GENETICS Q&A

1. a) i) Define the term genetics

 the study of heredity(inheritance) and variation or study of mechanisms by which

characteristics are passed from parents to offspring

iii) List some characteristics which are inherited

 size
 height/length
 colour/type
 shape
 yield

iii) State the importance of genetics

 helps to explain differences between organisms of the same species

 helps to explain the transmission of characters from generation to generation
 improvement in livestock
 improvement in crops
 can be used to treat some difficult diseases

1. b) i) Explain the meaning of the following terms

Heredity

 the resemblance among individuals related by descent

 transmission of traits from parents to offspring

Trait

 also called character

 A character of the organism e.g. type of ear, colour of eyes, height, yield etc.

Gene

 unit of inheritance
 it is the heredity factor which transmits traits from parents to offspring
 genes are located at fixed points on chromosomes
 each point is called a locus (loci)

Allele

 genes can exist in a series of alternative forms at a particular locus

 allele refers to alternative forms of genes controlling a particular characteristic

Chromosomes
  threadlike structures found in nuclei of all plants and animals
 they carry genes which are hereditary materials
 they consist of substances called DNA and proteins called histosones

DNA

 deoxyribonucleic acid
 substances that make up chromosomes
 double helix(strand) molecule that contains genes
 DNA consists of nucleotides
 A nucleotide consists of an inorganic phosphate, ribose sugar and a base
 There are four bases in a DNA molecule i.e. Adenine(A), guanine(G), thymine(T) and
cystosine (C)
 Ribose sugar has four bases attached to it i.e. adenine, cystosine, guanine and thymine
 Adenine pairs with thymine while guanine pairs with cystosine
 Nucleotide initiates and controls protein synthesis

1. ii) List the types of chromosomes

 somatic (body) chromosomes also called autosomes

 sex chromosomes (related to reproduction)

1. c) i) What is variation?

 sequence of differences occurring among individuals of the same species

1. ii) State the causes of variation in organisms

 random assortment of genes during meiosis

 crossing over
 fertilization
 doubling of chromosome numbers(mutation)
 environmental conditions

iii) Name the types of variation

 Continuous variation (differences not clear cut) e.g. height, length, weight, skin
colour, intelligence etc. They are quantitative and show intermediates
 discontinuous variation(differences are clear cut) e.g. ability to roll tongue, ABO
blood grouping system, RH factor, patterns of fingerprints, and ability to taste PTC.
They are qualitative and have no intermediates

1. iv) Explain the following terms

Acquired characteristics

 they are as a result of adaptations due to the environment and are not inherited
Inherited characteristics

 are passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction

Genotype

 genetic constitution of an individual/genetic makeup

Phenotype

 characteristics of an individual observed or discernible by other means i.e. observable

character

Dominant gene (character)

 expressed in the phenotype when homozygous or heterozygous

Recessive gene

 only expressed in homozygous state

Homozygous

 when two alleles are identical e.g. LL,ll

Heterozygous

 when two alleles are different at a particular locus e.g. Ll

F1 and F2

 F1 means first filial generation i.e. the first generation produced when two varieties
can be crossed
 F2 means second generation i.e. product of offspring or from F1 generation

1. d) i) Explain Mendels first law of inheritance

 also called law of segregation

 it states that genes are responsible for the development of individual characters
 these characters are transmitted individually without any alterations
 Only one character from a contrasting pair can be carried in a gamete, hence only one
character can be inherited.

ii) Give an example of this law

 In an experiment, Drosophila (fruit fly) with long wings were crossed with those
having short wings. Assume letter L denotes gene for wing size. The gene for long
wings is dominant to that for short wings
  the genes for dominant are LL and for recessive ll.
 State the expected results for the first cross

iii) What is monohybrid inheritance?

 when inheritance of one character is studied one at a time e.g. wing size only
 the F2 generation (when selfed) always gives a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a
genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in a complete dominance

1. What is complete dominance?

 refers to where only one dominant character is expressed while the other character
which is recessive is not expressed in the heterozygous state e.g. the case of wing size
above

1. e) i) What is meant by co dominance?

 When genes produce independent effects when heterozygous/none of the genes is

dominant over the other/where two or more alleles does not show complete
dominance/recessiveness due to the failure of any allele to be dominate in a
heterozygous condition.

1. ii) Give an example of co dominance

In a certain plant species, some individual plants may have only white, red or pink flowers. In
an experiment a plant with white flowers was crossed with a parent with red flowers. Show
results of F1 generation. Use letter R for red gene and W for white gene.

If the plants form F1 were selfed, work out the phenotype ratio for the F2 generation

Phenotypic ratio 1red:2pink:1white

Genotypic ratio 1:2:1

f) i) What is a test cross?

