INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Information technology is an all-embracing term referring to the storage, processing or transferring

of information using electronic means. The term I.T has more recently been upgraded to become
I.C.T, to include the word Communication. I.C.T therefore, is the technology required for
information processing, in particular, the use of electronic computers, communication devices and
software applications to convert, store, protect, process transmit and retrieve information from
anywhere, anytime.

ICT equipment or facilitates in an organization

Most organizations have a fairly impressive range of ICT devices and equipment. Across all sizes of
organizations there is generally clear evidence of ICT. ICT is an umbrella term that includes any
communication device or application, encompassing; radio, television, cellular phones, computer
and network hardware and software, satellite systems, photocopiers, telephones, fax machines,
printers etc., as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as
videoconferencing and distance learning.

Invariably, these and many other devices are considered integral to an organization, as they assist
management and employees to achieve some of the tasks discussed below.

Figure 1: Some ICT equipment

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Uses of ICT in organizations

Information Communication Technology has become a vital and integral part of every business plan.
From multi-national corporations who maintain mainframe systems and databases to small
businesses that own a single computer, ICT plays a role. The reasons for the omnipresent use of
computer technology in business can best be determined by looking at how it is being used across
the business world.

1. Communication: For many organizations, email is the principal means of communication

between employees, suppliers and customers. Email was one of the early drivers of the
Internet, providing a simple and inexpensive means to communicate. Over the years, a
number of other communications tools have also evolved, allowing staff to communicate
using live chat systems, online meeting tools and video-conferencing systems. Voice Over
Internet Protocol (VOIP) telephones and smart-phones offer even more high-tech ways for
employees to communicate.
2. Inventory Management: When it comes to managing inventory, organizations need to
maintain enough stock to meet demand without investing in more than they require.
Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains,
triggering an order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a pre-determined
amount. These systems are best used when the inventory management system is connected to
the point-of-sale (POS) system. The POS system ensures that each time an item is sold, one
of that item is removed from the inventory count, creating a closed in1formation loop
between all departments.
3. Data management: The days of large file rooms, rows of filing cabinets and the mailing of
documents is fading fast. Today, most organizations store digital versions of documents on
servers and storage devices. These documents become instantly available to everyone in the
company, regardless of their geographical location. Companies are able to store and
maintain a tremendous amount of historical data economically, and employees benefit from
immediate access to the documents they need. Special data analysis tools are used to discover
hide data patterns and relationships between different data entities.
4. Data mining, data analysis and knowledge management: Organizations use Information
Technology to extract new or hidden interesting patterns and relationship in huge amount of

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 data. They use qualitative and quantitative techniques and processes used to enhance
productivity and business gain. Data is extracted and categorized to identify and analyze
behavioral data and patterns. Information Technology is used by organizations to facilitate
sharing as well as accelerated growth of knowledge. Information Technology allows the
movement of information at increasing speeds and efficiencies.
5. Data processing systems: Storing data is only a benefit if that data can be used effectively.
Progressive companies use that data as part of their strategic planning process as well as the
tactical execution of that strategy. Data processing systems enable organizations to track
sales data, expenses and productivity levels. The information can be used to track
profitability over time, maximize return on investment and identify areas of improvement.
Managers can track sales on a daily basis, allowing them to immediately react to lower-than-
expected numbers by boosting employee productivity or reducing the cost of an item.
6. Customer Relationship Management: Organizations are using ICT to improve the way
they design and manage customer relationships. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
systems capture every interaction a company has with a customer, so that a more enriching
experience is possible. If a customer calls a call center with an issue, the customer support
representative will be able to see what the customer has purchased, view shipping
information, call up the training manual for that item and effectively respond to the issue.
The entire interaction is stored in the CRM system, ready to be recalled if the customer calls
again. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits from
improved productivity.
7. Service delivery to customers: Generally, today’s modern businesses pride themselves on
being customer focused and consumer oriented, and many have invested in ensuring that
their frontline staff are versed in customer service. Private sectors and governments are using
technology to improve service delivery and efficiency by providing certain services online
and introducing e-commerce facilities, which at the very least, offer customers a more
convenient and efficient experience.
8. Organizations’ responsiveness to new developments: Organizations are using ICT as a
major aid in:

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 a) Processing data generated from a diverse range of channels (e.g. sales, web analytics,
inventory control, customer feedback, industry data, etc.), which, if handled correctly, can
flag developing issues and be the motivation towards important strategic decisions.

b) Facilitating the implementation of the decisions that have been made, through innovative
and cost-effective options.

9. Competitive advantage: Organizations are adopting technology to, grow market share,
improve visibility or become the preferred vendors or service providers. ICT is instrumental
in achieving these goals, it achieves this through
a) Streamlining, optimizing and automating certain internal processes, which can reduce
delays, human error, red tape, and the complexity of certain processes
b) Introducing operational efficiencies that can reduce costs and improve the bottom line
c) Implementing new measures that can ultimately add value to the customer and improve his
or her experience with the organization.
10. Organizations’ overall performance: ICT is introducing a paradigm shift mostly in micro,
small and medium sized businesses many of which have limited resources, and might be
looking for ways to take their operations to the next level, by helping them to re-evaluate,
what is viable, how they can raise the bar and perform better, and what new services,
products and quality standards should be introduced.

Office automation

Office automation is synonymously referred to as electronic office. It is a combination of various

technologies means to improve the efficiency office work and also to reduce the number of office
staff under employment. Office automation tools at present are computer based information systems
that collect, process, store and transmit electronic messages, documents and other forms of
communications among individuals, work groups and organizations. Such systems can increase the
productivity of managerial users and offer access and receive business communication.

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Office automation tools

Office automation is achieved by use of the following tools:

1. Electronic publishing tools: These are office automation tools used to manipulate words,
number and images to meaningful documents like newsletters, books, letters etc. Examples
of electronic publishing tools include, word processing systems and desktop publishing.
2. Electronic communication tools: These are office automation tools that allow
organizations to send messages in text, video or voice form or transmit copies of documents
within seconds. They enable the transmission and distribution of text and images in
electronic form over telecommunication networks, thus reducing the flow of paper
messages, letters, memos, documents and reports that floods the inter office systems.
Electronic communication tools include:
 Electronic mail: Electronic mail (Email) has changed the way people work and
communicate. This is an electronic communication tool which enables millions of end users
to send and receive electronic messages.
 Voice mail: Voice mail also known as voice store and forward is an electronic
communication tool which allows the end users to exchange digitized voice messages,
rather than electronic text. The voice message is stored on a magnetic disk device of the
voice mail computer system. Whenever there is need to hear the voice mail, a mailbox is
dialed and the message is listened to.
 Facsimile (FAX): Facsimile is an electronic communication tool which allows the
transmission of images of important documents over telephone or other telecommunication
links. A fax machine at one office location transmits to another fax machine at another
location, with both machines connected to high speed modems.
3. Electronic meetings tools: These are office automation tools that allow conferences and
meetings to be held with participants who may be scattered across the room, a building, a
country or the globe by use of video and audio communications. Electronic meetings tools
include:
 Teleconferencing: This is electronic meeting tool that allows meeting sessions to be
held in real time, with major participants being televised while participants at remote
site take part with voice input of questions and responses. This tool can also use

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 closed circuit television to multiple small groups, instead of television broadcasting
to reach a large group of multiple sites.
 Telecommuting: This is electronic meeting tool that allows use of
telecommunication by workers to replace commuting to work from their homes.
Workers are able to carry on work activities from temporary locations other than
offices and homes (virtual offices)
4. Office management tools: These are office automation tools that provide support services
to managers and other office professionals to help them organize their work activities by
automating manual planning methods such as paper calendars, appointment books,
directories, file folders, memos and notes. This is achieved through the use of office
management software.
5. Image processing and documents management tools: These are office automation tools
that allow end users to electronically capture, store, process and retrieve images of
documents that may include numeric data text, handwriting, graphics and photographs.
These tools may interface with other electronic document presentation tools such as word
processing, desktop publishing electronic mail and voice mail. Image processing and
documents management tools include:
6. Videotext tools: These are office automation tools that allow sending and receiving
information and displaying it on screen using either broadcasting or telephone lines.
Videotext tools include:
 View data: These are two way systems for transmitting text or graphics stored in computer
databases via telephone networks, for display on a TV screen.
 Teletext: This is a non-interactive, i.e. one-way, form of videotext transmitted as part of a
TV broadcast. Information such as the latest news headlines, racing results, financial
information, weather forecast etc. are put on top of a normal program picture or can be
viewed separately.
7. Electronic Funds transfer (EFT) tools: These are office automation tools in form of
computer software and telecommunication facilities that are used to switch money from one
account to another. Banks link up their branches and with other banks and customers in
order to facilitate Electronic Funds transfer (EFT).

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 8. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) tools: These are office automation tools that enable a
direct computer to computer exchange of standard business documents, such as invoices,
bills of lading and purchase orders, between two separate organizations.

Areas of Computer Applications

Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. Computer technology has revolutionized
the businesses and other aspects of human life all over the world. Practically, every company, large
or small is now directly or indirectly or dependent on computers for data processing. Computer
systems help the efficient operations of railway and airway reservation, hospital records, accounts;
electronic banking etc. computers not only save time but also save paper work. Some of the areas
computers are being used include:

1. Education: Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid for imparting education.
Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures. Computers are
used to develop computer-based training packages, Computer Aided Education (CAE) and
Computer Based Training (CBT) packages are making learning more interactive. They are
also used to provide distance education using e-learning software and to conduct online
examination. Common computer packages used in education include:
a) Computer Aided Teaching (CAT): Assists in teaching and preparing of lessons for
studying.
b) Computer Aided Assignment (CAA): Assists in marking of exam papers with multiple
choices.
c) Computer Aided Learner (CAL): Assists in research and learning.
d) Computer Managed Learning (CML)/ Computer Managed Instruction (CMI): Assists
in administrative resources i.e. organize student’s data, timetables and in libraries to manage
identities.

Students can attend virtual classrooms and online courses or workshops e.g. through
teleconferencing. Researchers use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details
and to get global access to research materials.

2. Science: Scientists use computers to develop theories and to analyze and test data. The high
speed and accuracy of computers allow different scientific analyses to be carried out. They

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 can be used to generate detailed studies of how earthquakes affect buildings affect buildings
or pollutions affects weather patterns. Satellite-based applications are not possible without
the use of computers. Moreover, it would not be possible to get the information on the solar
system and the cosmos without computers. Complex scientific applications like the launch of
the rockets, space exploration are not possible without the computer.
3. Engineering /Architecture/Manufacturing: The architects and engineers are extensively
using computers in designing and drawing using (CAD) applications. Computers are used to
create and visualize three-dimensional objects. By using techniques like virtual reality,
architects are able to explore houses that have been designed but not built. Manufacturing
factories use computerized robotic arms to perform hazardous jobs. Besides, computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) can be used in designing the product, ordering the parts and planning
production. Thus, computers help in coordinating the entire manufacturing process.
4. Medicine and health care: There has been an increased use of computers in the use of
medicine. Now, doctors are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to monitoring
a patient status during complex surgery e.g. laparoscopic operations. By using automated
imaging techniques doctors are able to look inside a person’s body and can study each organ
in details e.g. CT and MRI scans. There are several examples of special purpose computers
that can operate within a human body such as cochlear implant, a special kind of hearing that
makes it possible for deaf people to hear. Medical researchers and practitioners use
computers to access information about the advances in medical research or to take opinions
of doctors globally. The medical history of patient is stored in the computers
5. Government: The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also e
governance. The websites of different governments departments provide information to the
users. Computers are used in the filling of the income tax returns, paying taxes, online
submissions of water and electricity bills, for the access of land records details etc. The
police department uses computers to search for criminals using figure print matching.
6. Entertainment: Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. They are
used to control the images and sounds. The user can download and view movies, play games
chart, book tickets for cinemas halls, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual
and sound effects.

