Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: An Environmental Perspective

International Journal of Environmental Research (2019) 13:409–429
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-019-00175-y
REVIEW ARTICLE
Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: An Environmental

Perspective
Bhavisha Sharma1 · Barkha Vaish1 · Monika1 · Umesh Kumar Singh2 · Pooja Singh3 · Rajeev Pratap Singh1
Received: 12 October 2018 / Revised: 27 January 2019 / Accepted: 27 February 2019 / Published online: 6 March 2019
© University of Tehran 2019
Abstract
Inadequate organic waste management leads to a plethora of problems such as environmental pollution, eutrophication,
esthetic damage to urban landscape, greenhouse gases emission and effects on human health. Unwise and non-scientific
disposal of wastes not only poses a grave threat to environmental quality but also results in loss of economic value of wastes.
Since organic wastes are an abundant pool of organic matter and valuable plant nutrients, agricultural recycling of these
wastes appears to be a promising alternative enabling value addition and their resourceful utilization. Land application of
organic wastes stabilized through techniques such as composting, vermicomposting and anaerobic digestion yielding excel-
lent organic fertilizer like compost augments soil fertility and crop yield. Additionally, the practice incorporates indirect
environmental benefits such as reduced greenhouse gas emissions, land conservation due to reduced landfilling of wastes and
substitute to chemical fertilizers. Economically also, agricultural utilization of organic wastes reduces the cost of landfill-
ing, transportation of wastes, imports and production cost of chemical fertilizers and opens avenues for rural employment.
However, effective utilization of organic wastes for agricultural purposes requires thorough and strict risk assessment to
prevent the adverse effects of contaminants like heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants to ensure agro-environmental
sustainability. The present article aims to enlist the positives and negatives associated with this practice enabling to devise
an approach or strategy deriving maximum environmental and economic benefits.
Article Highlights
• Agricultural recycling of organic wastes can be explored as an eco-friendly and sustainable waste management
approach.
• Organic wastes are a rich source of beneficial plant nutrients (macro and micro) and organic matter.
• Organic waste amendments improve soil physico-chemical and biological properties and benefit plant productivity.
• Organic wastes offer the potential to be used as a valuable resource.
Keywords Organic wastes · Recycling · Waste management · Sustainability · Soil properties · Plant growth
Introduction
Momentous increase in global population accompanied with

* Rajeev Pratap Singh
[email protected] urbanization and industrial progress has directly increased
the generation of complex solid waste (Singh et al. 2011,
1
Department of Environment and Sustainable Development, 2014). Wastes, such as sewage sludge, agricultural wastes,
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development,
municipal solid waste (MSW), food and kitchen waste, gar-
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
2
den wastes, agro-industrial wastes, animal wastes, etc. can
Integrated Science Education and Research Centre
be generally classified as solid organic wastes comprising
(ISERC), Institute of Science, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan,
Birbhum 731235, West Bengal, India of organic biodegradable fraction with a moisture content
3 below 85–90% (Mata-Alvarez et al. 2000). Most of the
Department of Science, Institute of Computer Science
and Technology, SHEPA, Varanasi, India developing countries in the world generate huge quantities
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410 International Journal of Environmental Research (2019) 13:409–429
of solid waste characterized with poor handling and manage- another biological process using earthworms and microbial
ment amidst lack of waste segregation and proper disposal activity in controlled environmental conditions to convert
facilities (Ngoc and Schnitzer 2009). In addition, inappro- organic waste materials into vermicompost, which is an
priate practices of waste management like open burning and excellent, nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner
open dumping not only create pollution and affect the urban (Yadav and Garg 2011). On the other hand, anaerobic diges-
landscape (Amritha and Kumar 2017) but also make sustain- tion is a promising organic waste management technique
able eco-friendly management of wastes, which is a great involving simultaneous stabilization of organic waste and
challenge. 90% of MSW generated in India is disposed by energy recovery. During the process, fermentation of organic
means of open dumping (Sharholy et al. 2008). Open waste waste is done by bacterial fermentative redox pathways (Fer-
dumps increase the risk of soil pollution in areas adjoining guson et al. 2016). Conversion of organic wastes into various
the dumping sites due to leaching of heavy metals (HMs) organic acids and thereafter into acetate, hydrogen, carbon
and other contaminants. Leaching, runoff and erosion from dioxide and other gases in fewer amounts and final conver-
these sites lead to pollution of ground water and surface sion into methane with the help of methanogens take place.
