
sepals
Androecium
6 stamens, arranged in 2 whorls, an outer whorl of 2 short stamens and inner whorl
of 4 long stamens (i.e. Tetradynamous); anthers dithecous; longitudinally dehiscent
Gynoecium
Bi carpellary, bilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary, numerous ovules, parietal
placentation; style 1, stigma capitate.
Pollination
Flowers open in the morning.Stigma is receptive a few hours earlier than the dehiscence of
anther and release of pollen (Protogyny). It also exhibits self incompatibility just like other
crucifers (The pollen of a flower will not germinate on its own stigma).Cross pollinated crop.
Cross pollination by insects favors abundant seed set.Flowers secretes nectar freely and are
very attractive to pollinating insects especially bees.
• Chromosome no. 2n = 18
• Origin – West Asia (China and India)
• Economic part – Swollen fusiform roots
• Leaves are rich in vit-A & C
• Root white in colour and pink colour of roots is due to anthocynin.
• Propagation - seeds
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Habit : Annual, erect, more or less densely hairy herb, 20-100 cm ht.
Leaf
Simple, alternate, light to dark green, petiole 3-5.5 cm long; oblong- ovate; upper
leaves are shorter the lower leaves.
Flower
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, complete, bisexual, 1.5 to 2.0 cm,; pedicellate, 1-2.5cm
long; actinomorphic, tetramerous, hypogynous
Corolla
4 petals, polypetalous, pale yellow, cruciform (arranged in a cross), alternate with
sepals.
Androecium
6 stamens, arranged in 2 whorls, an outer whorl of 2 short stamens and inner whorl
of 4 long stamens (i.e. Tetradynamous); anthers dithecous; longitudinally dehiscent
Gynoecium
Bi carpellary, bilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary, numerous ovules, parietal
placentation; style 1, stigma capitates
• A family of about 102 genera and over 1,200 sp. About 20 genera and over 55 sp.
Represent the family in India
Important genera
Artiplex – 200 Beta - 6
Salsola – 150 Spinacia - 3
Chenopodium – 150 Salicornia - 35
Kochia – 90
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Systemic Position
• Monochalamydeae or Apetalae, Curvembryeae
• Curvembryeae
- Embryo coiled
- Ovule generally one
Leaf
Leaves are simple, alternate, petiolate, exstipulate; arranged on the stem closely in a
spiral fashion at the crown
Inflorescence :Long spike like inflorescence; normally develops in the second year;
Flower
Small, sessile; braceteate; arise in cluster of 3-4 in the axils of bracts of inflorescence;
complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, perigynous
Perianth
5 tepals, free, greenish yellow, fleshy, small resembles sepals; the perianth does not
wither and drop off as the fruit ripens (persistent), imbricate
Androecium
5 stamens; placed opposite to tepals segment; anthers dithecous, longitudinally
dehiscent
Gynoecium
Ovary tri carpellary, unilocular, one ovule, basal placentation, half inferior ovary;
style 3;stigma 3.
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Fruit&Seed
Fruit – utricle; The seed ball containing one to 4 or even more true seeds. The seeds
are embedded in a mass of hardened receptacle and perianth tissue. Each seed is with
embryo curved around the starchy endosperm.
• A family of about 65 genera and 900 species. About 18 genera and over 50 species
have been reported from India.
The important generas are
Alternanthers – 200
Gomphrena – 100
Iresine – 80
Amaranthus – 60
Celosia - 60
Systamic Position
Monochlamydeae or Apetalae, Curvembryeae
Varieties
CO 1 - Amaranthus dubius – Mulai keerai
CO 2 - A. tricolor - Mulai keerai
CO 3 – A .tristis – Arakeerai
CO 4 - A. hypochondriacus – Thandu keerai
CO 5 - A. dubius – Thandu keerai
Stem
Anomalous secondary growth occurs by the formation of collateral vascular bundles
from cambium in the pericycle.
Flower
Bracteate, bracts scaly, membranous; bracteolate, bracteoles dry and membranous;
apetalous, very small, incomplete; unisexual, monoecious; actinomorphic, hypogynous,
Perianth
3 tepals, (5 in A.spinosus) free, green or sepalloid, dry and membranous, imbricate
Androecium
Usually 5 stamens; free, present opposite to tepals; anthers dithecous, introse,
longitudinally dehiscent.
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, unilocular, basal placentation; style 3;
stigma 3, capitate stigma
Floral Biology
Mostly monoecious in nature. It is a self pollinated crop; - Protogynous in nature;
stigma become receptive several days before opening of staminate flowers ; - Arrangemend
and sequence of anthesis favours a combination of self and cross pollination ; - Male flowers
of the cyme situated above in the inflorescence supplying pollen to the female flowers
below their level.
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L Members
- Mostly herbs
Lecture - 12
Botany of Convolvulaceae (Morning Glory Family)
Economic Importance
1.Source of Food
Ipomoea batatas - Sweet potato, I. aquatica
2. Medicinal Value
I. violacea, Evolvulus alsinoides
3. Ornamental Value
I. carica – Railway creeper, I. lobata, I. purpurea – Morning glory, I. violacea – Heavenly vine
A family of about 55 genera and 1650 species. About 20 genera and over 150 species
have been reported in India.
Systamic Position
Gamopetalae, bicarpellatae, Polemoniales
Polimoniales
- Mostly herbs and climbers
- Leaves simple and alternate
- Flowers actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous, Pentamerous
- Corolla gamopetalous, imbricate
- Stamens epipetalous, alternipetalous
- Gynoecium 2-5 carpels, syncarpous, superior
Field Recognition
- Climbing or twining vines
- leaves alternate, exstipulate
- Flowers axillary, pentamerous
- Corolla tubular, infundibuliform or salverform
- Stamens 5, epipetalous
- Gynoecium bicarpellary
Stem : Branching vine with milky latex; vine is long, thin and prostrate
Leaves
Simple, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate; varying in shape, more or less heartshaped;
may be shouldered, toothed, entire, deeply cleft or variously lobed.
Flowers
Bracteate, bracteolate; flowers purple or white in colour; complete; bisexual;
actinomorphic; pentamerous, hypogynous
Corolla
5 petals, gamopetalous; corolla funnel shaped with 5 lobes, it is purple in colour
with deeper throat and pale in margin; valvate
Androecium
5 stamens, epipetalous, alternipetalous, dithecous, introse, longitudinally dehiscent,
filaments are usually different length (heterodynamous)
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, 2 locules, one ovule each locule, axile
placentation; style 1, stigma 1 and bilobed.
Pollination
Flowers open before dawn close and wilt in the same morning.
On the previous day the stigma becomes receptive in the bud stage from 6 pm to 8
pm (Protogyny)
But the anthers begin to release pollen from 11 pm to midnight.
The pollen remains viable for a day and can germinate on the stigma even after the
flowers wild.