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7. Sports: A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play
games like chess or scrabble and create games. They are also used for the purpose of training
players.
8. Advertisement: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisements can be displayed
on different websites; electronic mail can be sent and reviews of products by different
customers posted. Computers are used to create an advertisement using the visual and sound
effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which advertisements can be view
globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plan of almost all
companies.
9. Communication: Email or electronic mail is one of the communication media in which
computer is used. Through emails, messages and reports are passed from one person to
another with the aid of computer and telephone line.
10. Business application: This is one of the most important uses of the computer. Initially
computers were used for batch processing jobs where one does not require mediate response
from a computer. Currently computers are used for real-time applications e.g. the Point of
Sale (POS) system that require immediate response from the computer. Businesses are using
computer to perform tasks like business forecasting, to prepare pay bills and personal
records, in banking operations and data storage, in various types of life insurance businesses
and as an aid to management. They are also using computer networks, where several
computers are connected to share data and information. Use of email and internet has
redefined business processes.
11. Banking: Computers are extensively used in the field of banking and finance. People can use
the ATM (Automated Teller Machine) 24 hours a day to with draw and deposit cash. When
different branches of the bank are connected through computer networks, the inter bank
transactions such as Cheque and draft can be performed without any delay.
12. Transportation: The transport facilities are making increasing use of computers. Computer
based ticket reservation systems for berths and seats has become a boon to rail and air travel.
Computer controlled ticket machines are being used to facilitate the automatic checking of
tickets. Maintaining the flow of automobile traffic in congested areas is of paramount
important and an ever-increasing problem. Intelligent traffic management systems assists

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 with the control of traffic lights and public transport management systems are used to
maintain order in the transport industry in the world’s major cities.
13. Home: Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home people
use computers to play games, to maintain home accounts, for communication with relatives
via internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are embedded
in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theaters security
devices etc.

Impact of ICT in contemporary society

The society in which we live has undergone rapid and wide spread technological change, a
‘technological revolution’. Technological revolutions are associated with
 Social change in practical living conditions.
 Altered structures of economic and social life
 Movement in social altitudes and values.
 Shifts in patterns of employment.
ICT infuses work, leisure, learning and home life. The changes have come about quickly and have
affected people in the practical ways in which they live their lives and in the cultural ways in which
they see and related to each other. These changes to practical life can be beneficial to many and
also raise questions about the underlying values of the societies in which they are being developed.
Some of the effects of Information Communication Technology on society include:
Effects on Individuals
Positive effect

1. Access to information: Possibly the greatest effect of ICT on individuals is the huge
increase in access to information and services that has accompanied the growth of the
Internet. Some of the positive aspects of this increased access are better, and often cheaper,
communications, such as VoIP phone and Instant Messaging. In addition, the use of ICT to
access information has brought new opportunities for leisure and entertainment, the facility
to make contacts and form relationships with people around the world, and the ability to
obtain goods and services from a wider range of suppliers.

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 2. Improved access to education: New ways of learning, e.g. interactive multimedia, distance
learning and online tutorials and virtual reality. New job opportunities, e.g. flexible and
mobile working, virtual offices and jobs in the communications industry.
3. New tools, new opportunities: ICT gives access to new tools that did not previously exist.
 ICT can be used for processes that had previously been out of the reach of most individuals,
e.g. photography, where digital cameras, photo-editing software and high quality printers
have enabled people to produce results that would previously require a photographic studio.
 ICT can be used to help people overcome disabilities e.g. screen magnification or screen-
reading software enables partially sighted or blind people to work with ordinary text rather
than Braille.
 ICT has changed baking processes through the introduction of mobile banking
 ICT has revolutionized the business world through mobile money transfer services e.g.
Ecommerce, Mpesa, Mobile banking etc.
 ICT has created many ICT related jobs.

Negative

1. Reduced personal interaction (isolation): Being able to work from home and online
collaboration is usually regarded as being a positive effect of using ICT, but there can be
negative aspects as well. Most people need some form of social interaction in their daily lives
and if they do not get the chance to meet and talk with other people, they may feel isolated and
unhappy. In the family setting, family members are losing touch with each other since during
family time, technology is taking the place of personal interaction.
2. Reduced physical activity: Technology may lead to people adapting to a more users may
adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. This can lead to health problems such as obesity, heart
disease, and diabetes. Many countries have workplace regulations to prevent problems such
as repetitive strain injury or eyestrain, but lack of physical exercise is rarely addressed as a
specific health hazard.

Effects on individual’s health

 Repetitive strain injuries: These are injuries resulting from wrist, hand, arm and muscle
strain, neck strain due to forced repetitive movement e.g. when entering data using

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 keyboard. This can be avoided by sitting in a relaxed position and changing typing
techniques.
 Eye strain and headache: Since computer users have their eyes at close, range with
monitor, there is danger of developing the Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS). The
syndrome is characterized by eye strain, headache etc. The solution to this problem is to use
monitors with good resolution and fitted with antiglare screen that filters excess light,
specific changes in screen brightness.
 Electromagnetic Emissions: These are waves of electrical and magnetic energy that are
emitted by current carrying conductors. Computer users are advised to use low emission
devices in order to avoid exposing themselves to excess emissions.
 Stress: Mental stress is another complaint. Many people who work at computer feel that
they are expected to produce more and do it faster because computers themselves are fast.
And those being monitored by computers frequently feel additional pressure.
 Other Illnesses: There have been reports that VDU emit radiations that cause, birth defects
blindness, cancer, miscarriages, sterility etc.
 Toxin: Workers in computer chip manufacturing industries are exposed to toxic chemicals
that may pose health hazards similar to those feared from VDU.

Effects on culture

Positive

 Globalization: The world has developed into a global village due to the help of information
technology allowing countries who are not only separated by distance but also by language
to shares ideas and information with each other.
Negative

 Moral decadence: It has changed the way we talk, affected our primary, human right and
integrity. Internet users are exposed to many things e.g. watching pornographic materials,
chatting online, sending dirty messages online etc. that affect morals negatively. People also
use computers as a tool to accomplish their vices e.g. forging documents such as certificates,
passports etc.

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  Social problems: ICT has created social problems in the society nowadays people tend to
choose online communication rather than having real time conversation. People tend to
become more individualistic and introvert.
 Computer crime: Computers and the internet are used to undertake illegal activities. These
activities are known as computer crimes and they include data manipulation, time bomb,
data stealing, eavesdropping, industrial espionage.

Effects on organizations

There are three main areas in which organizations are affected by the use of ICT, communication,
information management and security.
Positive
1. Effects on Communication:
 Faster communication speed: With the capability of bandwidth broadband and
connection speed on the internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant.
E.g. use of Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP), email, Instant Messengers (IM),
Video conferencing etc.
 Lower communication cost: Using internet is cost effective than the other modes of
communication, E.g. VOIP instead of normal telephone, email / messaging instead
of post, video conferencing instead of traveling to meetings, e-commerce web sites
instead of sales catalogues. People can access amount of data at a very low cost with
internet.
 Reliable mode of communication: With internet, information could be accessed
and retrieved from anywhere and at any time. E-commerce websites allow access to
larger, even worldwide, markets. Web sites can be seen from all parts of the world
and orders can be taken wherever there is a compatible banking system to process
payments, e.g. credit / debit card, Pay-Pal, bank transfer facility.
 Flexible response: Organizations with good communications can respond to
changes quickly. This may mean better customer relations, an improved supply
chain for goods and services, faster development of new products to meet a new
opportunity, etc.

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  Effective sharing of information: With ICT, information can be shared by people
all around the world. People can share and exchange opinions, news and information
through discussion groups, forums on the internet.
2. Information management: Organizations can benefit from using ICT for information
management. E.g., Data mining of customer information to produce lists for targeted
advertising. Improved stock control, resulting in less wastage, better cash flow, etc. Mangers
are better informed and will have more reliable and up-to-date information on which to base
their decisions.
3. Security: Although the use of ICT can bring its own security issues, see next section, it can
also solve or reduce some security problems, e.g. Encryption methods can keep data safe
from unauthorized people, both while it is being stored or while it is being sent
electronically. This is important for reasons such as data protection legislation or
commercial secrecy. ICT enables physical security systems such as fingerprint, iris or facial
recognition.
4. Effects on employees
 Job creation: ICT has introduced new employment opportunity that never existed
before. It has resulted in creation of job opportunities in various economical fields. Jobs
created include programmers, system analyst, network administrators, software
engineers, web administrators etc.
 Job displacement: This is the process of replacing man power manual with the help of
a few skilled and highly trained people. Computer illiterate staff are deployed to
departments where the tasks performed do not require computer skills. This may occur
due to operations being replaced by automation, e.g. robots replacing people on an
assembly line. In most cases, the eliminated jobs are those involving monotonous and
unskilled labour, computer illiterate employees have been transferred to other areas
where manual labour is involved.
 Job replacement: After automation of tasks, some employees have been rendered
redundant. Job replacement is a situation whereby ICT take the place of redundant and
computer illiterate people at the work place. This may occur due to multiple workers
being replaced by a smaller number who are able to do the same amount of work. E.g. A
worker on a supermarket checkout can serve more customers per hour if a bar-code

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 scanner linked to a computerized till is used to detect goods instead of the worker having
to enter the item and price manually.
 Retraining: Generally, organizations will choose to make full use of their staff rather
than search for new staff who already have skills required. Depending on the nature of
the job, the retraining needed may be radical or quite minor e.g. a typist has keyboard
skills which are quite readily transferable to the task of word processing.
 Redeployment: Computerization generally reduces manpower but increases the
opportunities for business expansion. Redeployment means moving staff from one area
of work or responsibility to another, generally with retraining.
 Changes in working practices: Staff may be required to carry out a wider range of
tasks as a result of compensation. Flexibility rather than specialization is often the key to
introduction of new technology.
 Regarding and career prospects: Sometimes, improvement in the job grading is
introduced in order to encourage staff to accept computerization.
 Deskilling: Computerization may lead to reduction of the amount of skills that are
needed to do a particular job, although high level skills are required in the operation of a
computer.

Negative

 Cost: The cost of using ICT may cause several problems for organizations. A lot of ICT
hardware and software is expensive, both to purchase and to maintain. An ICT system
usually requires specialist staff to run it and there is also the challenge of keeping up with
ever-changing technology. These extra costs should be offset by the positive effects of using
ICT, but if an organization gets its cost-benefit analysis wrong, it may lose money.
 Competition: This is usually thought of as being a good thing, but for some organizations,
being exposed to greater competition can be a problem. If the organization is competing for
customers, donations, or other means of funding nationally or even internationally, they may
lose out to other organizations that can offer the same service for less money.
 Security: This is always a problem for any organization that uses ICT. Data must be kept
secure, Internet connections must be protected from attack, new viruses and other forms of
malware are released nearly every day. Organizations will usually have legal obligations to

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 protect data such as protection law it will usually be in the organization’s interest to protect
data from rivals.
 Redundancy: Computerization of office work inevitably reduces the manpower
requirements for the existing level of work, but redundancy does always result. This is
usually because computers are introduced in response to an expansion in the business of an
organization.
 Changes in working: staff may be required to carry out a wider range of tasks as a result of
Computerization.
Effects on education
Positive
On the positive side, the use of ICT in education can provide opportunities that might not
otherwise exist, such as:
 Distance learning, where students can access teaching materials from all over the world,
 The ability to perform ‘impossible’ experiments’ by using simulations,
 The possibility for students to have individual learning programs within a topic, rather than
everybody having to do the same thing at the same time at the same pace. Able students can
be given more challenging work, less able students can access remedial lessons
Negative
There are large costs involved and poorer students / educational establishments can end up being
disadvantaged. This is often referred to as being a factor in the digital divide
 Students, and sometimes teachers, can get hooked on the technology aspect, rather than the
subject content. Just because a topic can be taught via ICT, does not mean that it is taught
most effectively via ICT. Even if a subject can be taught effectively via ICT, and there is the
money available, it does not always follow that there is any advantage to it.
Effects on environmental
Positive
 Paperless environment: ICT has created paperless environment information can be stored
and retrieved through digital medium instead of papers.
Negative
 Energy consumption and radiation: Initially computers consumed a lot of energy hence
generated a lot of heat and emitted electromagnetic radiation. In recent years the

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 Environment Protection Agency (EPA) launched energy star policy to encourage minimal
use of power of electronic devices.
 Environmental pollution: It has contributed to environmental pollution e.g. garbage dumps
of dead computer parts, printers, monitors etc. are disposed in landfills hence causing
environment pollution Nickel Cadmium laptops batteries contain cadmium and when buried
landfills can leak into underground water tables and catchments areas.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

A computer is an electronic device operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specific rules (process), produce
results (output) and store the results for future reference. The word “computer” comes from the
word “compute”, which means to calculate.