water bodies as well (Mor et al. 2006), resulting in many Large amount of post-digestion matter produced at the end
water-borne diseases (typhoid, cholera, diarrhea, etc.). Burn- of the process is known as anaerobic digestate which can be
ing or incineration of solid wastes like MSW releases poly- used as supplement to synthetic fertilizer after studying its
chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), physico-chemical properties (Tambone et al. 2010). Through
noxious and toxic gases, and its putrefaction due to open these recycling methods, organic wastes are decomposed and
dumping results in greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., CH4, stabilized in terms of reduction in volume of waste, patho-
CO2 and N2O) causing air pollution and global warming gens and malodorous compounds and yield a product that
(Sharma et al. 2018a; Vaish et al. 2017). The biodegrad- can be utilized as an organic manure and soil amendment in
able organic fraction predominates the municipal solid waste agriculture (Diacono and Montemurro 2011) due to higher
stream in developing countries and is one among the largest content of plant available nutrients and reduced incidence
sources of anthropogenic GHG emissions (Narayana 2009; of environmental contamination.
Tian et al. 2013). Overall, open dumping of wastes also Recycling of organic waste as compost/vermicompost
affects the esthetics of an area becoming a breeding ground in agricultural field comes with multiple benefits like (a)
for insects, flies, pathogenic microbes; littering of waste by sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers (Hait and
stray animals and emanating foul odors. Such unscientific Tare 2012) and conservation of limited and non-renew-
and traditional waste disposal methods not only pose a seri- able rock phosphate utilized as chemical P fertilizer (b)
ous threat to environmental quality and public health but improvement in soil nutrient profile, structure and reduced
also result in loss of nutrients present in the waste and eco- soil erosion (c) climate change mitigation due to reduced
nomic loss (Yadav and Garg 2011). GHG emissions from waste decomposition in open dumps
Integrated waste management hierarchy ascertains agri- (d) conservation of land resource due to reduced amounts
cultural recycling of organic wastes to be more sustaina- of landfilled waste (e) reduction in volume of wastes
ble and eco-friendly approach than traditional methods of from dumpsites and minimize environmental pollution
waste disposal and energy recovery (Sharma et al. 2017). (Schulz and Römheld 1997). Apart from the above-listed
In accordance with principles of resource/nutrient recovery advantages of recycling organic wastes, this practice is
and recycling, scientific conversion (via. methods like com- also associated with certain risks. Utilization of organic
posting, vermicomposting) and utilization of organic wastes waste may pose a threat of food chain contamination due
for agronomic purposes can provide beneficial plant nutri- to the presence of potentially toxic HMs (Cr, Cd, Pb,
ents for enhancing growth and improve soil fertility as well. Hg, Zn, Ni, etc.) (Sharma et al. 2018b) and hazardous
The objective of utilizing organic wastes in agriculture is to organic contaminants polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
maintain a sustainability cycle where waste’s biodegradable (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), and polychlo-
organic fraction is converted into useful organic manure or rinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs)
fertilizer through methods like composting, vermicompost- (Clarke and Cummins 2015; Roig et al. 2012b). Higher
ing and anaerobic digestion to produce compost and slurry levels of these contaminants in soil and consequent plant
for agricultural use (Fig. 1). Composting involves biological uptake may affect public health causing diseases like
conversion of heterogenous solid organic wastes (e.g., sew- skin allergies, cancer, disorders of central nervous sys-
age sludge, crop residues, food and kitchen waste, garden tem, etc. (Clarke and Smith 2011; European Environment
waste, wood, paper, etc.) into humus like substances with the Agency 2011). Therefore, prior to land application, proper
aid of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes sanitization and stabilization of organic wastes must be
