Heredity And Evolution

Heredity: The transfer of characters or traits from the parents to their offsprings is called
heredity.

Variations: The differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same
species are called variations.

Accumulation of variations during reproduction :

When organisms reproduce, the offsprings show minor variations due to inaccuracies in DNA
copying. These variations are less in asexual reproduction and more in sexual reproduction. Some
variations are useful variations and they help the organism to adjust to the changes in the
environment. Some variations do not help the organism to adjust to the changes in the environment
and they may die and become extinct.

Rules for inheritance of characters (traits):

Characters are transferred through genes present in the DNA molecules in the chromosomes
present in the nucleus of the cell. The inheritance of characters is due to the fact that both the
father and mother contributes equal amount of genetic material to the child. So for each trait there
are two factors one from the father and one from the mother. Gregor Johann Mendel conducted
experiments with garden pea plants and determined the rules for the inheritance of traits.

DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid It is the chemical name for the molecule that carries genetic
instructions in all living organisms.

Gene- is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. It is a
segment of DNA that codes for a particular phenotype/function.

Alleles: are different forms of the same gene. For example a gene which controls height in pea
plant has two alternative form, one of the allele controls tallnes (T) while the other controls
dwarfness (t).

Phenotype: observable physical characteristics of an organism. It is determined by both genetic

makeup and environmental influences.

Genotype: Set of genes that an organism carries. Homozygous- means that the organism has two
copies of the same allele for a gene i.e. TT or tt.

Heterozygous- means that an organism has two different alleles of a gene eg. Tt. Dominant
trait- is the one that will express phenotypically in the heterozygotes. A dominant allele is expressed
by capital letter (T).

Recessive trait- is the one that will only express in homozyogotes. A recessive allele is expressed
by small letter (t)

Mendel’s Laws of Heredity

❑Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, carried important studies on Heredity.

❑He is regarded as Father of Genetics.

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❑He was the first person who succeded in predicting how traits are transferred from one generation
to the next generation.

❑ Mendel worked on Pea Plants- Pisum sativum

Because- they can grow easily in large numbers

- they can be either self-pollinated themselves or cross-pollinated with another plant

- they contain many contrasting characters

When plants having one pair of character (Eg:- tall and short
plants) was crossed (Monohvbridcross)
Mendel selected pea plants having one pair of character - a tall pea plant and a short pea plant. He
selected pure tall (TT) and pure short (tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them. He obtained all tall
plants (Tt) in the first generation (F1 ). When the first generation plants were self pollinated, he
obtained tall and dwarf plants in the ratio 3:1 in the second generation. (F2 ) The ratio of pure tall
(TT), hybrid tall (Tt) and pure dwarf (tt) was in the ratio 1:2:1 The trait that is expressed in the F1
generation is called the dominant trait and the trait that is supressed in the F1, is called the recessive
trait. ( Make a checker board)

When plants having two pairs of characters (Eg:- shape and

colour of seeds) were crossed (Dihvbrid cross)
Mendel selected pea plants having two pairs of characters - shape and colour of seed. He selected
plants having round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy) and cross pollinated them.
He obtained all plants with round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the F1 generation. When these plants were
self pollinated in the F2 generation out of 16 plants, 9 had round yellow (RrYy), 3 had round green
(Rryy), 3 had wrinkled yellow (rrYy) and 1 had wrinkled green (rryy) seed in the ratio 9:3:3:1

. ( Make a checker board)

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Sex determination in human beings
Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. Out of this two
chromosomes are sex chromosomes X and Y. The female has two X chromosomes (XX) and male has
one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The sperms and eggs have one set of sex chromosomes. Some
sperms have X chromosome and some have Y chromosome. All eggs have X chromosome. If a sperm
having X chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a girl. If a sperm
having Y chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a boy.

Variations may or may not help organisms to survive :

A . Some variations help organisms to survive
Eg There are some beetles living in green bushes. They increase their numbers by reproduction.
Crows can easily see the red beetles and they are eaten by the crows. During reproduction due to
some variation some green beetles are produced instead of red beetles. The green beetles are not
visible to crows and are not eaten by them. Then gradually the population of the red beetles
decreases and the population of the green beetles increases. This variation has helped the organisms
to survive.

b) Some variations do not help organisms to survive

Eg During sexual reproduction a colour variation occurs in red beetles and some blue beetles are
produced instead of red beetles. Both the red and blue beetles are visible to crows and are eaten by
them. Then the population of both red and blue beetles decreases. This variation has not helped the
organisms to survive

c) Aquired traits cannot be passed from one generation to the next

Eg If the population of beetles increases and plants are affected by diseases, then the food available
for the beetles decreases and their body weight also decreases. If after a few years the availability of
food increases then the body weight of the beetles also increases. This acquired trait cannot be
passed from one generation to the next because there is no change in their genetic composition.