A strange of phenomenon observed in sweet potato. Most of the varieties are self
incompatible.
Though both the ovules and pollens are fertile
Cross pollinated crop
Umbellales
Flowers arranged in simple or compound umbel
Flowers are actinomorphic, bisexual, pentamerous and epigynous
Carpels 2, syncarpous, inferior ovary
Style usually possesses a swollen base called stylopodium
Fruit – dry schizocarp, called cremocarp, splitting into two mericarps
Botanical description of
i. Daucus carota – Carrot
ii. Coriandrum sativum – Coriander
Chromosome no. 2n = 18
Origin – Europe, Asia and North Africa
Economic part – tuberous root (Conical)
Propagation - Seed
Cultivated type - Daucus carota var. sativa
Wild form - Daucus carota var. carota
Chromosome no. 2n = 22
Origin – Eastern Mediterranean Region
Economic part – Seeds
Propagation - Seed
Habit
Carrot
Annual or biennial herb with an erect to much branched stem, 30-120 high arising
from a thick, fleshy tap root which is 5-30 cm long.
Coriander
Annual herb with stout stem and hallow internodes; emit aromatic smell due to the
presence of essential oil or oleoresin in all parts.
Leaves : Pinnately compound leaves with long petioles expanded into a stalk at the base.
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Inflorescence
Inflorescence -Usually compound umbel . Primary umbel produced in the main stem
that flowers first. The umbels terminating the branches are known as secondary umbels of
the second order. In succession , 3rd and 4th order umbels may develop in the same fashion
Flowers
Complete; bisexual; white or yellowish in colour; actinomorphic; pentamerous;
epigynous;
Calyx : 5 sepals, free, very small and narrow, adnate to ovary; valvate
Androecium
5 stamens, alternate with the petals, inserted on epigynous disc, anthers dithecous,
introse, longitudinal dehiscence.
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, bilocular, syncarpous, inferior ovary, each locule contains one
pendulous ovule, axile placentation, Style 2, often with swollen base (Stylopodium), stigma
2.
Fruit & Seeds : Fruit – Dry schizocarp (Cremocarp) splitted into 2 mericarps.
Carrot
Cross pollinated crop
Anthesis in single umbel completes in 7-9 days
The peripheral umbellate flower first followed by the inner umbellates
Anther dehiscence occurs firstfollowed by stigma become receptive(Protandry)
Coriander
Pollination – it opening and anthesis proceeds from periphery to inwards.
Protandrous stigma receptive for 5 days; pollen viable for 24 hrs.
Cross pollinated crop; cross pollination by bees
A family of 115 genera and over 2000 species. About 25 genera and 140 species have
been reported from India.
Nudiflorae
Perianth generally absent, Superior ovary
Economic Importance
i. Vegetables
Amorphophallus campanulatus – Elephant foot yam
Colocasiaesculenta – Colocasia / Taro
ii. Ornamental plants
Anthurium sp., Spathophyllum sp., Caladium sp., Dieffenbachia sp.
Monstera sp., Scindapsus sp.
iii. Medicinal Plants: Acorus calamus
2 main groups
i. Eddoe type – C. esculenta var. antiquorum- The corm is small and cormels are large
ii. Dasheen type - C. esculenta var. esculenta- the corm is large and cormels are small
Stem
Subterranean or underground in the form of corms (Amorphophallus, Colocasia),
rhizome (Acorous) etc.
Leaf
Amorphophallus – lamina simple, 3 parted, each part divided into numerous oblong
segments and later large acuminate and acute ; petiole is robust, thick, massive
Colocasia – large and green, the petiole to the lamina is not at the edge of the lamina but at
some point in the middle of the lamina (Peltate leaf); petiole is sheaththering at the base.
Inflorescence
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Flowers usually grouped together to form a more or less cylindrical spadix subtended
by the large spathe.The upper portion of spadix is usually naked and the lower portion bears
whorls small unisexual flowers, the male flowers above and the female flowers below.
Flower
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, usually unisexual, some time bisexual (Acorous, Pothas),
actinomorphic, hypogynous
Male flower
Usually 6 stamens, united into a synandrium (Colocasia), anthers dithecous, introse.
Female flower
Ovary with one locule with numerous ovules; superior ovary; stigma sessile, one
number.
Botany of Dioscoreaceae
- The genus Dioscorea contains about 620 species. In this about 12 are known to edible
- Chromosome no. 2n = 20,30,40,50,60,70,80
- Origin – Asia and Africa
- Propagation – Tubers
Tubers – It is underground stem tuber. The tubers vary in number, size and forms, which
may globular,elongate or flattened.
Stem
The stems arises from the top of the tuber; it climbs by twining by either on the left
or right side; stem may be spiny or winged or with longitudinal ridges.
Leaves
Leaves are usually simple, acuminate, having main veins from the base of the
lamina.
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Flowers
In Dioscorea, the plants are dioecious; Male and female flowers are borne on
separate plants;
Pollination
Male plants generally begin flowering 2-3 weeks earlier than female plants
Pollination entomophilous
Cross pollinated crop
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Lecture 13
I. Botany of Piperaceae (Pepper Family)
Economic Importance
Piper betle – Beten vine - Masticatory
Piper nigrum – Black Pepper – Spices
Piper longum – long pepper – Medicinal plants
Peperomia – Ornamental plants
Field Recognition
Succulent herbs, shrub, rarely trees
Petals absent / Perianth absent
Stamens 1-10
Ovary unilocular, superior ovary
Embryo very minute
General Habit
Climbing evergreen vine and grows to a height of 10m or more. The vines branch
horizontally from the nodes and do not attain length, but fully grown vines completely
cover the standard presented the bush appearance.
Stem
Based on the growth habits , 5 types stem portions can be identified in the shoot
system
1. Main stem – Which originates from a seed or from a stem cutting. It climbs on a
support with the aid of aerial or adventitious roots.
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2. Runner shoots – Are produced from the basal portion main stem, growing at right
angle to the main stem, usually restricted upto 50 cm from the ground
3. Fruiting branches (Plagiotropes) – Are produced from the nodes of the main stem
and they grow laterally more or less right angles to the main stem, bearing spikes.
4. Top shoots (Orthotropes) – After a period of vertical growth, the top portion of the
main shoots attain bushy appearance with large number of adventitious roots at the
nodes
5. Hanging shoots (Geotropes) – In a fully grown vine, some of the plagiotropes at the
top portion are seen to give rise to a special type of shoots which hang down and
grow geotropically.
Leaves
Alternate, simple,petiolate, entire.The leaves are broadly lanceolate, but wide
variations occur in leaf shape and are arranged alternately. The sheathing leaf base
described as adnate stipules.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is glabrous, pendulous spike borne opposite to the leaves on
plagiotrophic branches. Spike are usually 3-15cm long, bearing 50-150 minute flowers
borne on the axils of ovate fleshy bracts.