under controlled conditions of moisture, temperature and ensured. Compost/vermicompost prepared from organic
aeration (Atalia et al. 2015). Similarly, vermicomposting is wastes should be tested to avoid any soil and food chain
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International Journal of Environmental Research (2019) 13:409–429 411
Fig. 1 Agricultural recycling of

organic wastes and their associ-
ated benefits and risks
contamination due to HMs and other contaminants. Also, Impact of Using Organic Wastes
to avoid over application of organic waste as fertilizers, in Agriculture: Benefits and Risks
nutrient demand should be taken in consideration since
over application can increase nitrogen mineralization with Benefits
time resulting in nutrient loss through leaching (nitrates)
or in gaseous form (N2O) (Schulz and Römheld 1997). Improvement in Soil Quality
The vast quantities of organic waste generation and lack
of their proper management results in grave environmental Decreasing organic matter content in agricultural soils has
problems like air, water and soil pollution, climate change turned out to be a major cause of concern worldwide by
along with human health risks. The present article attempts directly lowering soil fertility and agricultural yield with
to bring forth agricultural recycling of organic wastes as a substantial effects on soil properties such as soil aggregation,
sustainable, economic and environmentally friendly option structure, mechanical strength, compactibility water holding
compared to the traditional disposal methods. It aims to capacity, etc. (Eden et al. 2017). To ensure food security for
highlight both the benefits and the risks associated with this increasing global population, recycling solid wastes’ bio-
practice, as it would pave the way to develop effective man- degradable organic fraction in agriculture can be a sustain-
agement strategies for utilization of this valuable resource able solution to improve quality of soil ecosystem degraded
by minimizing the negatives and maximizing the benefits. by excessively high usage of chemical fertilizers and other
13
agrochemicals in the past. Agricultural utilization of organic organic carbon content plays a crucial role in maintain-
wastes offers dual opportunity of soil conditioning and sus- ing the fertility and sustainability of the cropping sys-
tainable organic waste management thereby minimizing the tems (Blanchet et al. 2016). Generally, application of
environmental deterioration due to their unscientific disposal organic amendments significantly increases the soil
(Dias et al. 2010). organic carbon content and vice versa for inorganic fer-
tilizers (Edmeades 2003; Schulz and Römheld 1997).
(a) Effects on Soil’s Physico-Chemical Properties Application of MSW compost positively affects soil
Wastes like MSW are composed of more than 40% of properties improving soil porosity, water retention, soil
organic waste; hence, composting of MSW reduces its aggregation, sorption capacity, organic matter content
quantity to one-fourth and yields nutrient-rich organic and bioavailability of macronutrients (Rodrigues et al.
manure which when amended in soil improves its phys- 1996; Celik et al. 2004). Table 1 presents effects of
ico-chemical and biological properties, aeration, fertil- organic waste amendment on different soil properties.
ity and also minimizes environmental pollution (Atalia Organic matter-rich amended soils usually show higher
et al. 2015). Amongst various chemical properties, soil water retention due to improved soil aggregation. Nico-
Table 1 Effect on physico-chemical and biological properties of soil amended with different organic wastes
Soil properties Effect References
Physico-chemical
pH Decreased Angin et al. (2017); Chu et al. (2017); Hamdi et al. (2019); Jatav et al. (2018); Jaya-
kumar et al. (2011); Kołodziej et al. (2015); Manivannan et al. (2009)
Increased Courtney and Mullen (2008); Dong et al. (2012); Gómez-Brandón et al. (2016);
Mackay et al. (2017); Wang et al. (2010)
Soil aggregate stability Increased Hernández et al. (2016); Mondal et al. (2015)
Bulk density Decreased Chu et al. (2017); Courtney and Mullen (2008); Manivannan et al. (2009); Mondal
et al. (2015)
Water-holding capacity Increased Hernández et al. (2016); Manivannan et al. (2009); Wang et al. (2010)
Micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn etc.) Increased Angin et al. (2017); Courtney and Mullen (2008); Jatav et al. (2018); Kołodziej et al.