Hence, a computer is normally considered to be a calculating device, which can perform arithmetic
operations at enormous speed. A computer operates upon data, data comes in various shapes and
sizes. A computer can store, process and retrieve data as and when desired. The fact that computers
process data is so fundamental that many people have started calling it a data processor.

The computer system

A computer can be viewed as a system, which consists of a number of interrelated entities that work
together with the aim of converting data into information. In a computer system, processing is
carried out electronically, usually with little or no human intervention. The computer is made up of
four main parts namely

1. The system unit (CPU)

2. Monitor
3. Mouse
4. Keyboard

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Figure 2: Main parts of a computer

Any piece of external equipment that is attached to a computer rather than built into it is termed as a
peripheral device. In other words, a peripheral device is any device e.g. printer, scanner etc. that
enhances the capabilities functionalities of computer systems.

Figure 3: The computer system and peripheral devices

Components of a computer
A computer system is a collection of three components that work together to receive, process,
manage and present information in a meaningful format. They are namely:

1. Hardware: Hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a
machine. These are the tangible parts of a computer or the physical that make up a computer

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 system. The devices are required for input, output, processing and storage of data.
Keyboard, monitor, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, printer, processor and motherboard
are some of the hardware devices. They are classified into four categories namely input
devices, central processing unit, output devices and storage devices.
2. Software: A set of programs, documents and data are collectively called software.
Programs are a set of instructions written in a language understood by the computer, to
perform a specific task. Programs tell the computer, the tasks to be performed and how they
will be performed.
3. Live ware: Live ware is an informal term that refers to the human beings’ attachment to
computers. Other terms used are wetware, gray ware and orgware. These may include
users, people who make computer programs (programmers) and computer engineers. This
term refers to the user who commands a computer to perform a certain task.

The hardware of the computer system cannot perform any task on its own. The hardware needs to
be instructed on the task to be performed. Software instructs the computer about the task to be
performed. The hardware carriers out these tasks. Different software can be loaded on the same
hardware to perform different kinds of tasks. Instruction to a computer are given by the liveware.

Characteristics computers

The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful tool. The
usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its following characteristics:

1. Automatic: A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without human

intervention. Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they carry
on without human assistant until finish. However, being machines, they are instructed i.e.
they work from a program of coded instructions, which specifies how a particular job is to
be done. Some of the other characteristics of computers such as accuracy, are due to the fact
that they are automatic and work on a problem without any human intervention.
2. Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per
second. Some calculations that could have taken hours and days to complete otherwise can
be completed in a few seconds using a computer. The computer has units of speed in

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 microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond. It can perform millions of calculations
in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months for doing the same task.
3. Accuracy: In addition to being very fast, computers provide a high degree of accuracy. The
accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of accuracy of a particular
computer depends upon the application programs installed in it. However, for a particular
computer, every calculation is performed with the same accuracy. Errors can occur in a
computer. However, these are mainly due to human rather than computer weaknesses. For
example, errors may occur due to imprecise thinking by the programmer who writes
instructions for a computer to solve a particular problem incorrect data input. Computer
errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred to with the
term Garbage-In-Garbage -Out (GIGO).
4. Consistency: The computer is consistent i.e. it always gives the same result for the same
process. Given the same input and processes, a computer will produce the same results,
consistently. Computers generate error-free results, provided the input is correct and the
instructions work. There will be no variations in results achieved from the same process.
This makes computers ideal for doing tedious and repetitive work.
5. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, being tired and loss of
in a calculations have to be performed, a computer will perform calculations with exactly
the same accuracy and speed as the first one.
6. Storage capacity: Large volumes of data can be stored in the computer and also retrieve
whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored temporarily in the memory.
Secondary storage devices like floppy disk compact disk can store a large amount of data
permanently.
7. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the
same ease. At one moment, you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in
the next moment, you may play music or print a document. Computers have some
limitations too. Computers can only perform tasks that it has been programmed to do any
work without instruction from the user. It executes instructions as specified by the user and
does not make its own decisions.
8. Reliability: Modern computers are dependable and reliable because they rarely break or
fail.

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 9. Power of remembering: A computer can store and recall any amount of information
because of its secondary storage memory capability. Every piece of information can be
retained if desired by the user and can be recalled as and when required. A computer forgets
or loses certain information only when it is asked to do so. Hence, it is entirely up to the
used, to make a computer retain or forget a particular information.
10. No, I.Q: A computer possesses no intelligence of its own. Its I.Q is zero at least until today.
It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence only the user can determine what
tasks a computer will perform. A computer cannot make its own decision in this regard.
11. No feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feeling and no instincts
because they are machines.
12. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby
reducing costs.

DATA PROCESSING

A computer is seen as a device that processes data to produce information. The forms in which data
is accepted or produced by the computer vary enormously from simple words or numbers to signals
sent from or received by other items of technology. Data processing activity can be described as
electronic data processing, if it uses sophisticated processing tools or aids such as computers.

The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing. It is the process of
manipulating or converting data into information. Data processing can also be seen as the collection
and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful information.

As used in data processing, information is data arranged in an order and form, which is useful to
the people who receive it. Hence, data is the raw material used as input to data processing and
information is the processed data obtained as an output of data processing.

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 Figure 1.1 Input-process-output
Figure 4: Data processing

Data and information

Computers process data into information. Data is a collection of unprocessed items (raw facts),
which can include text, numbers, images, audio, and video. It is represented with the help of
characters like alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+, /, *, <,>, = etc.). Data
entered in a computer or received from a data processing system much be complete and accuracy.
This completeness and accuracy of data is known as data integrity.

Factor that determine data integrity

a) Accuracy: This refers to the state of data being true or untrue. As long as the correct
instructions and data are entered, the computation process produces accurate results.
b) Timeliness: Data should be available when need and not outdated when received or when it
is used. If data is not available when needed or its outdate by the time it being used, then it
has little or no value in decision making.
c) Relevance: The data entered must be pertinent to the processing needs at hand and must
meet the requirements of the processing cycle.
d) Audibility: This is the ability of users to check the accuracy and completeness of data. It is
also referred to as verifiability

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Information, on the other hand, is organized or classified data which has some meaningful values
for the receiver. It is processed data on which decisions and actions are based. For the decision to
be meaningful, the processed data must have the following characteristics

1. Timely: Information should be available when required.

2. Accuracy: Information should be accurate.
3. Completeness: Information should be complete.

Need for data processing

Data processing is a very important aspect in any organization of any size or nature since it
generates information for decision making. In order to reach its objectives an organization must be
able to plan ahead, control and coordinate its activities. For this it depends on the provision and
communication of information. Information is likely to be used most effectively if it is seen as a
resource which needs to be exploited to the best advantage by the entire organization. So, when the
computer processes data it performs several separate functions which are collectively known as the
data or information processing cycle.
The data or information processing cycle
Information processing cycle means the various stages which are completed while processing data.
There are four primary stages or functions of a data processing system, input, output, process and
storage. These operations or functions make up the information processing cycle.

DATA COLLECTION

The environment

Boundary Computer system

Figure 4: Information Life Cycle

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Data collection: Data can originate in many forms, but the computer can only accept it in a
machine-readable form. The process involved in getting the data from the point of its origin to the
computer in a form suitable for processing is called data collection. Data collection starts at the
source of the raw data (the environment, i.e. surrounding and end users) and ends when valid data is
within the computer in a form ready for processing.

Data is obtained from the environment through various data collection methods. These methods
include, interview, questionnaire, observation and record inspection. The process of data collection
involves getting the original data to the “processing center”, transcribing it, sometimes converting it
from one medium to another, and finally getting it into the computer. This process involves a great
many people, machines and much expense.

Input: The computer accepts input data from the environment via an input device like the
keyboard. The input data can be character, text, sound images documents etc.
Process: The computer processes (manipulates) the input data. For this, it performs some actions on
the data by using the instructions or programs given by the user of the data. The action could be an
arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a document etc. during processing, the data
instructions and the output are stored temporarily in the computer’s main memory.
Output: The output is the result generated after processing data etc. The computer may display the
output on a monitor, send output to printer for printing, play the output etc.
Storage: The input data, instruction and output are stored permanently in the secondary storage
devices like disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later when needed. The above mentioned
elements apply in manual, mechanical or electronic systems.
The collection of data, processing of data and providing the output are the main objectives of the
data processing system. Collectively these operations process data into information and store it for
future use. A computer drives its power from its capacity to perform, the information processing
cycle with amazing speeds, reliability (low failure rate) and accuracy. Its capacity to store huge
amounts of data and information and its capacity to communicate with other computers.
Historical evolution of computers

Historical development of computers can be traced back to the time when humans were struggling
to invent tools that could simplify mathematical calculation.

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Early discovery

The following are some of the tools invented as prerequisites or predecessors of modern or
electronic computers:

Abacus: The first computers machine was known as Abacus. An abacus was a Chinese counting
instrument which dates back to 3000 BC. The abacus has bead like parts that move along rods. It
was used for small volumes computing in china and Japan for thousands of years B.C.

Napier bones: Napier bones was developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician in the 17th
century who published his log tables in 1614. Napier bones was the first aid of logarithms and
helped in counting. It was made up of marked strips of wood or bone, placed side by side to each
other.

Slide Rule: A slide rule invented by William Oughtred in 17th century is a tool that can be used to
perform arithmetic operations and is based on the concept of logarithms.

La Pascaline machine: In the 17th century, a Frenchman, Blaise Pascal invented the La Pascaline
machine also known as the mechanical calculator, the machine could add and subtract numbers.

Leibniz’s stepped Recknoer: Again in the 17th century, a German mathematician, G.W Leibniz
invented the Leibniz’s stepped Recknoer. This was a more effective calculator, more advanced than
Pascal’s machine as it could also multiply, divide and extract square roots.

Weaving loom: In early 19th century, Joseph Jacquard built a weaving loom which could be
programmed using punched cards to pick out threads and weave them into patterns. This idea of
using punched cards to control patterns helped later inventors to develop calculating machines that
could follow simple instructions.

Start of computer Age

Analytical Engine: In the nineteenth century Charles Babbage, an English mathematician designed
the most outstanding developments in computing, a machine that could calculate a long series of
numbers and print the outcome. He called it the difference engine. Later in 1832, he improved the
design of the machine by incorporating the idea of programming using punched cards. He called it
the analytical engine. The analytical engine was able to combine arithmetic process with decision

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based on its own computer. It is recognized as a milestone signifying the start of the computer age
and Charles Babbage the “father” of the modern computer, however it was never constructed.

Card punching and reading machines: In 1889, Herman Hollerith, a census statistician at the US
census bureau developed card punching and reading machines. He formed his own company later,
“The Computing Tabulating Recording Company”, which is better known today as one of the largest
manufacturers of computers IBM or international Business Machine Corporation, headquarter in the
USA.

Vacuum tubes or thermionic valves: In 1906, Lee Dee Forest made a breakthrough in developing
the technology of “vacuum tubes or thermionic valves” which were used in the first generation of
computers.