Flowers
Minute, brcteate, Flowers in a spike may be staminate, pistillate or hermaphrodite,
but predominantly staminate or pistillate flowers. First flowers appears on the top of the
spike 10-15 days after the spike emergence and will be completed in about 6-10 days.
Protogyny of bisexual flowers is a common feature in pepper. Hypogynous
Perianth - Absent
Androecium
2 minute stamens are borne on each side of the ovary in bisexual and pistillate
flowers; anthers dithecous;
Gynoecium
Ovary globose; unilocular; one ovuled; star shaped stigma, covered with papillae,
white when receptive, later turn brown; hypogynous. Stigma - 5
Fruit & Seed - Fruit – Drupe; Seed - very small, embryo minute
A family of about 49 genera and 1000 species. About 17 genera and 115 species have
been reported in India
Selected genera
- Amomum, Curcuma, Elettaria, Zingiber
Systemic position
- Monocotyledons, epigynae, Zingiberaceae
Field Recognition
Aromatic herbs
Ligule present at the top of the leaf sheath
Perianth differentiated into calyx and corolla
Only single fertile stamen
Staminodes petalloid
Economic Importance
Spices and Condiments
Elettaria cardamomum – Cardamom
Amomum subulatum – Larger Cardamom
Curcuma longa – Turmeric
Zingiber officinale – Zinger
Alpinia galanga - Galangal
Cardamom - Elettaria cardamomum
Turmeric - Curcuma longa
Zinger - Zingiber officinale
Inflorescence
Inflorescence is a long paniclewith racemose. Clusters arising from the underground
stem, but coming up above the soil.
Mysore type – Erect growing panicle
Malabar – Panicle prostrate
Vazhukka - Panicle semi erect
Flowers
The flowers are bisexual; Bracteate, bracts linear, oblong, persistent; Zygomorphic;
trimerous; epigynous; large bright coloured, aromatic and fragrant; perianth differentiated
into Calyx and corolla.
Corolla - 3 unequal lobed petals, united, the posterior lobe usually the largest.
Androecium
Basically 6 stamens; in 2 whorls of 3 each;
• 2 lateral stamens of the outer whorl modify into staminodes, while the 3 rd anterior
stamen of this whorl is usually supressed;
• Inner whorl posterior stamen is fertile and 2 lateral stamens of this whorl unite to
form labellum; fertile stamen is 2 celled; epipetalous
Gynoecium
Ovary - trilocular; axile placentation, ovules - numerous in each carpel; inferior ovary,
epigynous
Habit
Turmeric an erect perennial herb, cultivated as an annual crop for its under ground
stems or rhizome.
Stem- The leafy shoot or pseudostem reaches a height of about 1m, bearing 8 to 12 leaves.
leaves
The ligule is a small lobe, lamina lanceolate, acuminate and thin, dark green on the
upper surface and pale green in the lower surface, petioles sheathing.
Inflorescence
This is a cylindrical, fleshy spike, aromatic, 10-15cm long and 5-7cm wide. Which is
terminal on the leaf shoot with partly enclosed by the leaf sheath. The bracts are adnate for
less than half of their length. Bracteoles are thin, elliptic and up to 3.5 cm long.
Corolla - 3 unequal lobed petals, united, the posterior lobe usually the largest.
Androecium
Basically 6 stamens; in 2 whorls of 3 each;
• 2 lateral stamens of the outer whorl modify into staminodes, while the 3 rd anterior
stamen of this whorl is usually supressed;
• Inner whorl posterior stamen is fertile and 2 lateral stamens of this whorl unite to
form labellum; fertile stamen is 2 celled; epipetalous
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Gynoecium
Ovary - trilocular; axile placentation, ovules - numerous in each carpel; inferior
ovary, epigynous
Inflorescence
Compact spike; produced directly from the rhizome; peduncle leaf less, erect,
enclosed by green spathaceous scales; Bracts numerous, green or yellowish green,
afterwards yellowish.
Corolla - 3 unequal lobed petals, united, the posterior lobe usually the largest.
Androecium
Basically 6 stamens; in 2 whorls of 3 each;
• 2 lateral stamens of the outer whorl modify into staminodes, while the 3 rd anterior
stamen of this whorl is usually supressed;
• Inner whorl posterior stamen is fertile and 2 lateral stamens of this whorl unite to
form labellum; fertile stamen is 2 celled; epipetalous
Gynoecium
Ovary - trilocular; axile placentation, ovules - numerous in each carpel; inferior
ovary, epigynous
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Fruit & Seed - Fruit – Capsule;
I. Botany of Myristicaceae
18 genera and 300 species
Habit
The nutmeg is a spreading evergreen tree, 4-10 m high, sometimes attaining 20m. It
is usually dioecious, but sometime male and female flowers. But some times male
andfemale flowers are found on the same tree.
Stem
Stem are numerous spreading branches with the main branches arising low on the
trunk. A reddish, watery sap is present. The bark is greyish black and slightly fissured
longitudinally in the older trees. The twigs are gbalrous, slender and greyish brown.
Leaves
Leaves are alternate, glabrous and exstipulate. Lamina, 5-15 cm long and 2-7 cm
broad; medium to dark green above and shining, light green beneath; petiole is about 1cm
long.
Inflorescence
The tree is typically dioecious with male and female flowers on different trees. The
male and female inflorescence are similar, glabrous, and axillary with the flowers in
umbellatecyme in which there are 1-10 flowers. The pedicles are pale green, 1-1.5cm long,
with a minute caducous bracteole at the base of the flowe.
Flowers
The flowers , up to 1 cm long, are fragrant, creamy yellow in colour, waxy and fleshy.
Calyx - The calyx is bell shaped, nectiferous at the base, with 3 reflexed triangular lobes
Androecium
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The male flowers, which are rather smaller than the female flower; 8-12 stamens,
attached to each other by their sides.
Gynoecium - Female flowers up to 1 cm long; style very short, white, two lipped stigma.
Fruit - Drupe
Habit
C.Veerum is and evergreen tree, which reaches a height of 8-17 m in a wild state.
The bark and leaves are aromatic.
Stem
The trunk is stout, 30-60 cm in diameter, with a thick grey bark and the branches set
low down.
Leaves
The stiff exstipulate opposite leaves, somewhat variable in size and form; petiolate,
petiole is 1-2 cm long, grooved on the upper surface; the lamina is ovate or elliptic. There
are 3 or 5 conspicuous longitudinal veins found at the base of the lamina and running
almost to the tip.
Inflorescence
Flowers are borne on axillary and terminal panicle on the ends of the twic; peduncles
are creamy white in colour and softly hairy.
Flowers
Flowers are small, about 3mm in diameter, pale yellow in colour with a fetid smell
and each subtended by small ovate hairy bract.
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Calyx – Sepals 3, campanulate and pubescent with 6 actualy pointed segments.