(2015); Manivannan et al. (2009); Tejada et al. (2016)
Macronutrients (N, P, K) (total or available) Increased Angin et al. (2017); Courtney and Mullen (2008); Chu et al. (2017); Dong et al.
(2012); Gómez-Brandón et al. (2016); Hamdi et al. (2019); Hernández et al.
(2016); Jayakumar et al. (2011); Kołodziej et al. (2015); Mondal et al. (2015);
Montemurro et al. (2010); Nurhidayati et al. (2018); Tejada et al. (2016); Wang
et al. (2010)
Electrical conductance Increased Angin et al. (2017); Courtney and Mullen (2008); Gómez-Brandón et al. (2016);
Hamdi et al. (2019); Jatav et al. (2018); Mackay et al. (2017); Wang et al. (2010)
Organic carbon Increased Blanchet et al. (2016); Courtney and Mullen (2008); Dong et al. (2012); Gómez-
Brandón et al. (2016); Hamdi et al. (2019); Hernández et al. (2016); Jatav et al.
(2018); Jayakumar et al. (2011); Kołodziej et al. (2015); Manivannan et al. (2009);
Montemurro et al. (2010)
Organic matter Increased Angin et al. (2017); Wang et al. (2010)
Biological
Microbial biomass C Increased Gómez-Brandón et al. (2016); Hamdi et al. (2019); Hernández et al. (2016); Mondal
et al. (2015)
Microbial biomass N Increased Hamdi et al. (2019)
Basal respiration Increased Gómez-Brandón et al. (2016); Hernández et al. (2016)
Enzyme activities
(a) Dehydrogenase Increased Hamdi et al. (2019); Hernández et al. (2016); Kołodziej et al. (2015); Mondal et al.
(2015)
(b) Phosphatase Increased Hamdi et al. (2019); Hernández et al. (2016); Kołodziej et al. (2015)
(c) Glucosidase Increased Hernández et al. (2016)
(d) Urease activity Increased Hernández et al. (2016); Kołodziej et al. (2015)
(e) Protease Increased Hamdi et al. (2019); Kołodziej et al. (2015)
Microbial population (bacteria, fungi and Increased Gómez-Brandón et al. (2016); Hamdi et al. (2019); Jayakumar et al. (2011); Mani-
actinomycetes) vannan et al. (2009)
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las et al. (2014)observed higher numbers of large enriching source of organic matter and valuable plant
macro- (2000–8000 μm) and microaggregates (50– nutrients (especially N and P), is well recognized and
250 μm) in amended soil as compared to unamended affects soil properties like aggregation, porosity, bulk
one. Effect of two different MSW composts, applied at density, water holding capacity and soil structure mak-
amendment rates of 18-, 36- and 72-tons dry matter per ing it a good soil ameliorating agent (Wang et al. 2008);
hectare on properties of a sandy soil with poor fertility however, over application of sludges characterized by
was studied by Weber et al. (2007) in a three-year field high levels of HMs and toxic constituents may also dis-
experiment. Soil’s physico-chemical properties like turb soil properties (Singh et al. 2012). In a study to
organic carbon, field water capacity, cation exchange assess the positives and negatives of utilizing organic
capacity, total porosity, humic acid content, plant avail- wastes as soil amendments in agriculture, Alvarenga
able water and nutrients (P, K, Mg) were enhanced sig- et al. (2015) characterized nine different types of
nificantly due to application with both the composts. organic wastes viz. mixed MSW compost, municipal
Increase in total heavy metal content was also observed sewage sludge, agricultural wastes compost, compost
due to application of MSW compost from industrial produced from agricultural wastes and sewage sludge,
area, however, with no significant changes in soil qual- agro-industrial sludge, municipal slaughterhouse
ity. Calleja-Cervantes et al. (2015) found consistent sludge, pig slurry digestate and paper mill wastes. The
improvement in soil quality due to long-term applica- results of the study indicated possible benefits of utiliz-
tion (over 13 years) of composted organic wastes viz. ing organic waste amendments listed above due to their