Electronic computers: It took several years Babbage designed the analytical engine to come up
with an electronic computer. Between 1941 and 1942, the Mark1 was built by Howard Alken with
IBM’s support and this was the first electro mechanical computer using relays ad switches. In 1946,
The ENIAC- Electronic Numerical Integrated and Calculator, was built for use in World War 2.
From 1946 onwards, the progress in digital computers have been simply amazing. John Van
Neumann outlined the basic requirement for the design of modern digital computers. Electronic
computers are classified into five generations depending on the technology used to develop them,
computing characteristics and physical appearance.

Computer generations

The history of computer development is often discussed with reference to different generations of
computing devises. In computer technology, the word ‘generation’ is described as a stage of
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and more efficient and reliable devices, which
characterized each generation of computer. According to the ‘processor’ installed in a machine.
There are five computer generations namely;

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 First generation computers (1940 to 1956): Using vacuum tubes or thermionic valves

Hardware technology: The first generations of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through punch cards and paper tapes
the output was displayed as printouts.

Software technology: The instructions were written in machine language. Machine language uses
0’s and 1’s for coding of instructions. The first-generation computers could solve one problem at a
time.

Computing characteristics: The computation time was in milliseconds

Physical appearance: These computers were enormous in size and required a large room for
installation.

Application: They were used for scientific applications as they were the first computing devices of
their time.

Examples: UNIversal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numeric Integrator and

Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).

Characteristics

 They used a large number of vacuum tubes or tubes thermionic valves to process and store
information and thus were very large in size.
 They were very slow
 Used magnetic drum memories.
 They generated a lot of heat.
 They consumed a great deal of electricity and hence expensive to operate.
 They were prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance.
 Since they used machine language, they were difficult to program.

Advantages

 Vacuum tubes technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computer.
 They were the fastest calculating devices at that time.

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Disadvantages

 They were too bulky.

 They had small or limited memory.
 They generated a lot of heat and needed time to cool down.
 Consumed a lot of power.

Second generation computers (1956 to 1963): Using transistors

Hardware technology: Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first-generation computers,
transistors allowed computers to become smaller faster cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The
second-generation computers used the magnetic core technology for primary memory. They used
magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage. The input was through punch cards
and output using printouts. They used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were
stored in the memory of the computer.

Software technology: The instructions were written using the assembly language. Assembly
language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for coding of the instructions. It is easier
to write instructions in assembly language, as compared to writing instructions in machine language.
High level programming languages, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were also
developed during this period.

Computing characteristics: The computation time was in micro seconds

Physical appearance: Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes thus the size of
computers was also reduced.

Application: The size of production of these computers was very high, though less than the first-
generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled manually in second generation
computers. Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.

Characteristics

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  They used the technology of transistors as the main electronic component to process and
store information.
 They relied on magnetic core memories.
 They were faster than first generation computers.
 Their storage and memory capacity was bigger than that of first generation computers.
 They were big in size but smaller than the first generation computers.
 They consumed less power than first generation computers.
 They emitted less heat than the first generation computers.
 Processing was reliable than the first generation computers.

Advantages

 They were smaller in size compared to first generation computers.

 They were more reliable
 They generated less heat
 They were less prone to hardware failure

Disadvantages

 Required air conditioning to cool them down

 Required frequent maintenance
 Commercial production was difficult and costly

Third generation computers (1956 to 1963): Using integrated circuits

Hardware technology: The third-generation computers used Integrated Circuits (IC) chips. An
integrated circuit is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor material. It is made by
combining several transistors bundled together as a single chipset. In an IC chip, multiple transistors
are placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use of IC chip increased the
speed and the efficiency of computer, manifold. The keyboard and monitor where used to interact
with the third-generation computers instead of the punched and printouts.

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Software technology: The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the operating system.
Operating system allowed different applications to run at the same time. High-level languages where
used extensively for programming, instead of machine language and assembly language.

Computing characteristics: The computation time was in Nano seconds

Physical appearance: The size of these computers was quite small compared to the second-
generation computers

Application: Computers become accessible to mass audience. Computers were produced

commercially and where smaller and cheaper than their predecessor.

Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.

Characteristics

 They used the technology of integrated circuits (ICs) as the main electronic component.
 They were faster than second generation computers.
 They had large storage and memory capacity than second generation computers.
 They consumed less power than second generation.
 They used less power and generated less heat than the second-generation computer.
 The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual components of the computer
were not required to be assembled manually.
 The maintenance cost of the computer was less compared to their predecessors.
 They were less expensive than first and second generation computers.
 They were more reliable than their predecessors.

Advantages

 They were smaller in size.

 They were more reliable.

30
  They emitted less heat.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failures were rare.
 They required less power.

Disadvantages

 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of integrated circuit.

 They were costly.

Fourth generation computers (1971 to present): Using microprocessor

Hardware technology: They use the Large-Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on small silicon cheap
using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be integrated on a
small silicon chip. This era is marked by the development on a microprocessor. A microprocessor is
a chip, which contains millions of transistors, components and is designed using LSI and VLSI
technology.

This generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computers (Personal Computer). Semiconductor
memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access to memory.
Secondary storage device like magnetic disks become smaller in physical size and larger in
capacity. The linking of computers is another key development of this era the computers were
linked to form networks that led to emergence of the internet. This generation also saw the
development of pointing devices like mouse and handled devices.
Software technology: Several new operating systems like the MS DOS and MS-Windows
developed during this time. This generation computer supported Graphical User Interface (G U I).
GUI is a user friendly that allows users to interact with the computer via menus and icons. High-
level programming languages are used for the writing of programs
Computing characteristics: The computation time is in Pico seconds

Physical appearance: They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation some can
even fit in the palm of the hand.

Application: Computers become widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computers

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become available to the home user

Examples: Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The component of the computer like the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the memory are located on a single chip. In 1981 IBM
introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984 apple introduced the Macintosh.
Characteristics

 They use Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) as their
main electronic components.
 They are faster than third generation computers.
 They have a higher storage and memory capacity than third generation computers.
 The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper
than their predecessor.
 They are portable and more reliable.
 They consumed less power than third generation computers.
 They are cheaper than third generation computers.
 They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors

Advantages

 They are smaller in size because of high component density

 They are very reliable
 They generate negligible heat
 They are not prone to hardware failure.
 They are portable because of their small size
 GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on a computer.
 Networking has resulted in resource sharing and communication among different

32
 computers.

Disadvantages

 Highly sophisticated technology required for manufacturer of LSI chips.

Fifth generation computers (Present and next): Artificial Intelligence (A.I)

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and
self-organization. The fifth generation use Super Large Scale Ultra Integrated (USLSI) chips
that are able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have a large
memory requirement. This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several
instructions to be executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel execution results in faster
processing speed. The Intel duo core microprocessor uses parallel processing. Examples of fifth
generation computers, artificial intelligence and natural language processing systems.

Characteristics

 They use large ultra large scale integration (ULSI), pipelining and parallel architecture as
their main electronic components.
 They are based on logical inference operations.
 They perform parallel operations
 They are faster than fourth generation computers with processing speed being as high as
measurement in terahertz.
 They have big memory capacity than fourth generation computers.
 They are very small size
 They consume less power than all the previous generations computers.
 They emit negligible heat
 Computing devices in this generation use Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate
the human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial intelligence includes areas such as
mimicking human intelligence, robotics and expert systems, Natural Language Processing
(NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, etc.

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Advantages

 They use artificial intelligence.

 They have superior hardware and software products that are small in size.
 They are very small in size.
 They carry out very complex operations
 Massive connectivity to the internet and intranet.

Classification of computers

Computers can be classified in many ways. However, the three most common methods of
classification are by:

 Purpose
 Functionality or data handling technique
 Physical size and processing power.

Classification according to purpose

Computers are designed for different purposes. They can be used for either

General purpose computers: These are computers that are designed to solve a wide variety of tasks
or problems. They are installed with appropriate programs that carry out different tasks.

Specific purpose computers: These are computers that are designed to carry out only one specific
task or a few related tasks. They are specifically designed to solve problems of a restricted nature.
For example, a computer that acts as a thermometer, controlling robots, detecting vibrations or earth
quakes and manufacturing of products, calculators and routers etc.

Classification according to functionality

Different types of computers process data in different ways. According to the basic data handling
techniques, computers can be classified into three categories namely
Analogue computers: These are computers that are designed to process continuous or non-discrete
data only. Continuous data also known as analog data is usually represented using a continuous
wave form such as the one show below

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+1

-1

Figure 4: Analog signal

Examples of analogue data include, speed, volume, temperature and wind data and weight. Some of
the uses of analogue computers include, performing arithmetic and logical operations by measuring
physical changes e.g. a computer that acts as a thermometer, pressure, detecting vibrations or earth
quakes, detect smoke and detect the weather patterns and manufacturing of products in an industry.
in manufacturing, used in process control like monitoring and regulating furnace and pressure.
Weather station, used to record and process physical quantities e.g. wind, temperature cloud speed
etc.
Digital computers
These are computers designed to process data that is discrete in nature. Discrete data also known as
digital data is represented in digital or discrete form of 0’s and 1’s. Digital data is usually
represented using a two-state square waveform as shown below:

+1

-1

Figure 5: Digital signal

Digital computers are the most commonly used types of computers, examples include, Micro
waves, mobile phones, robots, wall clock etc.

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Advantages of digital data over analogue data

 Occupies less space than analogue data.

 Have higher accuracy than analogue data
 Are transmitted faster than analogue data.
 Produces clearer outputs than analogue data

Hybrid computers
These are computers whose data processing feature is a combination of both analog and digital
computers. They process both analog and digital data. Such computers are broadly used in scientific
applications, various fields of engineering and industrial control processes.
Classification according physical size
Based on physical size, performance and application areas computers are generally classified into
four major categories namely
Supercomputers
Supercomputer are the largest, fastest and most powerful computers. They are used to solve
problems requiring complex mathematical calculations. They are widely used in scientific
Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel ASCI red.
PARAM is a series of computers assembled in India by C-DAC (Center of Development and
Advanced Computing) in Pune. PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this.
Characteristics of super computer
 They are the largest in physical size
 They have the greatest processing power
 They are the most expensive computers
 They have the largest memory capacity.
Mainframe computers
Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computer. They
are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized databases. They occupy special wired
air conditioned and are big in size. A wide range of peripheral devices can be attached to a
mainframe computer hence it can support several users, handling massive amounts of input, output
and storage. Mainframes computers are used in large institutions such as governments, banks and

36
large corporations where many people require access to the same data. Some main examples of
main frame are CDC 6600 and IBM ES000 series.
Characteristics of mainframe computers
 They can support many users at a time.
 They have a high processing speed but less than that of supercomputers.
 They have a large storage and memory capacity but less than that of supercomputers.
 They expensive to acquire but less expensive than super computers.
 They are big in size hence not portable but smaller than super computers.
 They allow very many devices to be connected to them including mini computers and
microcomputers.
 They can be used to carry out complex data processing operations.
Mini computers
Minicomputers, also referred to as a small scale mainframe, are digital computers that offer a
cheaper alternative to mainframe computers. They are smaller than main frame computers
generally used in multi-user systems. Minicomputers are mid-way in cost and the capability is mid
that of micro and mainframe computers. They support a limited range of peripheral devices and
may be used as network and internet servers. They are used in various sectors such as commercial
sectors for batch processing operations such as generation of payrolls and other related information
systems.
Characteristics
 They are smaller in size than mainframe computers
 Low processing power than mainframe computers
 Low memory capacity than mainframe computers
 Cheaper than mainframe computers

Micro computers
Microcomputers are small, low cost and single user digital computers also known as personal
computers. They are the smallest in size, cheapest and slowest compared to the other three types.
They are called microcomputers because their processor is very tiny (size of a thumbnail). They are
operated directly by the users. They are used in training/ learning institutions, small businesses
enterprises, communication centers etc.