Androecium
There are 9 stamens with the 6 outer stamens being opposite the perianth lobes and
an inner whorl of 3, inside which are staminodes.
Gynoecium -Ovary is superior, unilocular with a single ovule, tapering to a short style.
Represented by 180 genera and 3000 sp.About 23 genera and 85 species of this
subfamily have been reported in India
Selected genera
Bauhinia, Caesalpinia, Cassia, Delonix, Parkinsonia, Saraca, Tamarindus
Systemic position
Polypetelae, Calyciflorae, Rosales, leguminosae
Field recognition
- Trees, shrubs, or herbs
- Flowers zygomorphic
- Corolla aestivation ascending imbricate
- Petals 5 and polypetalous
- Stamens usually 10, rarely numerous
Economic Importance
Ornamental plants
Amherstia nobilis – Noble amherstia
Bauhinia purpurea – Purple flowered
B. tomentosa - Yellow
Caesalpinia pulcherrima – Peacock flower
Cassia fistula
Delonix regia - Gulmohar
Saraca asoka – Ashok tree
Edible Products
Tamarindus indica
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Botany of Tamarind - Tamarindus indica L.
Habit
It is a long lived, magnificent, large, evergreen or semi evergreen tree, upto 30m tall.
The trunk is light grey to brown, very rough and scaly, the inner barkis 1-2 cm thick, wide
spreading and drooping at the ends to form a dense crown.
Leaves
Leaves are alternate, even, paripinnately compound, 7-15 cm long with a pulvinus at
the base and 6-20 pairs of opposite leaflets. The leaflets narrowly oblong, unequal and
entire; petiole is up to 1.5cm long.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence racemes are small, 5-10, 13 cm long, terminal and lateral drooping
and often panicles.
Flowers
The flowers are Bisexual, pedicles are about 5mm long. The bracts are fragrant;
nearly as long as theflower bud; 2 boat shaped bractioles, reddish in colour, zygomorphic
Calyx - 5 sepals, free or connate at the base, imbricate; 2 posterior sepals fused.
Corolla
5 petals, free, the posterior and lateral ones are large and showy, slightly exceeding
the calyx.
Androecium
Usually 10 stamens, arranged in 2 alternate whorls of 5 each, only 3 fertile stamens,
remaining stamens reduced to staminodes.
Gynoecium
Ovary – superior ovary, monocarpellary, unilocular, up to 18 ovules; axile
placentation; stigma green, long and hooked style
Fruit - legume
3 types of tea
i. Assam Jat – Camellia assamica
Tree; leaves- large, light green; sparse flowering; high yield; medium quality;
susceptible to drought & frost and pests & diseases.
Habit
China Tea – Shrub, 1-2 m tall with stems arising from the base of the plant near the ground
with hard. Assam Tea – Small tree, 10-15 m tall with robust branches.
Leaves
Leaves, simple, alternate, thick and leathery, matty surface, marginal veins indistinct
and appear sunken in lamina. Margin bluntly serrate, glabrous. Petiole is short, 3-7cm long,
stout
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Flowers
Flowers, bisexual, borne singly or in pairs in the cataphylls (scaly leaves) axils. Pedicel
short, 6-10 mm long, glabrous, 3 bracteoles 2-5 mm long.
Calyx
Sepals 5, imbricate, persistent, leathery, 3-6 mm long, glabrous green.
Corolla
Petals 5, shallowly cup shaped, 1.5-2 cm long, broad oval, generally white, some
times pale pink pigmentation.
Androecium
Stamens numerous, arranged in 2 whorls, inner ones are shorter, and fewer in
number, outer stamens are longer and more numbers. United at the base for a few mm
with the corolla lobes. Anthers 2 celled.
Gynoecium
Ovary, white, hairy, superior, 2- 4 locular, ovules 3-5 in each locules, axil
placentation. Style 3, free.
Fruit :Fruit-capsule.
A family of about 500 genera and 6500 species. About 75 genera and 275 species
have been reported in India.
Economic Importance
i. Coffee – Coffee, the most popular nonalcoholic, caffeine containing beverage of the world,
comes mainly from roasted and powdered seeds of
C. arabica. The other coffee producing species are
C. canephora. and C. liberica.
ii. Ornamental Plants – Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and road
sides include
- Kadam – Anthocephalus cadamba
- Ixora – Ixora sp.
- Morinda – Morinda tinctoria &M.citrifolia
- Pentas – Pentaslanceolata
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Systematic Position
Gamopetalae, Inferae, Rubiales
Rubiales
Selected Genera
- Cinchona, Coffea, Ixora, Mussaenda, Oldenlandia, Rubia
Inflorescence
Inflorescence is a condensed dichasial cyme arising in leaf axils of mature wood, on
short peduncles and subtended by bracts. 4 -5 inflorescence of 1-4 flowers each in arabica
and 5- 6 flowers each in robusta are produced in leaf axil.
Gynoecium
Ovary inferior, bilocular, syncarpous, one ovule in each locule, axile placentation,
stigma is bifid.
Fruit
Fruit is a Drupe and normally contains 2 seeds. Aborption of one ovule due to non
fertilization leads to formation of single seeded fruit, called Pea berry.
Anthesis &pollination
Pollination – 6 hrs after flowering opening under bright light, warm wind bees as agents
- Arabica – Self pollinated
- Robusta – Cross pollinated (self incompatibility)
A family of 217 genera and 3000 species. About 28 genera and 95 species have been
reported from India.
Varieties
Coconut palms broadly classified into 2 groups
i. Tall & ii. Dwarf
Tall
- East Coast Tall (ECT)& West Coast Tall (WCT)
Dwarf
- Chawghat Orange Dwarf (COD)
- Chawghat Green Dwarf (CGD)
- Malayan Green Dwarf (MGD)
- Malayan Orange Dwarf (MOD)
- Malayan Yellow Dwarf (MYD)
- Gangabondam
Habit
Palm is tall, unbranched with a terminal crown of leaves, growing to a height of 20-
30m and lives for 80-100 years. It is not a tree since no true bark, no branches, no cambium
or secondary growth are seen.
Stem
• Stem has only one growing point. Trunk is formed after 3 years ie., after production
of 12 – 18 leaves. Trunk is columnar and erect, light grayish brown in colour and 20-
40 cm in diameter.
• Stem has nodes bearing a leaf or scar if that leaf has fallen already. About 12-14
leaves are shed every year and thus age of palm can be ascertained by counting the
number of scares and dividing by 12 and adding 3 years for trunk formation.
Leaves
• Leaves are borne terminal radiating crown, which consists of 25-35 opened leaves
and a central bud with leaves in various stages of development. Leaf primordia are
differentiated 30 months prior to emergence leaf lamina. A fibrous leaf sheath
protects young leaf until it matures.
• leaves are large, paripinnate, 4.5 m long, weighs about 10-15 kg. Petiole is stout with
clasping sheath at base, attached to trunk. Number of pinnae is aboout 200-250
along upper 3 quarter of petiole,with apex acute and sessile.