– A cross between an individual showing a character for a dominant gene(that is homozygous

or heterozygous) with a homozygous recessive individual

OR

 a cross between individual(organism) of unknown genotype with a homozygous

recessive individual
 1. ii) State the importance of a test cross in genetics

 helps in determining the genetic constitution/genotype of an organism

iii) What are multiple alleles?

 a set of more than two alleles that may determine a character

 example is blood group which can be determined by any two of three alleles i.e. A,B
and O

iv) Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups

 in humans blood groups are determined by three alleles i.e. A,B and O
 it is only possible to have two genes at a time
 genes A and B are co-dominant while gene O is recessive to genes A and B

Give a worked example using parents with heterozygous blood groups AO and BO

1. Explain the inheritance of Rhesus factor (Rh) in human beings

 in humans blood is either Rh positive or Rh negative

 people who have Rh antigen are Rh(+ve) while those without Rh antigen in their
blood are Rh(-ve)
 Rh(+ve) is due to a dominant gene while the recessive gene causes lack of Rh factor.
When a person who is homozygous dominant marries a person who is homozygous
recessive the result is as shown below

Let the gene for dominant Rh factor be R while gene for recessive be r

How is sex determined in human beings?

 there are two sex chromosomes in humans, x and y

 males are xy and females are xx
 in females all ova have x chromosome
 in males 50% of sperms contain x chromosomes while 50% of sperms contain y
chromosome
 when a sperm containing x chromosome fuses with an ovum this results into a girl
 when a sperm containing y chromosome fuses with an ovum the result is a boy
 an example is given below

g) i) What does the term linkage mean?

– These are genes which occur together on a chromosome and are passed to offspring without
being separated

1. ii) Define the term sex-linked genes

  genes carried in the sex chromosome that are transmitted along with genes that
determine sex

iii) What is meant by the term sex linkage?

 genes are located on the sex chromosome

 they are transmitted along with those that determine sex

1. iv) Name the sex-linked traits in humans

 colour blindness
 haemophilia
 Hairy ears. pinna, nose
 Baldness
 Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) muscular wasting

1. v) Give an example of a sex linked trait in humans on:

Y Chromosome

 tuft of hair sprouting from pinna/baldness

X Chromosome

 colour blindness/haemophilia

vi) In humans red-green colour blindness is caused by a recessive gene C, which is sex-
linked. A normal man married to a carrier woman transmits the trait to his children.
Show the possible genotypes of the children.

Let C represent the gene for normal colour vision (dominant)

Let c represent the gene for colour blindness

Parental phenotype Norman man x carrier woman

State the importance of sex linkage

 possible to determine sex of day old chicks

1. Haemophilia is due to a recessive gene. The gene is sex-linked and located on the
x chromosome. The figure below shows sworn offspring from phenotypically
normal parents

What are the parental genotypes?

 XY and XhX
Work out the genotypes of the offspring

h) i) What is mutation?

 sudden change in the structure of DNA at a particular locus/chromosome/gene

1. ii) Describe how mutations arise

 mutations arise due to alterations in normal number of chromosomes

 change in a portion of a chromosome affecting one or more genes
 by chromosomal aberration e.g.
dleltion/duplication/substitution/inversion/translocation/crossing over
 caused by mutagenic agents e.g. radiation (x-rays, ultra violet light, gamma rays) and
chemicals e.g. mustard gas/colchicines

iii) State the factors that may cause mutation

 these are chemicals and radiations

Radiations Effects

X-rays gene/chromosome alteration

Ultra violet rays structural distortion of DNA

Chemicals Effect

– colchicines prevents spindle formation

Cyclamate chromosome aberrations

Mustard gas chromosomes aberrations

Nitrous acid adenine in DNA is deaminated so behaves like guanine

Acridone orange addition and removal of bases of DNA

Formaldehyde

1. iv) State the characteristics of mutations

 arise suddenly
 are unpredictable
 random
 generally rare
 may breed true
  some are desirable while others are lethal

1. v) Explain chromosomal mutation

– Change in nature, structure or number of chromosomes

1. vi) Explain how the following types of chromosomal mutations occur

Duplication

 a section of a chromosome is repeated/replicates

 therefore genes are repeated

Inversion

 occurs when chromatids break at 2 places and when rejoining the middle piece rotates
and joins in an inverted position

Deletion

 portion of a chromosome is left out after it breaks off

 alters number and sequence of genes

Translocation

 occurs when a section of a chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another
chromatid of another chromosome

Non-disjuntion

Failure of homologous chromosomes/sister chromatids to separate/segregate during meiosis

Polyploidy

 where number of chromosomes double or triple

 beneficial in plants due to the following
 increased yields/hybrid vigour//heterosis
 resistance to pests
 early maturity
 resistance to drought
 resistance to diseases
vii) What are gene mutations?

 an alteration in the structure of a gene



1. Explain how the following occur during gene mutation

Deletion

 some bases/nucleotides of a gene are removed

Inversion

 the order of some bases/nucleotides of a gene is reversed

Insertion

 addition of a base between two existing bases

Substitution

 a portion of a gene is replaced by a new portion

1. Name the disorders in humans caused by gene mutation

 albinism
 sickle cell anaemia
 achondroplasia/chondordystorphic dwarfism
 haemophilia
 colour blindness
 phenylketonuria

1. State the practical applications of genetics

1. Breeding programmes (research)

 high yielding/hybrid vigour/heterosis

 resistance to diseases
 resistance to drought/salinity
 early maturing
 1. Genetic engineering

 genetic manipulation to produce desired characteristics

 Law

– legal questions of paternity knowledge of blood groups or blood transfusion

iv) Genetic counseling

 aimed at reducing harmful traits e.g. albinism, congenital idiots, colour blindness e.t.c