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 Laptop
Personal computer
Net book

Personal Digital Assistant

Smart phones
(PDA)
Tablets

Figure 6: Micro computers

Microcomputers are further classified into three categories namely:

Desktop: Desktop computers are the most common microcomputers because they are relatively
cheaper. They are called desktop computers they are standalone computers usually placed on a table
or desk.
Notebook: Note book computers, also known as laptops are portable PCs that have the features of a
desktop computer. The advantage of a laptop is that it is small in size, can be carried anywhere, has
a battery backup and has all the functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while
working (hence the name). They are more expensive compared to desktop PC’s. Laptops are
costlier than the desktop machines for the following reasons:
 The technology of miniaturization of components is expensive
 Are smaller than desktop computers and are therefore portable hence convenient.

38
  Have inbuilt battery.
 Most of its peripheral devices are inbuilt

Palm note and pocket computers: Palm notes and pocket computer are the smallest PCs. They are
so small that they can fit into the pocket. Examples of palm note or pocket PC’s include:
 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): These are small computers that can be held on the top
of the palm. Instead of the keyboard, PDAs use a pen or stylus for input. PDAs do not have
a disk drive. They have a limited memory and are less powerful. PDA can be connected to
the internet via wireless connection. Casio and apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA.
Over the last few years PDA have merged into mobile phones to create smart phones.
 Smart phones: These are cellular phones that function both as a phone and a small
computer. They may use a stylus or a pen or may be a small keyboard. They can be
connected to the internet wirelessly. A phones are regarded as computers since they have a
memory, a key pad and screen, they are automated, diligent, programmable and electronic.
 Tablet computer: These are computers that have features like those of laptop computers
but can accept input form a stylus or a pen instead of a keyboard or a mouse. They are
portable computers. Tablet computers are types of desktop computers.
Characteristics

 They are used by one person at a time.

 Their processor is called microprocessor because it is quite small in size.
 They have a slow processing speed.
 They have a small storage and memory capacity.
 They are the cheapest computers.
 Most of them are portable.
 Very limited peripheral devices can be connected to them.
 They can use a wide range of software.

Embedded computers: An embedded computer is a tiny computer embedded into a product

designed to perform specific tasks or functions for that product. For example, computers are
embedded into household appliances such as dishwashers, microwaves, cooktops, washing
machines, sewing machines, DVD players, televisions also contain embedded computers. Cars also

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increasingly use many types of embedded computers to assist in diagnostics, to notify the user of
important conditions such as underinflated tire or an oil filter that needs changing, to control the use
of airbags and other safety devices and help driver to perform tasks.
Characteristics
 They are the smallest of all computers.
 They are designed for specific tasks and specific products.
 They cannot be used as general purpose computers.
Advantages of computers
1. Globalization: Computers have not only brought the world closer together, but it has
allowed the world's economy to become a single interdependent system. This means that we
can not only share information quickly and efficiently, but we can also bring down barriers
of linguistic and geographic boundaries.
2. Communication: With the help of computers, communication has also become cheaper,
quicker, and more efficient. We can now communicate with anyone around the globe by
simply text messaging them or sending them an email for an almost instantaneous response.
The internet has also opened up face to face direct communication from different parts of
the world thanks to the helps of video conferencing.
3. Cost effectiveness: Computers have helped to computerize the business process thus
streamlining businesses to make them extremely cost effective money making machines.
This in turn increases productivity which ultimately gives rise to profits that means better
pay and less strenuous working conditions.
4. Bridging the cultural gap: Computers have helped to bridge the cultural gap by helping
people from different cultures to communicate with one another, and allow for the exchange
of views and ideas, thus increasing awareness and reducing prejudice.
5. Creation of new jobs: Computers have created new and interesting jobs. Computer
programmers, systems analyzers, hardware and software developers and web designers are
just some of the many new employment opportunities created with the help of IT.
6. Development of a digital economy: Computers have made it possible for businesses to be
open 24/7/365 all over the globe and give businesses a global presence through the internet.
This means that a business can be open anytime anywhere, making purchases from different

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 countries easier and more convenient. It also means that you can have your goods delivered
right to your doorstep with having to move a single muscle.
7. Reliability: Modern computers are dependable and reliable because they rarely break or
fail.
8. Consistency: Given the same input and processes, a computer will produce the same
results, consistently. Computers generate error-free results, provided the input is correct and
the instructions work.
9. Communications: Most computers today can communicate with other computers, often
wirelessly. Computers allow users to communicate with one another.

Disadvantages of computers

1. Unemployment: Although computers have streamlined the business process, improved

productivity and created an entire industry with hundreds of thousands of new jobs, the
skills of millions of employees have been replaced by computers. This means that a lot of
lower and middle level jobs have been done away with causing more people to become
unemployed. Some organizations are downsizing and outsourcing jobs to foreign countries
instead of keeping their homeland labor force employed.
2. Violation of Privacy: Though computers may have made communication quicker, easier
and more convenient, it has also bought along privacy issues. From cell phone signal
interceptions to email hacking, people are now worried about their once private information
becoming public knowledge.
3. Dominant culture: While information technology may have made the world a global
village, it has also contributed to one culture dominating another weaker one. For example,
it is now argued that US influences how most young teenagers all over the world now act,
dress and behave. Languages too have become overshadowed, with English becoming the
primary mode of communication for business and everything else.
4. Health risk: Improper and prolonged use of a computer might lead to disorders or injuries
of the elbows, wrist, neck, back, and eyes. Two behavioral health risks are computer
addiction and technology overload. Computer addiction occurs when someone becomes
obsessed with using a computer. Individuals suffering from technology overload feel
distressed when deprived of computers and mobile devices. Computer users can protect

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 themselves from health risks through proper workplace design, good posture while at the
computer, and appropriately spaced work breaks. Technology load and computer addiction
are the major behavioral health risks.
5. Environmental pollution: Computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are
depleting natural resources and polluting the environment. The wasted parts of computer
can release dangerous toxic materials. Green computing is a method to reduce the
electricity consumed and environmental waste generated when using a computer. Green
computing includes recycling and regulating manufacturing processes. Strategies that
support green computing include recycling, regulating manufacturing processes, extending
the life of computers, and immediately donating or properly disposing of replaced
computers.
6. Data Security: The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons
through networks, compromising its integrity and it can also be lost hence measures should
be put in place to ensure data is safe.
7. Dependent on the quality of input data fed: Computer is highly dependent on the quality
of input data fed to it. Though computers are very fast in tasks that are pre-programmed, it
lake the ability of human brain to detect and correct errors that it is not specifically
programmed to do.
8. Rigid: Computer systems are rather rigid. Once a computers system is designed and
programmed, making even minor corrections or improvements can be quite costly and time
consuming. For this reason, a great care is required in design and development of computer
systems.
9. Costly: In most cases, small business owners Do not know how to use a computer for
business purposes, so they have to hire experts to train them and their employees on how to
use computers to accomplish specific business tasks. To some extent, this process is costly
and it takes time. Again, integrating computers in a business can be costly, you do not stop
at buying a computer, you need to invest money in different types of business software, this
software is used to accomplish specific business tasks like accounting, tracking inventory,
sales, data security and so much more. You also have to invest money in computer
maintenance contracts with Geek experts who will service your computers every month to
ensure that they operate efficiently. This all process can be costly.

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 10. Change in technology: Due to the rapid change in technology, the computer and related
facilities can become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
11. Interruption: Changing from the old system, the manual system, is a gradual process
during which there is interruption in the normal working environment.
12. Failure: In case the computer system fails, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to
the old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
Manual systems, though slow, are more flexible as compared to the computerized systems.
13. Resistance: Sometimes, there is resistance from potential users to adapt new technology.
The main reasons for resistance are:
 Fear of change: People are creatures of habit and hence are afraid of change.
 Fear of losing their jobs: People usually associate the computer with loss of jobs and hence
they will be afraid that they might end up losing their jobs.
 Fear of failure: Since the computer is very new in a given working environment, the people
will be afraid that they might never adapt to it.
 Loss of control: The management will be afraid that once a computer is implemented they
might lose control of the organization.
 Lack of understanding: The user may not understand the benefits of the computer system
in their jobs. Thus this will create resistance since the computer will be looked upon as an
intruder.
14. Wastage of time and energy: Many people use computers without positive purpose. They
play games and chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young
generation is now spending more time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter
etc. or texting their friends all night through smartphones which is bad for both studies and
their health. And it also has adverse effects on the social life.

Factor to consider when purchasing a computer

Before purchasing a computer, hardware or software resources, it is advisable to do a requirement

analysis of all the requirements necessary in order to balance between cost and user needs.
Requirements analysis involve, identifying user needs, hardware and software evaluating. How do
you know which kind of computer to buy with so many choices? The following are some of
guidelines to follow and factors to consider while purchasing a computer.

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Major factor to consider when acquiring a computer
Operating system
As you purchase a computer, you have to have in mind what operating system you wish your
computer to have. There are two major operating systems in the computer market namely;
 Windows Operating system

 Macintosh from apple

One has to understand both operating systems in order to make an appropriate choice and so there is
need for a comparison between the two. Let us now do a quick comparison between PCs and
MACs. PCs are usually less expensive than Macs, but Macs are better built. Most software is
designed to run in windows on a PC; the variety of MAC software is more limited. Although you
can run windows on a MAC and run Windows based software on a MAC, it does not always work
as expected. The majority of home users and businesses use windows based PCs. Remember You
often have more flexibility when deciding which components you want to include in a PC further
than buying prepackaged systems
Type of computer
Once you have decided whether to buy a PC or a MAC, you narrow your choice to desktop, tower,
laptop, or notebook computer. If you know, you will always work at home or in a hostel room, buy
a desktop or a tower. They generally are less expensive than portable computers. However, most
people nowadays need a portable computer for use at home, school or work. In that case, your best
choice is a laptop. Net book computers are highly portable and handy but are not designed for
heavy use as a laptop is.
Hardware
It is important to understand basic computer hardware when buying a computer e.g. find out how
much memory a computer holds, the size of hard disk and CPUs capabilities. The most important
computer components to know when comparing computers include:
Random Access Memory (RAM): This is the memory your computer uses to run the operating
system and programs. Most computers have 2 gigabytes (GB) of RAM, which should be considered
the minimum if you want to run several programs at once. It is best to buy as much RAM as you
can afford such as 4 GB or more. Find out how much RAM your computer has and the maximum
amount of RAM you can install.

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Hard disk size: Laptop hard disk tends to be smaller than desktop or tower hard disk. Even so, a
typical laptop hard disk is about 250 GB. Desktop and tower hard disk are 250 GB to more than 1
terabyte (1 TB)
Processor: Processor comes in different speeds, the higher the number the faster the computer will
run. You measure a CPU’s speed in gigahertz (GHZ). Typical ratings are about 2.0 to 2.6 GHZ for
laptops and 2.4 to 3.0 GHZ for desktops. More importantly, find out if the processor is a 32-bit
processor or a 64-bit processor. This affects how much memory your system will support. A 32-bit
processor can handle a maximum of 4GB of RAM. A 64-bit processor can handle much more
RAM.
The dual core processor

The Processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) component of your PC carries out instructions
given to it by your Operating System (Windows.) Think of the processor as a brain that receives
instructions and messages hardware.

A core can be thought of as in individual processor. A multi-core processor is comprised of two or

more independent cores, each capable of processing individual instructions. A dual-core processor
contains two cores, a quad-core processor contains four cores, and a hexa-core processor contains
six cores. A dual-core processor, therefore has two internal processors, a quad-core model has four.
More cores are useful for multi-tasking; for example, you can run two applications at the same time,
each one having access to its own dedicated processor.

It is a CPU with two processors or "execution cores" in the same integrated circuit. Each processor
has its own cache and controller, which enables it to function as efficiently as a single processor.
However, because the two processors are linked together, they can perform operations up to twice
as fast as a single processor can.

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The more cores there are, the more tasks (known as threads) can be served at the same time. The
lowest number of cores can be found in Core i3 CPUs, i.e., which have only two cores. Currently,
all Core i3s are dual-core processors. Phrases like “dual core,” “quad core,” and “octo core” all just
refer to the number of cores a CPU has:

a) Dual Core: Two cores.

b) Quad Core: Four cores.
c) Hexa Core: Six cores.
d) Octo Core: Eight cores.
e) Deca Core: Ten cores.