(1) Pelletized organic compost prepared from plant, higher organic matter and nutrient (N, P and K) con-
animal and biosolids residues, (2) MSW compost and tents and risks of enhancing soil salinity due to higher
(3) sheep manure compost. Amendment with all the electrical conductivity seen in certain wastes like pig
compost significantly increased organic matter (35%), slurry digestate, paper mill wastes and some compost
along with electrical conductivity, total nitrogen, phos- samples; high concentration of N–NH4+ which may lead
phorus and potassium contents. Augmentation of to NH3 emissions and pathogenic microbes in case of
organic matter and nutrient (N, P, K) content of soil due sewage sludges; possible groundwater contamination
to organic waste amendments enhances soil fertility and due to leaching of N–NO3− from soil owing to its higher
serves as a reliable indicator of soil productivity (Dong concentration pig slurry digestate and exceeding HM
et al. 2012; Marinari et al. 2006). Increase in supply of concentration except in compost produced from agri-
nutrients; water holding capacity and reduction in soil cultural wastes and sewage sludge. The study recom-
erosion and nutrient leaching due to increase in organic mended composting of sewage sludge for its stabiliza-
carbon content in soil improves its properties, fertility tion, sanitization and lowering metal content.
and crop yields (Edmeades 2003; Maltas et al. 2013;
Six et al. 2002). Another very popular approach for bio-
logical oxidation and stabilization of organic wastes (b) Effects on Soil’s biological properties
making them improve soil properties and fertility as Unregulated and excessive use of chemical fertilizers is
amendments/organic fertilizer is through the process of known to affect soil’s physico-chemical and biological
vermicomposting (Domínguez and Gómez-Brandón properties (like porosity, particle and bulk density, total
2013). Higher porosity, surface area and water holding microbial activity) as well as the surrounding environment
capacity in vermicomposts increase the retention of adversely (Manivannan et al. 2009; Zuo et al. 2018). On
plant-available nutrients (Chaudhuri et al. 2000). the other hand, organic waste fertilizers such as MSW com-
Results from a study to evaluate the impact of ver- post/vermicompost, sewage sludge, anaerobic digestate are
micompost and compost prepared from buffalo manure abundantly rich in organic matter; beneficial plant nutrients
indicated beneficial effects on soil properties showing (Table 1) having positive effects on soil properties (Singh
significant increase in pH, cation exchange capacity, et al. 2011, 2012). Commercially, also organic waste com-
soil carbon, total N, P, K and available P and K content, posts are a viable option as they recycle organic matter,
due to these organic amendments. Treatment with ver- nutrients, possess plant growth regulators and suppress soil-
micompost showed its effect on soil moisture with sig- borne plant pathogens (Atiyeh et al. 2001; Garcia-Gomez
nificant increase in water availability or reduced soil et al. 2002). Gunapala and Scow (1998) compared soil
water tension. It also led to most significant reductions nitrogen content in fields under conventional and organic
in soil detachment and loss; leaching and water runoff production systems, and found soil microbial components
and leaching of NNH+ and NNO−3 showing positive influ- to be negatively and positively correlated with the two
4
ence on minimizing soil erosion (Doan et al. 2015). aforementioned systems, respectively. Results from a field
Land application of sewage sludge, which is also an study using organic wastes comprising of composted animal
13
manure and plant materials (cotton-gin trash, mixed yard activities was observed in a vineyard soil amended with
waste, poultry litter, cattle manure, hay) as alternative soil different organic wastes (Calleja-Cervantes et al. 2015).