6. Speciation ( Formation of new species from existing species )

The formation of new species from existing species is mainly due to one or more of the following
factors. They are Accumulation of variations, Physical barriers, Genetic drift, Natural selection and
migration.

i). Accumulation of variations : The differences between the individuals of the same species is
called variations. The accumulation of variations over several generations produce new species.

ii) Physical barriers : Populations may get separated by physical barriers like mountains, rivers,
lakes etc. These isolated groups produce variations which can produce new species.

iii) Genetic drift : Natural calamities or introduction of new members of the same species in an area
can produce changes in the gene pool of the population and new variations are produced which can
produce new species.
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iv) Natural selection : Only those individuals of a species which have useful variations and can
adapt to the changes in the environment survive and the others die. These organisms can produce
variations and new species.

v) Migration : Some individuals of a species may migrate to a new geographical area and adjust to
the changes in the environment there and develop new variations and produce new species.

Inherited traits Inherited traits are traits in an organism due to changes in the genetic
composition and it can be passed from one generation to the next and it results in evolution. b.

Acquired traits Acquired traits are traits which are acquired by an organism during its lifetime
and it cannot be passed from one generation to the next and it does not result in evolution.

Evolution The gradual changes taking place in living organisms giving rise to new organisms due
to changes in their genetic composition is called evolution.

Evidences of evolution There are a number of common features in different organisms which
provide evidence to show evolutionary relationship.

The main evidences of evolution are from the study of Homologous organs, Analogous organs and
Fossils.

Homologous organs are organs which are similar in structure but different in functions. Eg The
fore limbs of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have similar structures but different
functions. Frog (amphibian) uses its fore limb to raise the front of the body. Lizard (reptile) uses its
fore limb for walking and running. Birds fore limbs are modified as wings for flying. Mammals use
the fore limbs for grasping, walking, running, swimming, flying etc. This shows evolutionary
relationship.

Analogous organs are organs which are different in structures but similar in functions. Eg The
wings of butterfly, bird and bat have different structures but similar functions. This shows
evolutionary relationship.

Fossils are the remains of organisms which lived long ago. From the study of fossils we can know
their structures and the time period in which they lived. The study of fossils show evolution of
simpler forms into complex forms and their evolutionary relationship.

Age of fossils can be determined by:

1. Relative method: By estimating the age of the layer of earth’s crust where the fossil is
found. Fossils near the surface are recent and those in the deeper layers are older.

2. Radio –carbon dating: By detecting the ratios of different isotopes of carbon in the
fossils.

Importance of fossils: 1. By determining the age of fossils we come to know the type of
earth’s strata present at that time.
2. We can also know the type of animals and plants present on the earth at that time.
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3. They help in establishing evolutionary relationship by providing connecting links, for eg .

Archeoptaryx- a connecting link between reptiles and birds.

Evolutionbv stages Complex organisms and its organs developed from simpler organisms
gradually over generations.

i). Evolution of eyes : The eyes of planaria are just eye spots to detect light. It developed gradually
into a complex organ in higher animals.

ii) Evolution of feathers : Feathers were first developed in dinosaurs and used for protection from
cold. Later birds used them for flying

iii) Evolution bv artificial selection : Humans cultivated wild cabbage for over 2000 years and
produced different vegetables from it by artificial selection. Eg Cabbage - by selecting short distance
between the leaves. Cauliflower - by selecting sterile flowers. Kale - by selecting large leaves Kholrabi
- by selecting the swollen stem Broccoli - by arresting flower growth.

Evolution should not be equated with progress :

Evolution has not resulted in progress. Evolution has resulted in the formation of several complex
species from simpler species due to variations, genetic drift and natural selection. This does not
mean that one species gets eliminated when new species are formed or that the new species are
better than the older species. Species get eliminated only if they are not able to adapt to the
changes in the environment. Several species which could adapt to the changes in the environment
still continue to survive for example bacteria.

Human beings have not evolved from chimpanzees. They had a common ancestor from which they
evolved separately. Human beings are not the pinnacle of evolution but they are only one species
among the several evolving species.

Human evolution (Homo sapiens!)

There is a great diversity among human beings in their form and features around the world. Human
beings evolved in Africa. Some of them stayed there and others migrated to different parts of the
world. Then due to genetic variations and the environmental changes in different geographical
regions they developed changes in their forms and features.