Inflorescence
Palm is monoecious with numerous male and female flower in each spadix, borne
singly in axil of each leaf. In regular bearer the number of leaves and number of spadices
are same. Developing flowers are protected by spathe. Inflorescence consists of a central
axis with about 40 lateral branches called spikelets. Each spikelet bears about 200-300 male
flower at top, opening from tip to downwards, one or more female flower at base.
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Male flower
Male flower borne singly or 2 or 3 in a bunch, sessile, pale yellow, perianth
segments 6 in 2 whorls; 3 nectors glands at the center; trimerous; hypogynous; stamens 6,
arranged in 2 whorls; anther dithecous; actinomorphic; valvate
Female flower
Female flower or button are globose, bracteoles 2, perianth segments 6, arranged in
2 whorls, persistent; valvate; actinomorphic. Ovary large, 3 locules, trifid stigma.
Fruit
Fruit is a fibrous Drupe. Mature fruit is ovoid in shape, 3 angled, varying in size,
taking 12 months to mature. Fruit consist of an exocarp which is tough, fibrous mesocarp 4-
8cm in thickness and gives coir, an endocarp is ovoid shell, enclosing thick albumenous
endosperm or meat and a single seed. In between shall and endosperm there is a brown
testa adheres firmly to endosperm.
Pollination
In coconut palm , there is a distinct gap between the male and female phases.
Female flowers do not become receptive until all male flowers in the same spadix have shed
their pollens. Cross pollination is customary
- Chromesome no. 2n = 32
- It is native of Malayan Archipelago and Philpphines
- Commercial cultivation is confined to India, Bangladesh and Sri lanka.
- Kerala, Karnataka and Assam account for more than 90 per cent of the total area and
production in out country.
- Areca palm is cultivated for its kernal obtained from the fruit, which is chewed in its
tender, ripe or processed
- Propagation – Seeds
Species
- India – Areca catechu, A. triandra
- Andamans – A. catechu, A. laxa
- Sri Lanka – A. catechu, A. concinna
Varieties
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasargod, Kerala
i. Mangala
ii. Sumangala
iii. Sreemangala
iv. Swarnamangala
v. Mohitnager
Visible after 3 years. Mature stem is single cylindrical, 30m tall and 25-40cm
diameter. It is green when young become grayish brown with age and ringed with leaf scar.
Internode distance reduces with age.
Leaves
Leaves are borne in terminal crown about 2.5m in diameter. Adult leves are
paripinnate with long smooth sheathing base completely encircling the stem. One year old
seedling has 4-5, which increaes to 8-12 in adult palms.
Inflorescence
• Inflorescence of arecanut is a spadix. Inflorescence is produced in axil of every leaf
(intrafoliar- arise below the leaf). It is monoecious with male and female flowers
occuring in the same spadix. Spadix is completely enclosed in a boat shaped spathe
opening longitudinally.
• Spadix of a grown up palm bears upto 600 female flowers and 15,000 to 50,000
male flowers. branches.
Male flower
Male flowers are sessile, creamy white, triangular with 2 whorls of perianth
consisting of 3 minute sepals and 3 large petals. Stamens are 6 in number, situated in a ring
next to petals. There is a rudimentary trifid ovary at the center.
Female flower
Female flowers are sessile with 2 whorls of perianth; the outer boat shaped green
whorl of sepals and inner whorlof ovate petals. There are 6 flattened minute staminodes
encircling ovary; ovary superior, trifid stigma formed by 3 stiff stylar projections.
Fruit
Fruit is an ovoid Drupe with fibrous pericarp, orange red to scarlet when ripe,
endosperm is ruminate, reddish brown and astringent. Each spadix is about 100 – 125 fruits
/ spadix.
The genus Borassus has seven species, only 3 to 4 species alone recognized.
- Borassus aethiopum C. Mart. - Africa
- B. flabellifer L. – India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia
- B. sundaican Becc. - Indonesia
Habit
The tree is tall, unbranched and grows to a height of 20-30m. Stem diameter ranges
from 60-90 cm.
Leaves
A crown of 20-30 large leaves at the top of the stem. Each leaf has a stout long
petiole of 1.0 to 1.5m long and a rachis with lamina. The petiole base is broad, having a
vertical split , and it is persistent. The petiole base clasps the stem almost half of the
circumference.The lamina is plicate with ribs, extending along asaxial folds
Inflorescence
Palmyrah is a Dioecious palm. The inflorescence is Spadix; The sex of the palm can be
differentiated only during flowering. The inflorescence is interfoliar (with in the leaf) and
occurs as a branched spadix, sheathed by many imbricated , fibrous spathes. The outermost
spathe is the smallest, whereas the innermost spathe is the longest. A palm produces 5 to 8
spadices annually.
Male spadix
The male spadix has 5 to 10 branches, and each branch is ensheathed by a spathe.
Each branch has 2 to 3 branchlets or spikes. Each spike is stout, cylindrical, 30-40 cm long,
and 2.5 to 4.0 cm wide. The width of the spike decreases gradually from base to apex.
Numerous bracts imbricate the spikes. The number of spikelets in each spike ranges from
800-1000, and each spikelets has 12-20 small sessile flowers.Perianthe segments 6 (Sepals 3,
free, imbricate; petals 3, free) imbricate; stamens 6, connate with corolla; anthers large,
bilocular; filaments dark, dorsi fixed.
Female spadix
The female spadix has only 2 to 4 branches or spikes, sheathed by spathes. Bracts
imbricate the spike. The number of female flowers in a spadix ranges from 30 to 75, the
flowers are large and globose. Perianth is 6 lobed, fleshy, imbricate; stminodes are 6; ovary
globose, 3 celled, syncarpous; stigma 3, sessile.
Fruit& seeds
The fruit is Drupe; The endosperm is gelatinous when the seed is young.
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Tapping
The extraction of sap from the inflorescence is called ‘Tapping’. There are different
kinds of tapping which vary according to the sex of the palm and the age of the
inflorescence,
Neera or Padaneer
The sap so tapped, is called, Neera or Padaneer which is transparent,
pleasant smelling and sweet. It contains sugar (12-16%), most of the essential amino acids
and vitamins like ascorbic acids and b complex, hence it is considered to possess medicinal
properties too. This neera is drunk as such or used for preparation of secondary products
through some processing i.e. toddy, jaggery, palm sugar, palm cola etc.
Species
- Elaeis guineensis – African oil palm
- E. oleifera – American oil palm
Habit
It is an unbranched monoecious tree growing to a height of 20-30m and lives up to
200 years
Stem
Results in formation of wide stem base with a single terminal meristem. Trunk is not
formed upto 3 years when apex has reached its full diameter in the form of an inverted
cone, after which internodal elongation takes place. Leaf bases adhere to the stem for at
least 12 years, giving a rough stemmed palm.