How many cores do i3, i5, and i7’s have?

a) An i3 processor has two cores

b) An i5 processor has two or four cores (depending on the model you have)
c) An i7 processor has two, four, or six cores (depending on the model you have)

Monitor: Depending on preference, choice of a monitor may depend on size, resolution and
technology used on it. Currently, the flat panel displays are gradually replacing CRTs.

Other factors (Minor factors) to consider when acquiring a computer

Warranty: A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and
conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction. The most important
consideration to make is whether the seller is ready to actually provide after sales services. On top
of the actual cost of the item, most manufacturers and suppliers include a certain percentage charge
to cover the warranty. A good warranty should cover the following points:

a) Scope of cover for example, six months, one year etc.

b) Callout response and liability agreement. For example, how long should the supplier take to
repair a fault or replace the product and if he/ she delays, who bears the cost.

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 c) Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service at intervals

Cost: The cost of a computer system depends on:

a) It is processing capability
b) Whether it is branded or a clone: Branded computers are more expensive than their
equivalent clones.
c) It is size: Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop equivalents because of
the superior technology involved to manufacture smaller components without losing
performance abilities. It is important to do a market survey from magazines, newspapers
and electronic media or visit a number of vendors to compare prices before purchasing a
computer. Computer Information and technology exhibitions also enlighten a buyer on
current trends and costs.

Upgradability and Compatibility: The hardware bought must be compatible across platforms and
platforms and easily upgradable. For example, some older computers cannot support large hard
disks and high speed serial bus devices (USB and fire wire) available in the market today.

Portability: Portable computers such as laptop PDAs are ideal for people who do not take most of
their time in office.

Special user needs: When selecting computers hardware, consider the unique user needs e.g., if a
user is physically challenged, consider buying voice input devices.

Multimedia capability: Multimedia capability refers to the ability for a computer to process and
output text, sound, video and pictures. A multimedia system consists of speakers, CD/DVD drive,
sounds card and a SVGA monitor.

One can also consider available ports, wireless connectivity and the system unit form factor
whether tower type or desktop.

Procedure of procurement of a computer

Computer acquisition necessitates the formation of a steering committee, whose purpose is to

supervise the computer feasibility study and subsequently to monitor the Electronic Data Processing
(EDP) operations. The steering committee is made up of personnel form the various departments at

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various levels that are affected by the introduction of the computer into the organization. The
computer procurement feasibility study should establish:

 The need to acquire the computer facilities.

 How to finance the equipment, i.e. the methods of procuring the equipment needed.
 The computer equipment implementation consideration e.g. user training, change over,
timescales.
 The reaction of the personnel within the data processing department e.g. their resistance
to change.

Prior to feasibility study, preliminary survey is conducted to judge the expected costs and benefits,
computer work load so as to determine whether carrying out feasibility study is necessary and to
specify its objectives.

A detailed investigation of the work area is carried, based on the objectives set out from the
preliminary survey and a schedule is drawn, which takes care of both present and the future
application requirements of the EDP system. Once the schedule is drawn the supplier are asked to
give a detailed quotation. Using the schedule, the supplier should specify the facilities necessary
e.g.

 The required hardware, software and maintenance offered by the manufacturers.

 The cost estimates, depending on the method to be adapted in financing the facilities.
 Backup equipment or procedures provided and the capital involved in maintaining such
strategies.
 Adaptability of the proposed system to enhanced data processing operations.
 Training, advice or seminars offered by the manufacturer.
 Delivery dates

The replies are evaluated by the steering committee and the decisions taken are contained in the
feasibility study report, which contains the following:

 The recommended hardware, software and other facilities.

 The method of procuring the recommended equipment.
 Cost benefit appraisal of the recommended equipment against rejected ones.

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  Installation consideration and the expected growth in the work load.
 The effect of computerization to the organization.

Note: The report is handed to the top management for a decision, to either acquire the facilities of
particular model or to take no action.

Methods of procurement of a computer

The four methods of acquiring and/or financing the computer costs are, rental, purchasing, leasing
and using a bureau.

Renting a computer

This is a very common arrangement of acquiring computer facilities. The computer facilities are
acquired and for use within the aspiring user’s premises at a fixed periodic changes, e.g. monthly
charges, payable to the manufacturer. Most agreements have a minimum rental period such as 90
days. After the minimum period, the user is free to cancel the agreement on short notice, one to two
months.

The flexibility is perhaps the major advantage of the rental alternatives. If users are dissatisfied,
they can simply cancel the alternatives. If users are dissatisfied, they can simply cancel the
agreement. However, the value of this flexibility is often overestimated since the user may have a
large investment in training, preparation and implementation.

Advantages

 Tax allowances are available.

 There is no large initial capital expenditure.
 The effects of technological changes are reduced because during the agreement period, the
charges are fixed hence inflation and maintenance are taken by the manufacturer and
obsolete equipment can be returned.
 The user has more flexibility to change the equipment configuration.

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Disadvantages

 This method of acquiring the computer and its related facilities is usually expensive in the
long term, that is with time more computer varieties and related facilities may be in market
hence prices fall, but rental charges remain fixed.
 The computer and the related facilities remain the assets of the manufacturer and hence
cannot be used by the renting company as a security e.g. while seeking loan facilities.
 In breach of the rental agreement, the computer and the related facilities may be repossessed
by the manufacturer.
 The renting company usually pays more for any extra work done by the computer and its
facilities that was not covered in the rental agreement.
 Productivity of machine comes down with time but rental charges remain the same.

Purchasing a computer

The user, that is the aspiring organization pays the manufacturer or supplier an amount equivalent
to the computer and related facilities’ value and the purchasing company owns the computer and the
related facilities. The payment can be in cash, through bank savings, loan arrangement or hire
purchase arrangements. Whether it is straight purchase or through e.g. hire purchase the buying
company gets the ownership of the facilities including the computer though in hire purchase
arrangement the ownership shall be limited to the extent payments are made. The computer and the
related facilities therefore become full property of the buying company after all the installment
payments are made.

Advantages

 The computer and the related facilities become the assets of the buying company.
 It may be cheaper in the long term with tax advantages.
 Frequently expenditure is not expected, where the manufacturer enters maintenance
agreement with the buying organization.
 The organization can decide to sell the computer and or related facilities to generate cash,
which will depend on the market value of the facility to be sold.

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  Since the organization owns the computer and the related facilities, there are no extra
charges for additional work done, as in renting.

Disadvantages

 In long term the computer and the related facilities may become obsolete, hence the
organization suffers the loss, due to advancement in technology. Note that computer
technology, advances fast generally, though it is dependent on the manufacturers of a
particular computer family and amount of research.
 An organization acquires the computer and its related facilities in order to carry out its data
processing tasks, which keep on changing. A good facility therefore will be that facility
which is flexible to adapt to the current work load of the organization, it is a common
situation where the work load is beyond or much below the computer configuration’s
capabilities.
 There is large initial capital outlay but the returns are usually slow.
 Capital committed in purchasing the computer and its related facilities may be spent on
other higher returning investments for the organization.
 Several other competing investment opportunities would have to be forgone in making the
big cash outflow for purchasing the computer. The outflow would also reduce the
company’s liquidity greatly. If a loan is obtained, then it imposes a burden of repayment and
interest on the organization.

Leasing a computer

The leasing organization (lessor), installs the computer and its facilities in the user’s (lessee’s)
premises. The lessee then pays leasing charges to the lessor, who acquires the computer and its
related facilities from the manufacturer and pays for the equipment. Leasing contracts are similar to
rental contracts but usually for longer periods than those of renting. Leasing contract charges are
low and renewable even at lower rates as compared to rental agreements.

Advantages

 Leasing agreement charges are lower than the rental charges and the contracts are renewable
even at lower rates unlike rental agreements.

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  In leasing, the extra work load for the computer system is not charged for b the lessor.
 It does not require heavy initial investment.
 Lease expenditure being a revenue expense may be charged to the profit and loss account.
 Maintenance charges are included in the lease charges.
 Lease charges generally decline after a specified period.

Disadvantages

 Fixed charges are to be met.

 The computer and the related facilities may be repossessed by the lessor; in case the
leasing contract is beached.
 The computer and the related facilities remain the assets of the lessor.
 Maintenance contracts may not be a guarantee, after a certain period of time, though the
lessee may suffer inflexibility within the lease time e.g. when the equipment fail to adapt
to the functional environments of the organization. This aspect is, therefore, worth to
clarify during the signing of the leasing contract is usually agreed on by the
manufacturer for leased equipment.
 In this arrangement of acquiring the computer and its facilities, the lessee has got no
choice over such facilities because the lessor acquires such facilities from the
manufacturer of choice.
 The primary period for leasing is usually much longer than the renting period.

Using a bureau

A bureau is an organization which renders computer services to, other organization which depends
on such services, it is clients. Computer bureau can be a company, manufacturer or users with extra
time to hire out, who work with an aim of rendering services to the other organizations. Computer
bureaus render a wide range of services to other organizations on either continuously or on demand
basis. Some of such services are

1. System analysis and design.

2. Developing computer programs.
3. Computer time hire out and do it yourself.

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 4. Advice and consultancy.

The bureau may undertake a full service to a give company, in the computer related services.
Basically, all bureaus offer a range data processing of services, though others may specialize on the
industry, processing tasks or application type they deal with.

Advantages

1. A computer that is considering acquiring a computer may find it extremely beneficial to use
a bureau because
a) It can evaluate the type of computer it is interested in.
b) It can test and develop its programs prior to the delivery of its own computer.
c) Its staff will become familiar with the requirement of a computer system.
2. The major benefit of using data center is that the user pays only for the information systems
development and data processing services that he needs. Installing in house computer and
employing staff of data processing professionals creates fixed costs such as machines cost,
rent, depreciation, salaries etc.
3. Many organizations cannot justify the implementation of an in house computer on cost
benefit grounds and the use of a bureau does not require s high capital outlay. Thus the
computing services can be availed using a data center and the organization is not having
sufficient finance for the implementation of an in house computer system.
4. Some computer users find it convenient to employ a bureau to cope with peak loads arising,
for example, from seasonal variations in sales. Also if the organization has insufficient
volume of work to justify the implementation of a computer system, it can go for a data
center.
5. A bureau’s computer may be used in the event of a breakdown of an in house computer.
6. Enable the client to obtain advice on all aspects of systems development and operation.
7. Enable the client to obtain the user up to date computer technology, specialized equipment
and programs.
8. There are time sharing vendors who provide, for a fee, the usage of central computer and
online file storage to users who obtain access through remote terminals. Time sharing
vendors also generally offer a large number of specialized programs many of which the user
may find to be strikingly applicable and useful.

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 9. It avoids the responsibility of operating an in house computer, i.e. it eliminates personnel
and management problems caused by the employment of a group of highly paid technical
professionals in a rapidly changing and highly technical field of computers.

Disadvantages

1. The users of the bureau services have got no control over their jobs once they are submitted
to the bureau.
2. Periodic audit is necessary, because transportation of data and or information from the
organization to the bureau premises or vice versa, may pose problems e.g. fraud.
3. Control by individual companies is difficult because processing goes on at a remote
location.
4. Documentation strictly adhered to, to ease the understanding of the systems, whose
developers might not be available during the running of the systems, whose developers
might not be available during the running of the systems. This is especially in a situation
where the bureau develops and implements the systems.
5. Confidential information’s security is at risk and the cost of using the bureau services should
be carefully weighed out against the cost of using an in house set up as an alternative. In
most cases, the use of bureau services may be expensive, especially in the long term.