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Stem
Leaves are produced in spiral succession from meristem at an angle of 138 o. Crown
consists of 40-50 opened leaves and central cone.
Mature leaf is paripinnate, 7.5m long, bearing linear leaflets on either side of leaf
stalk. Leaf stalk can be divided into 2 zones, the rachis bearing leaflets and petiole which is
much shorter than rachis and, bears short lateral spines.
Inflorescence
An inflorescence primordium is produced in axil of each leaf. The inflorescence is
compound spike or spadix, has a stout peduncle, 30-45cm long, and a central rachis with
spirally arranged spikelets 100-200 in number in different palms. The total number of
inflorescence produced per palm depends upon number of leaves produced.
Male flower
• Male inflorescence has finger like, spineless cylindrical spikes, 10-20cm long each
with 700-1200 closely packed small flowers.
• Each flower has a triangular bract, perianth of 6 minute segments, tubular
androecium with 6 anthers and rudimentary gynoecium.
Female flower
Female inflorescence has thick and fleshy spilelets in axils of spiny bract and with
terminal spine of varying length. Flowers are arranged spirally in shallow cavities in
rachis with 12-30 flowers.
Pollination
Oil palm is cross pollinated crop. Wind is the sole agent of pollination. Assisted
pollination is done to ensure fertilization of all female flowers. Recently, the
insectElaeidobius kamerunicus (weevil) aids the pollination in oil palm plantations.
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IV. Botany of Sterculiaceae
(Sterculia Family)
It is represented by about 60 genera and 700 species. About 18
genera and 90 species of this family have been reported from India.
Systemic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Malvales
Selected genera
Sterculia, Theobroma, Pterospermum
Leaves
Large, simple, dark green when mature; petiole 1-4 cm long, pubescent, well marked
pulvinus at each end; stipules lanceolate, pubescent; lamina elliptic or obovate oblong,
entire, usually glabrous, base rounded and obtuse and apex acuminate.
Inflorescence
Cocoa is cauliflorous – the flowers and fruits are borne on old wood of main stem and fan
branches and never on current flushes; Cocoa flowers are borne on thickened leaf axils on
stem called ‘Cushions’ . Inflorescence is a compressed dichasial cyme; peduncles and bracts
are pubescent
Flowers
Flowers are regular, bisexual, pentamerous and hermaphrodite; bracteate; Pedicles,
1-2 cm long, greenish, whitish or reddish; actinomorphic; hypogynous
Corolla
Petals 5, free, narrow at base, expanded above into a cup shaped pouch, beyond
which they end in a relatively broad tip.
Androecium
Usually 10 stamens arranged in 2 whorls; the outer whorl of 5 stamens is
antisepalous and reduced into staminodes and inner whorl of 5 stamens are fertile and
joined at base into vary short tube (connate). Fertile stamens are stand opposite to petals
(antipetalous); anthers 4 celled, dehise longitudinally.
Gynoecium
Ovary- 5 carpels, syncarpous, numerous ovules per carpel, superior ovary. Style ,
simple divided into lobes.
Systemic Position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Gentianales
Selected genera
Nyctanthus, Jasminum
Field recognition
- Trees or shrubs
- Leaves opposite
- Flowers bi to tetramerous
- Gamosepalous and gamopetalous
- Stamens 2 ; Ovary bilocular
Flowers
Bisexual, ebracteate, pedicellate, actinomorphic, usually tetramerous, hypogynous
Calyx
Usually sepals 4, gamosepalous, valvate, persistent
(J. sambac – 8 to 9 , J. auriculatum - 6 , J. grandiflorum – 5 - 6 )
Corolla
Usually petals 4, gamopetalous, valvate.
(J. sambac – 7 to 8 , J. auriculatum – 7 to 8 , J. grandiflorum – 5 )
Gynoecium
Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, 2 ovules in each locule, axile
placentation; style simple, stigma capitate.
Botany of Asteraceae
Systematic Position
Gamopetalae, Inferae, Asterales
Selected genera
Ageratum, Aster, chrysanthemum, Dahlia, Eclipta, Helianthus, Veronia, Helichrysum,
Artemisia
Field Recognition
- Herbs, vines or shrubs, rarely trees
- Inflorescence an involucrate head or capitulam
- Stamens syngenesious
- Carpels 2, united
- Ovary inferior.
Important Crops
1. Chrysanthemum
2. Marigold
3. Gerbera
4. golden rod
5. Aster
6. Dhavanam
7. Pyrethrum
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1.Chrysanthemum 2n=36
Chrysanthemum – Dendranthema grandiflorum
Origin – Europe and Asia
Utilized for both cut and loose flower
Propagation - Suckers
2. Marigold
Origin – Central and South America
Loose flower – garland and flower offerings
Xanthophyll obtained from the petals of marigold. It is a kind of yellow colouring
agent.
Varieties – Pusa Narangi Gainda, Pusa Basanti Gainda,
Propagation – Seeds
A hardy annual, dwarf, 30cm tall, bushy; leaves dark green; stem reddish; leaves
pinnatisect, leaflets are lanceolate, serrated; flower heads small , yellow to red, peduncles
long. Tetraploid – 4n= 48
Leaves
Usually alternate, simple, margins pinnately or palmately lobed or divided; leaves
usually with oil passages.
Inflorescence
The primary inflorescence is Head or Capitulam with many flowers (called florets)
borne on the conical, flat or convex receptacle.
Head or Capitulum : The main axis is suppressed, becoming almost flat, and the flowers are
also without any stalk so that they become crowded together on the flat surface of the
receptacle. Although the whole inflorescence looks like a single flower.
* Ray floret – Periphery (female)
* Disc floret - Central (bisexual)
Eg. Marigold, Sunflower etc.
Flowers
Flowers are actinomorphic or zygomorphic; bisexual or unisexual; pentamerous;
epigynous. The capitulam may be
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Heterogamous capitulam – The central florets are disc florets, which are bisexual and
actinomorphic; peripheral florets are ray florets which are generally female and
zygomorphic
Homogamous capitulam– All florets are similar, usually bisexual and actinomorphic
Calyx
Represented by pappus of bristles or scales
Corolla
Petals 5, gamopetalous, ligulate; valvate.
Androecium
Stamens 5, epipetalous, alternating with corolla lobes; anthers nearly united into a
tube around the style and filaments free i.e., syngenesious, dithecous.
Gynoecium
Ovary, bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, unilocular, one ovule, basal
placentation; style 1; stigma branched into 2, nectar secreting disc is also present at the
base of the corolla tube or surrounding the style.
A family of about 85 genera and over 1100 species. About 9 genera and over 60
species have been reported from India.
Systematic Position
Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Amaryllidaceae
Selected genera
Agave, Crinum, Narcissus, Zephyranthes, Polianthus
Field Recognition
Bulbous or rhizomatus; perennial herbs
Inflorescence usually a leafless scape or umbel subtended by spathe like bracts
Perianth gamophyllus
Stamens 6, antiphyllus and epiphyllus
Ovary inferior.
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Botanical description 0f Tuberose - Polianthes tuberosa
Origin – Native of Mexico
Single type – Loose flower- Garland making and flower offerings
Double type – Cut flower
Propagation – Bulbs or bulb segments
Concrete recovery – 0.08 to 0.11 %
Varieties
Single
Rajat Rekha, Sringhar, Prajwal, Arka Niranthra, Phule Rajani, Mexican Single, Culcutta Single.
Double
Swarna Rekha, Suvasini, Vaibhak, Mexican Double, Culcutta Double
There are three types of tuberoses named on the basis of the number of rows
of petals they bear.
Single – Flowers with single row of petals, single type has the most fragrance
Semi- Double – it bears two to three rows of corolla segments.
Double - More than three rows of corolla segments
Description – P.tuberosa
-P.tuberosa has a tuberous root-stock and a mass of basal foliage.
-The leaves are pale-green, long, narrow and very dense. The leaves at the base are 30 to 40
cm long, 1.2 to 1.5 cm in width, sometimes reddish near the base.
- The flowering stems are long and can reach a height of up to 100 cm, although 60 to 75
cm is normal. It is approximately the top third of the stem which bears the pure, white,
waxy-textured raceme of bloomsThe flowers are borne in pairs on a lax spike and are 3 to 6
cm in length.
-The segments are 1 to 2 cm long, the tube is long, narrow and funnel-shaped, slightly bent
near the base.
-The filaments are attached to the upper part of the corolla.
-The ovary is 3-celled, there are 3 stigmas which are ovate-falcate.
-The fruit is crowned by a persistent perianth, and the seeds are flat.
Leaves
Mostly basal, simple, alternate, exstipulate, more or less linear, entire, parallel
venation
Inflorescence - Usually on a long leafless scape/ spike, one or more spathes or bracts
Androecium
Stamens 6, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 each, eiphyllous, present opposite to tepals,
inserted at the throat of perianth tube, anthers dithecous.
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, numerous ovules in each locule,
axileplacentation ; style 1; stigma capitate.
A family of over 250 genera and over 2500 species. About 70 genera and over 340
species have been reported from India.
Systematic Position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Personales
Selected genera
Acanthus, Adhathoda, Barlaria, Eranthemum, Ruellia, Thunbergia, Crossandra
Field Recognition
• Herbs, shrubs or trees
• Leaves opposite decussate
• Flowers zygomorphic
• Corolla bilipped (2/3)
• Seeds capsule
Corolla
The corolla is sympetalous , usually 5-merous, mostly zygomorphic, and commonly 2
lipped.
Androecium
The androecium usually consists of 4 didynamous stamens or only 2 stamens adnate to
the corolla tube or epigynous zone, alternate with the lobes .
Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of a single compoundpistil of 2 carpels, a single style, and
a superior ovary with 2 locules, each with usually 2-10 axile ovules in one or
two collateral vertical tiers . An annular nectary disk is usually found around the base of
the ovary.
Fruit
The fruit is commonly an elastically dehiscent loculicidal capsule. The seed
stalk or funiculus of each seed is modified into a hook shaped jaculator
or retinaculum that functions in flinging out the seeds during dehiscence.
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Lecture - 17
Botany of Caryophyllaceae(Pink Family)
Represented by about 75 genera and over 2000 species. Over 20 genera and
about100 species have so far reported from India
Systemic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Caryophyllineae
Selected genera
Antigonon, Dianthus, Gypsophila
Varieties
1. Standard Type – In standard varieties, the flowering buds formed on short lateral
shoots are removed. Leave one large, terminal flower on a long leafy stem. It has one large
flower on an individual stem.
2. Spray Type – The terminal flower bud is removed at an early stage to encourage
more even development of lateral flowers, which then produce a multiple flowered stem.
General Habit
Perennial herbs; stem – herbaceous, nodes swollen at the point of leaf attachment,
branching dichotomous but some time monopodial.
Leaves
Simple, usually opposite decussate, linear to lanceolate, entire, usually exstipulate.
Flowers
Bisexual, bracteate, bracteolate, actinomorphic, hypogynous, pentamerous.
Gynoecium
Carpels 2, syncarpous, superior ovary, numerous ovules in each locule, free central
placentation; style and stigma as many as the carpels.
Pollination
Pollination is entomophilous.Cross pollinated crop.
Systemic Position
Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Iridaceae
Selected genera
Crocus, Gladiolus, IrisBotany of Iradiaceae – Gladiolus or Sword lily
General Habit
Perennial herbs with roots produced from corm (crocus), bulb (Gladiolus) or
rhizome (Iris).
Leaves
These plants produce fan-like clumps of sword-shaped leaves and range in height
from 2 to 6 feet, usually simple, exstipulate, sessile, linear, mostly basal, numerous and
crowded at the base of stem.
Inflorescence
The flowers develop on distinct aerial flowering axis spike or scape; long
spikes of trumpet-shaped blossoms. The flowers open first at the base of the spike with
the older ones dying as the new ones unfurl. The flowers may be frilly, ruffled, or plain
and range in size from 1 inch in diameter up to 8 inches in diameter. Healthy plants
produce two dozen or more flowers on a single stem
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Flowers
Bisexual, bracteate, zygomorphic, epigynous, trimerous; showy, large, and beautifully
coloured; usually subtended individually by 2 apathe like bracts.
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, trilocular, axile placentation; style-1, stigma 3,
Fruit & Seed– Capsule.
BOTANY OF APOCYNACEAE
A family of about 200 genera and 2000 species. About 30 genera and over 60 species
have been reported in India.
Systemic Position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Gentianales
Selected genera
Catharanthus, Nerium, Plumaria, Tabernaemontana, Thevetia, Rawvolfia, Vinca
Cultivars - Single Rose, Single White, Single Red and Double Types.
Plant
It is widely grown in tropical and subtropical gardens, parks, avenues and is popular
for its hue and fragrance.
Leaves
Simple, exstipulate, dark dusty green leathery narrow leaves, which grow in whorls.
They are narrow lance like , 5-21cm long and 1-3.5 cm broad, and with an entire margin.
Flower
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The flowers grow in clusters at the end of each branch; they are white, pink or red ,
2-2.5 cm diameter; Bisexual, bracteate, bracteolae, pentamerous, hypogynous,
actinomorphic.
Corolla - 5 petals fringed at the base, gamopetalous (As tube/funnel shaped), twisted.
Androecium
5 stamens, epipetalous, alternate with corolla tube; filaments hairy and twisted,
anthers dithecous.
Gynoecium
Usually bicarpellary, syncarpous, many ovules per carpel, marginal placentation;
style one, simple, stigma characteristicly thickened and bilobed (crown shape).