Computer safety and ergonomics

Computer safety

Computer safety is the state of a computer being protected from potential harm. It is the protection
of computers from theft or damage to the hardware, software, data and information on them as well
as from disruption or misdirection of the services they provide and also the end user.
The computer laboratory
A computer laboratory, simply referred to as a computer lab, is room that has been specially prepare
to facilitate installation of computers and provide a safe conducive environment for use of
computers and the teaching and learning of computer studies.
Requirements of a computer laboratory

1. Standard and enough furniture.

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 2. Good ventilation.
3. Reliable and enough source of power supply.
4. Free from dust and moisture.
5. Enough floor space.
6. Proper cabling of electric wires.
7. Firefighting equipment
8. Good lighting equipment
9. Strong rooms and doors for the security of computers.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory

1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.
2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed and the amount of floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Safe use and care of computers (computer hygiene)
Computer systems are expensive to acquire and maintain and should therefore be handled with
great care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct instructions on
use of equipment, carelessness and neglect. Computer hygiene involves keeping the computer in
good condition and in a good environment.
Safety precautions and practices in a computer laboratory
Just like any other science laboratory, the computer laboratory should be set up with safety
precautions in mind. Measures should be put in place to protect the machines from theft or
destruction and the users from accidents.
The laboratory users must be aware of the correct behavior and safety rules that they should observe
in observe in order to avoid accidents, danger or injury. Computer laboratory safety measures can
be divided into two:
 Those that are meant to protect computers
 Those that are meant to protect the users
Measures that protect the computer
 Burglar proofing the room: This involves fitting grills on doors, windows and the roof to
deter forceful entry into the computer room. Installing an intrusion detection alarm system
and employing security guards also increases the level of security alertness against theft of

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 computers and their accessories, use personal identification cards while entering the
computer room, use of finger print identification and use of special voice recorders that will
analyze the voice of a trespasser and check against the database containing the voice
patterns of valid users.
 Installing fire prevention and control equipment: This involves installing smoke
detectors and fire extinguishers. The recommended extinguishers are the gaseous type and
should be non-liquid/non powder based. This is because liquids may cause rusting and
corrosion of computer components. On the other hand, power particles may increase friction
and wear off moving parts. The particles can also cause disks to crash.
 Providing stable power supply: This involves installation of surge protectors, power
extension cables, Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) for each computer and a power
backup generator to protect the computer from being damaged due to power instabilities
especially in areas where power fluctuates frequently. Note: Power from main supply is not
always stable and may sometimes experience power surges or under voltage (brownout)
Function of the Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
1) It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required stable voltage.
2) It prevents power surges and brown outs that may destroy the computer.
3) It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure.
This allows the user to save his/her work and shut down the computer in an
appropriate way.
4) It alerts the user of any power loss by beeping.
 Installing lighting arrestors: This involves lighting arrestors in the computer room.
 Providing a good room layout: The computer room should be well laid out with enough
space for movement. Computers should be placed on stable, wide enough desks to avoid
accidentally knocking them down. Cables should be laid out in trunks away from user paths
avoid stumbling on them. The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.
 Dust proofing the computer room: Dust can be controlled by setting up the computer lab
in a location away from excessive dust, fitting good window curtains and an air conditioning
system that filters dust particles from the air entering the room. Shoes should be removed or
well dusted before entering the computer lab. The computers should be covered with dust
covers when not in use and the computer room regularly cleaned. The floor should be

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 covered with carpets in order to absorb dust and noise made by chairs. Note: If the
environment is dusty, the computer should be regularly serviced to get rid of harmful dust.
The service should include, blowing dust from the system unit, cleaning the drives, cleaning
the keyboard, cleaning the monitor externally and cleaning all peripheral devices.
 Dumb proofing the computer room: Humidity in the computer lab must be regulated to
remain at an optimum 50%. If the humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and
cause damage to sensitive electronic parts. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes
rusting of metallic parts of the computer system. To eliminate low humidity, use
humidifiers and high humidity use dehumidifiers.
 Insulation of cables: All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and
laid away from busy pathways in the room i.e. preferably along the walls. This prevents the
user from stumbling on the cables, which might cause electric shock or power interruptions.
Cables and power sockets should be well insulated and of the correct power rating to avoid
short circuits that can damage computer components.
 Eating and drinking: End users should avoid eating and drinking in the computer lab.
Food particles may fall into the moving computer parts like the keyboard and clog them
while liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults. Any
waste materials should be collected and disposed.
 Behavior in the computer lab: Good behavior should be observed in the computer lab
some which include:
1) Only authorized people should enter the computer room.
2) Remove your shoes or dust them before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
3) Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because smoke and dust contain
small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause wearing of the
moving parts.
4) Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the peripheral
devices.
5) Computer novice users should not be allowed to operate the computers.
6) Shut the door of the computer room properly.

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  Handling of materials and equipment: Computer devices must be handled with care as
they are extremely fragile and can easily get damaged:
1) When transporting the system unit handle it by the frame since dropping / dumping can
cause permanent damage.
2) Always use the manufacturer’s shipping control when transporting the devices.
3) Do not place heavy objects on the computer.
4) Protect the computer devices especially the monitor and discs from electrostatic discharge.
5) Computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight /warm objects. This causes
internal components to get heated and affects the functioning of the computer system.
6) Computer novice should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of,
under supervision. If in doubt the novice should ask to ensure no damage is caused due to
lack of proper knowledge.
7) Computer devices should be regularly checked and serviced.
 Starting and shutting down the computer
1) Always follow the proper procedure for starting and shutting down the computer to
avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.
2) Avoid turning the computer on and off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a
computer is turned on the internal components get heated and again cool down when the
computer is turned off. As a result, circuit boards expand and contract and this can badly
affect the solder joints of the computer.
3) Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripherals devices without
permission and particularly when the computer ‘s power is still on.
Measures that to protect the end user
 Proper cable insulation: All cables should be insulated to avoid the danger of electric
shock to users.
 Proper cable layout: Cables should be laid away from the user paths to avoid tripping.
 Standard furniture: Standard furniture should be provided to avoid poor posture during
machine use which may lead to strain injury and limb fatigue. The table should be of the
right height relative to the seat to provide comfortable hand positioning. The seat should
have an upright backrest and a foot rest and should be high enough to allow the eyes of the
user to be at the same level with the top of the screen.

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 Standard posture: The user should observe a standard posture. The sit for the user must be
comfortable and have a straight back rest that allows one to sit upright. This prevents
muscles pains and backaches caused by poor sitting posture. The user should adjust the
furniture to meet ones needs for comfort e.g.
1) One should adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that the forearms are
parallel with the floor and wrists are straight.
2) The sit must be high enough relative to the table to enable the use of the hands on the
keyboard comfortably.
3) One’s eyes must be on the same level with the top of the screen when the user is sited
upright.
4) One should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly flat
on the floor.
5) One should adopt a relaxed upright working posture. Avoid bending forward or leaning
backwards.
6) The chairs should have low back support and foot rest and should also be adjustable.
 Lighting: A computer room must be well lit to avoid eye strain that eventually leads to
headaches, stress and fatigue. The wall paints should not be very bright as they reflect too
much light causing eye strain.
1) One should use brightness and contrast to adjust the brightness of the computer until the
eyes are comfortable and also to improve image quality of your display.
2) One should turn off the screen when not in use or reduce it brightness in order to prevent
screen burnout.
3) If the room has windows one should use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight
in the room.
 Vision care: When one works on the computer for a long period of time the eyes may
become irritated. Therefore, special care should be given to one’s vision.
1) Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows to minimize glare or
bright reflections on the screen.
2) Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare on the display is
minimized. Where necessary, one should use indirect lighting to avoid bright spots on
the display.

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 3) One should use or fit radiation filters screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light
that reaches the eye.
4) One should avoid using a flickering monitor.
5) One should use glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer
display.
6) One should always keep eye glasses and the display clean.
7) One should have regular eye checkups.
8) One should maintain a distance of 450 -500 mm from the computer.
 Ventilation: Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment.
Therefore, the computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and
suffocation or dizziness. Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool and therefore
avoids damaging the computer parts. The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation
in a room:
1) Enough and large windows and doors.
2) Installing of air conditioning systems.
3) Installing of cooling fans
4) Avoid overcrowding of machines or people in the room.
Computer ergonomics
Ergonomics can be defined as
 The science of designing and arranging objects, systems and environments so that they are
comfortable, safe and efficient for people to use
 The relationship between workers and their working environment.
The following aspects of the working environment should be taken into account when assessing
whether or not a working environment is suitable for computer operation and whether or not it
conforms to legislation:
 Provision of adequate lighting
 Provision of adequate ventilation
 VDUs appropriately positioned with screens free from flicker and interference and images
free from glare
 Provision of monitor filters/anti-glare screens if required

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  Suitability and adjustability of chair to provide the prescribed posture for the user, i.e. feet
on the floor and a comfortable height in relation to the desk
 Provision of a mouse mat or suitable equivalent surface
 Suitably positioned keyboard, not too far away from the user
 Provision for frequent breaks away from the computer (10 mins after every 50 mins work).
It is an employer’s responsibility to ensure that appropriate provisions are made available, but the
employee has a responsibility to ensure that he/she makes use of them and goes about their job in an
appropriate manner.
A workplace that has swivel chairs with adjustable positions, stable, roomy desks, etc. will provide
a working environment that is comfortable and safe.

Figure 20: Parts of an ergonomic chair

Furniture and equipment needs to be suitably positioned, conducive to the type of work for which it
is intended and to conform to the relevant Health and Safety at Work (HASAW) legislation.
Health Issues
Injuries common in an IT environment are:
 Aches and pains (especially to the back) due to bad posture when seated for long periods.
 Repetitive strain injury (RSI) caused by poor ergonomics combined with repeated
movements of the same joints, e.g. wrist, over a long period of time.

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  Eye strain which can be caused by glare or flickering from a VDU and by not taking
regular visual breaks (10 minutes every hour is recommended) away from the screen.
 Injuries due to tripping over trailing wires or other obstructions.

Precautions
 One’s computer screen should be at a level where one can see it without leaning forward or
backward. One should be able to adjust your screen your screen swivels it in any direction.
 One should have an adjustable chair that supports the back properly. One should check that
the chair provides adequate lumbar (lower back) support.

Figure 7: Ergonomic workstation

 You may consider the use of a footrest to improve your posture at the desk.
 The height of your desk should be suitable for you to sit comfortably at whilst as you work
using a computer.
 Your keyboard should be at a level where your arms are parallel to the floor.

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  Make sure you have enough space on your desk to have your mouse and keyboard in a
comfortable position.
Green computing
In 1992, the United States (U.S) Environmental Protection Agency launched Energy Star, a
voluntary labelling program which is designed to promote and recognize energy efficient monitors,
climate control equipment and other technologies. Environmental Protection Agency is focused on
promoting energy efficient products.

Energy Star served as a kind of voluntary label awarded to computing products that succeeded in
minimizing use of energy while maximizing efficiency. Energy star applied to products like
computer monitors, television sets temperature control devices like refrigerators, air conditioners
and similar items. The term green computing coined after the Energy Star program began. One of
the first results of green computing was the “sleep mode” function of computer monitors. As the
concept developed, green computing began to encompass thin client solutions, energy cost
accounting, virtualization practice, e-waste etc. Green computing is

1) The environmentally responsible use of computers and related resources.

2) The study and practice of designing manufacturing, using and disposing of computers,
servers and associated subsystems such as monitors, printers, storage devices and
networking and communications systems efficiently and effectively with minimal effect on
the environment.