A necteriferous disc is often present around or at the base of the gynoecium
Fruit
The fruit is a long narrow capsule 5-23 cm long, which splits open at maturity to
release numerous downy seeds (crown of hairs).
Inflorescence - Racemose
Flowers
Rose – purple or white axillary pairs, pedicillate, hermaphrodite, complete,
actionomorphic hypogynous
Gynoecium
2 carpels free below but united in the stylar region 2 ovaries free, single style with
dumbbell shaped stigma
Fruit
Follicles elongated 2 fruits and firmed seed are small black in colour 1g contains 835
seeds.
Geraniaceae is a family of about 11 genera and 780 species. Only 3 genera and about 25
species have been reported in India
Selected genera
- Geranium, Pelargonium
Systemic position
- Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Geraniales
Geraniales
- Stamens twice as many as petals; Disc present
- Ovary multicarpellary and syncarpous
- Style persistent with fruit
Field recognition
- Herbs; leaves palmately lobed or dissected ; Pentamerous flower
2 types of geranium
1. Algerian or Tunisian – slender, dark pink flower, suitable for wet condition
2. Bourbon or Reunion – Sturdy, light pink flowers, more suitable for wet condition
Leaves
Leaves are alternate, stipulate, simple with 5 primary lobes and secondary lobes and
densely pubescent. Leaves are highly aromatic
Androecium
Androecium – Stamens 10, filaments subequal, united at the base, dithecous and shed easily
Gynoecium
Gynoecium – The ovary is hairy, superior, penta carpellary syncarpous; style is hairy
distally breaking into 5 stigma.
Gramineae, the largest and most important family of angiosperm from the economic
point of view. It is represented by about 620 genera and over 10000 species.About 240
genera and over 1200 species have been reported in India.
Systemic Position
- Monocotyledons, Glumaceae (reduced perianth, bracts large, scaly) , Gramineae
Field Recognition
- Herbs with round stem (culm), having hallow internodes
- leaves mostly flat, ligule present
- bracts of glumes, lemma and palea
- Fruit - caryopsis
Lemongrass
i. East Indian Lemon grass – Cymbopogon flexuosus
Commercially cultivated in Kerala. It is popularly known as Cochin Oil.
ii.West Indian Lemon grass – Cymbopogon citrates
iii. Jammu Lemon grass – Cymbopogon pendulus
General Habit
Perennial herbs; round stem (culm), having hallow internodes, prostrate, branched
at base,
Leaves- Simple, crowded at the base and consisting of sheath, blade and ligule.
Inflorescence
Terminal Panicle, the basic unit of inflorescence is a spikelet, each spikelet consists of
one or more flowers
Flowers
Flowers also called florets, are small, bisexual, Zygomorphic, hypogynous, develop on
the rachilla above the glume. Each floret is subtended by 2 bracts called lemma and palea.
A family of about 200 genera and 3,500 species. About 65 genera and over 400
species have been reported in India
Selected genera
- Coleus, Lavandula, Leucas, Mentha, Ocimum, Salvia.
Systemic position
- Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Lamiales
Field recognition
- Aromatic herbs or shrubs with square stem
- leaves, opposite, decussate
- inflorescence, verticillaster
- Flowers, zygomorphic, pentamerous
- Ovary, 4 lobed; fruit, schizocarpic
Coleus (2n=30)
-Coleus – Coleus forskohlii Brig.
-Origin – India
-Economic part – Tuberous root
-Chief constituent – Forskohlin
-Uses – Hypertension & glaucoma
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-Variety – K8
-Propagation – Cuttings
Patchouli (2n=34)
-Patchouli – Pogostemon patchouli Pellet.
-Native – Philiphines
-Exploited for essential oils
-Economic part – Leaves
-Chief constituent – Patchouli alcohol
-Uses – Cosmetics, drugs, Flavouring, perfumery
-Varieties
Johore (It yields best quality oil)
Singapore
Indonesia
Mint
- Japanese mint – Mentha arvensis L.
- Peppermint – M. piperita L.
- Spearmint – M. spicata L.
- Bergomot mint – M. citrata L.
Origin – Meditrerranean Region
Economic part used – leaves
Uses – Cosmetics, culinary purposes, flavoring , perfumery
Chief constituent - Menthol (65 – 75%)
Oil content – 0.4%
Varieties
- Japanese mint – Himalaya, Kalka, shivalik,
- Peppermint – Kukrail,
- Spearmint – Arka, Neera (CIMAP)
- Bergomot mint – Kiran
Basil
-Common or French or Sweet or roman basil- Ocimum basilicum L.
-Exploited for essential oil
-Chief constituent – linalool (55%), Methyl Chavicol (70%)
-Economic parts – Herbs, leaves & seeds\
-Propagation - Seeds
General Habit
Perennial herbs with square stem, covered with glandular scales.
Leaves
Simple, opposite; often hairy and with epidermal glands secreting volatile oils.
Inflorescence
Cymose, the cyme at nodes condensed into verticillaster
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Verticellaster
It is a special type of inflorescence seen in Leucas. At each node of the stem
two axillary opposite cymose inflorescences develop on either side. The cyme in the
axil of each leaf, starts as a dichasial cyme but subsequently become monochasial
scorpioid cyme. As a result the cyme bends round the stem on either side and meets
a similar cyme from the opposite side. Hence, at each node there is a cluster of
flowers completely surrounding the stem.
Flowers
Bracteate, bracteolate, bisexual, zygomorphic, rarely actinomorphic (Mentha)
Calyx
5 sepals, gamosepalous or united into funnel or campanulate tube, persistent in
fruit, valvate, usually 2 lipped (1/4 in ocimum)
Corolla
5 petals, gamopetalous, 2 lipped (4/1 in ocimum- 4 in posterior lip & 1 in anterior
lip), valvate
Androecium
4 stamens, didynamous, epipetalous, filaments free.
Gynoecium
Bi carpellary, syncarpous; ovary superior, deepely 4 lobed, 2 ovules in each locule,
axile placentation; style 1, stigma bifid, hypogynous, nectar secreating disc is present.
Represented by about 220 genera and 3500 species. About 60 genera and 360
species have been reported in India
Selected genera
- Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Veronica
Systematic position
- Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Personales
Botany of Digitalis
-Fox – Glove : Digitalis lanata Ehrh. &Digitalis purpurea
-Native : Europe
-Important bio principles – Digitoxin, Gitoxin and Digoxin
-Mainly for heart ailments
-Economic part - Leaves
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Digitalis lanata
- Glycoside content 1-1.4 %
- Shorter inflorescence with smaller flowers having cream or yellow colours
Digitalis purpurea
- gylcoside content 0.2 to 0.4 %
- purple coloured much elongated raceme
Leaves : Simple, exstipulate, alternate; both stem and leaves are hairy.
Inflorescence : Spike
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, bilocular, unmerous ovule, axile
placentation; style simple, stigma bilobed, nectar secreating disc present below the ovary.