In simple words, green computing is the practice of reducing environmental footprints of

technology by efficiently using the resources. Broadly, green computing includes:
 Green use: Intelligent use of energy and information systems. Reducing the energy
consumption of computers and other information systems as well as using them in an
environmentally sound manner.
 Green disposal: To reduce waste do the following:
1) Reuse: Donate computer components to people who may not have or may have lesser
quality computers like schools, churches libraries third world countries etc.
2) Refurbish: Rather than discarding a computer when the next generation is released upgrade
it by getting new parts e.g. the CPU, the memory chips etc. Although some computer

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 components will be discarded but most of them e.g. monitor, system unit cable etc. will be
retained.
3) Recycle: Reusing old, unwanted computers and other electronic equipment can greatly
reduce waste and toxins.
4) Green design: Efficient design of data centers and workstations. Designing energy efficient
and environmentally sound components, computers, servers, cooling equipment and data
servers may significantly reduce energy consumption as well as the carbon emissions.
5) Green manufacturing: Informed purchasing of components, peripherals and equipment
manufactured with the environment in mind. Manufacturing electronic components,
computers and other associated subsystems, with minimal impacts on the environment.
Green manufacturing can be achieved by use of the following materials through the
manufacturing process:
a) Bamboo, is becoming increasingly popular for making casings for computers and
peripherals.
b) Recyclable plastic, computers are now increasingly being manufactured using recyclable
plastic.
c) Eco friendly flame retardant, there are flame retardant silicone compounds available that
are flame retardant and completely nontoxic.

Why green computing?

The goal for green computing is to

 Reduce energy consumption

 Reduce the amount of paper used, printing is often wasteful; people tend to use more paper
today than computer prevalence hence green computing attempts to create a paperless
society.
 Reduce the use of hazardous material.
 Maximize energy efficiency during product’s lifetime.
 Promote the recyclability or biodegradability of obsolete products and factory waste.
 Reduce environmental pollution by refining manufacturing techniques, packaging and
disposal of computer components.

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 Reduce toxicity, there are toxic chemicals used in the manufacturing of computers and
components which can enter the food chain and water from the following chemical elements
used
1) Lead: Used in soldering of printed circuit boards and other components and used in glass
CRTs. Lead can cause damage to the central and peripheral nervous system, blood system,
kidneys, endocrine system and cause negative effects on child brain development. Lead also
accumulates in the environment and has toxic effects on plants, animals and
microorganisms. Electronics contribute 40% of the total amount of lead found in landfills
and can make its way from landfills into water supplies.
2) Mercury: Used in batteries, switches, housing, printed circuit boards. Mercury is found in
medical equipment, data transmission equipment, telecommunications, equipment and cells
phones as well. It is estimated that 22% of the yearly use of mercury is in electrical and
electronic equipment. Mercury spreads out in water transforming into methylated mercury
which easily accumulates in living organisms. It enters the food chain through fish that
swim in polluted waters. Methylated mercury can cause chronic brain damage.
3) Cadmium: Used in resistors for chips, infrared detectors and semiconductors plus older
CRTs. Cadmium is toxic and is absorbed through respiration and also food intake. It has a
half-life of 30 years hence it can poison a human body slowly the human’s life. Hexavalent
chromium (Chromium VI) is used to treat steel plates (an anti-corrosive). This can lead to
cancer and a number of other medical problems.
4) Plastics: Used throughout the computer largely from casings and also internally to hold
components together. One specific form of plastics used is Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) which
is used in cabling and housing. The plastics in computers are often treated with flame
retardant, chemicals which are toxics. Plastic is also no biodegradable.
 Green computing is a low risk way for businesses to not only help the environment but also
reduce costs. Making a proper decision to go green in the work place such as offices not
only improves the net profit of the business but also reduces its carbon footprint and energy
usage.

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Approaches to implementing green computing

 Energy efficient data center design: The energy efficient data center design includes air
management, heat recovery and electrical configuration of data centers in such a way that
reduces the energy consumption to a great level. Modern data center design also includes
on-site electricity generation and waste heat recycling.
 Use of energy star labeled products: Energy star label indicates the energy efficiency of
the appliance such as TV, which goes between one and ten stars. The greater the number of
stars the higher the efficiency. So one can go green by purchasing an appliance on the basis
of energy star.
 E-waste recycling: E-waste recycling is the reuse or recycling of e-waste such as old
computers, monitors etc. Instead of throwing it, always contribute to the non-profits and
charities or submit it to the municipal or private recycling bodies.
 Inventory management, reduce the quantity of both hazardous materials used in the
manufacturing process and the amount of excess raw materials.
 Telecommuting: Also known as teleconferencing, telework or telepresence is a method of
implementing green computing where by people work from home, making use of the
internet, telephone and email. These technologies offer many advantages such as reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions related to travel, more work satisfaction and lower costs for
office space, heat and lighting.
 Basic Computer Ethics:

1) Enable PC power management feature in your operating system.

2) Screen saver doesn't save energy. So avoid screen saver and turn off your monitor.
3) Use the 80 plus certified power supply units for your computer.
4) Turn off the computer when not in use even if just for an hour.
5) Turn off the monitor when not in use.
6) Use power saver mode.
7) Use hardware/software with the energy star label. The energy star label is the “seal of
approval” by the energy star organization.
8) Do not print unless necessary and when ready to.
9) Use LCDs rather than CRT as they are more power sufficient.

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 10) Use the following modes while using the computer:
a) Sleep mode or standby mode: This mode conserves energy by cutting off power to the
display, hard drives and peripherals. After a preset period of interactivity, the computer
switches to a lower power state.
b) Hibernate mode: This mode saves energy and protects one’s work by copying system data
to a reserved area on the hard disk and completely turn off the computer. This reduces the
wear and tear of the computer components.
c) On the internet: While using the internet use the blackle, a website powered by google
search which aims at saving energy by displaying a black background and using grayish
white font colour for search results. Blackle saves energy by because the screen is
predominantly black.

Benefits of green computing

 Environmental sustainability: Green computing ensures the diversity and productiveness

of the biological systems, since it reduces negative impact of the processes through green
use, design, disposal and green manufacturing. It not only ensures the environmental and
social sustainability but also economic sustainability which is necessary for the survival of
human beings.
 Better resource utilization: Green computing is a powerful approach to utilize resources
such as office space, data centers, computers, heat, light, electrical power etc. in an
environmental friendly way.
 Cost saving: Since resources are being utilized efficiently through green computing, there
is a significant saving in the total operational costs.
 Improved corporate and social image: Green computing is a big hand for the businesses
to improve their corporate image by meeting compliance and regulatory requirements. It is
also a good way to meet sustainability demands of the customers and employees.

Barriers to Green computing

Though green computing is largely considered as the future of things, there are still some issues that
are barriers to the green computing adoption. Some of these barriers include:

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  Initial (capital) costs.
 Challenges of reengineering processes, business practices and revising procedures.
 Reluctance to change.
 Lack of alignment between Green I.T and enterprise green initiatives.
 Lack of management drive and support.
 Need and reluctance to learn new skills.
 Lack of motivation among stake holders
 Fear of loss of job or need for retraining
The future of green computing
 Green I.T should include new electronic products with optimum efficiency and all possible
options towards energy saving. Companies are laying emphasis on moving toward Eco
friendly components in computers.
 The use of ecofriendly sustainable components will become the norm rather than the
exception in future.
ICT ethics
Ethics is a set of moral principles that govern the behavior of a group or individuals, likewise,
computer ethics is a set of moral principle that regulate the use of computers.
Ethical issues in ICT
Some common issues of computer ethics include:
 Intellectual property: Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect i.e.
inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, names, images and design used in
commerce hence the name. Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches
namely,
1) Industrial property: This is a set of moral principles that protect the following
a) Patents: A patent grants the owner an exclusive monopoly on the ideas behind an
invention for 20 years. The congressional intent behind patent law was to ensure that
inventors of new machines, devices, or methods receive the full financial and other rewards
of their labor and yet still make widespread use of the invention possible by providing
detailed diagrams for those wishing to use the idea under license from the patent’s owner.
b) Trade Secrets: Any intellectual work product a formula, device, pattern, or compilation of
data-used for a business purpose can be classified as a trade secret, provided it is not based

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 on information in the public domain. Protections for trade secrets vary from state to state. In
general, trade secret laws grant a monopoly on the ideas behind a work product, but it can
be a very tenuous monopoly.
c) Trademarks, industrial deigns, commercial names, designations and geographic indications
(location specific brands) etc.
2) Copyright: This is a set of moral principles that protect literary and artistic works such as
novels, poems, plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings,
photographs, sculptures and architectural designs. Copyright is a legal concept enacted by
most governments, giving the creator of an original work, exclusive rights to it usually for a
limited time. For works made available over a communication network such as the internet
the copyright protects original authorship. However, the copyright law does not protect,
ideas, procedures or methods of operation hence once such online work has been made
public, nothing in the copyright law prevents others from developing another work based on
similar principles and ideas.
 Computer crime: This is any illegal activity undertaken using computers and the internet
and that targets the security of computer systems and the data processed by them, e.g.
unauthorized access, damage to computer data or programs, sabotage to hinder the
functioning of a computer system or network, unauthorized interception of data to, from and
within a system or network, viruses etc.
 Privacy: This is ensuring that individuals maintain the right to control what information is
collected about them, how it is used, who has used it, who maintains it and what purpose it is
used for. Protect personal information to keep others from using it in unethical ways.
 Plagiarism: This is copying someone’s work and passing it as your own e.g. copying
programs written by others programmers and claiming it as your own. It involves lying
cheating and dishonesty.
The Ten commandments of computer ethics/ethical rules for computer users.
When computers first began to be used in society at large, the absence of ethical standards about their
use and related issues caused some problems. However, as their use became widespread in every
facet of our lives, discussions in computer ethics resulted in some kind of a consensus. Today, many
of these rules have been formulated as laws, either national or international. There are laws against
computer crimes, and everyone is responsible for knowing what constitutes of them. The Ten

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Commandments of computer ethics have been defined by the Computer Ethics Institute as
follows:
1) Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
2) Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work.
3) Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files.
4) Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
5) Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
6) Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7) Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
compensation.
8) Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
9) Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the
system you are designing.
10) Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your
fellow humans.
Ethical challenges in ICT
Attitudes toward the ethics of computer use are affected by many factors other than nationality.
Differences are found among individuals within the same country, within the same social class, and
within the same company.
 Ethical differences across cultures: Cultural differences can make it difficult to determine
what is and is not ethical especially when it comes to the use of computers. Studies on ethics
and computer use reveal that people of different nationalities have different perspectives;
difficulties arise when one nationality’s ethical behavior violates the ethics of another
national group.
 Software license infringement: Different countries and groups of people have different
degrees of tolerance for software privacy. Peer pressure, the lack of legal incentives, the lack
of disciplinary measures etc. could explain why users in these alleged piracy centers
disregarded intellectual property laws.
 Illicit use: Condemned viruses, hacking, and other forms of system abuse. There were,
however, different degrees of tolerance for such activities among the groups.

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  Misuse of corporate resources: There are different levels of tolerance for misuse of
corporate resources each presented a different degree of noncompany use of corporate assets
without specifying the company’s policy on personal use of company resources.
Code of ethics and professional organization
A code of ethics is a collection of principles that are intended to guide decision making by members
of an organization. Various national and international professional societies and organizations have
produced code of ethics documents to give basic behavioral guidelines to computing professionals
and users. They include:

 The Association of Computing Machinery (ACM).

 The International Information Systems Security Certification Consortium, Inc. (ISC)2
 The System Administration, Networking, and Security Institute (SANS).
 The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA).
 The Information Systems Security Association (ISSA).
 Australian Computer Society (ACS).
 British Computer Society (BCS).
 Computer Ethics Institute (CEI)
 League of Professional System Administrators.
Code of ethics for computer users
 Information stored on computer should as seriously as spoken or written.
 Privacy should not be violated. In case of academic use, it known as plagiarism.
 Information for public viewing should not be modified, deleted or inaccessible since they are
considered destructive acts.
 Intrusive softwares such as “viruses or “worms” which are destructive are illegal.
 Congesting someone’s computer system with unwanted information is unethical.
 Sending obscene and rude messages through mail or chat is unethical.
 Sending sexually explicit content, messages or pictures is unethical.

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ICT legislation
Legislation is the process of making and passing laws. Law is a legal system comprising of rules
and principles that govern the affairs of community and controlled by a political authority. ICT
legislation is a law or a set of laws, regulation and policies that govern the use and security of
Information Communication Technology (ICT).
Sources of ICT legislation

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