amendments suggested significant correlation between soil Highest and most significant increase in enzyme activities
chemical properties and biological communities (Bulluck was seen in the case of soil amended with MSW compost
Iii et al. 2002). Higher propagule densities of Trichoderma amounting to an increment of 115% in phosphatase, 165%
species, a beneficial soil fungus, thermophilic microbes and in β-glucosidase and 389% in protease activity, respectively,
enteric bacteria in soil treated with organic amendments as compared to control. Pelletized organic compost showed
were observed over a period of two years in comparison its effect on urease and protease activity with 149% and
to soil amended with synthetic fertilizers. Interestingly, 275% increase, respectively. However, application of min-
propagule densities of plant pathogenic species viz. Phy- eral fertilizer (NPK) decreased the overall enzyme activity
tophthora and Pythium were reduced in soil treated with with 67% reduction in β-glucosidase activity and 26% in
organic amendments as compared to soil under synthetic FDA hydrolysis. Organic amendments enhance the devel-
amendments. It has been seen that nitrogen-rich organic opment and activity of soil microbial biomass which plays
soil amendments, composts and manures can substitute ben- a key functional role in nutrient cycling and stabilization
eficial microorganisms and suppress the pathogenic ones of organic matter by providing source of energy; nutrients
through release of allelochemicals (Bailey and Lazarovits and help in maintaining soil sustainability. Bastida et al.
2003). Addition of organic waste amendments causes sig- (2017) studied the effect of organic amendments viz. sludge
nificant increase in soil organic matter (SOM), microbial and compost on soil microbial community and microbi-
biomass and activities increasing the mineralization and ally mediated processes in semiarid or drought conditions.
availability of plant nutrients upon their incorporation. Activity of enzymes viz. β-Glucosidase and Urease, and
Therefore, Poulsen et al. (2013) conducted a long-term soil microbial biomass in sludge- and compost-amended
field trial to evaluate the fertilizing effects of urban and soils was observed to be higher under drought condition
agricultural organic wastes such as human urine, biosol- than well-watered soils as compared to unamended soil
ids, composted organic municipal waste, deep litter, cattle after 45 days of incubation. Application of fermented bio-
slurry, cattle manure and NPK fertilizer on soil microbial solids as biofertilizer in soil also enhanced dehydrogenase
activity. The results of the study showed significant effects activity in the range of 17.8%–72.6% in different treatments
on soil microbial properties like soil organic matter (SOM) with respect to unamended soil (Rodríguez-Morgado et al.
C content, basal CO2 respiration and soil microbial biomass 2019) possibly due to increase in lower-molecular weight
(SMB) C with higher SMB C values and abundant hetero- protein fraction. Roig et al. (2012a) reported improvement
trophic bacterial population for soils fertilized with organic in soil properties to be proportional to the doses applied
wastes. No decline in SMB C–SOM C ratio was observed in and/or their frequency in long-term experiment of using
the present study indicating no decline in microbial popula- anaerobically digested biosolids in a calcareous soil for
tion due to organic waste fertilizer amendments, as decrease 16 years. Soil properties such as soil organic matter and
in the SMB C/SOM C ratio is a useful indicator of heavy nitrogen content, microbial and enzymatic activities, carbon
metal pollution in soil. In a 50-year-long experiment with and nitrogen mineralization were increased due to biosolids
organic and inorganic fertilizers in a Swiss conventional amendments. The study also identified a maximum dose of
farming system, organic amendments like crop residues 40 Mg ha−1 year−1 for using anaerobically digested biosol-
and farmyard manure enhanced soil microbial popula- ids as agricultural fertilizer, as beyond this, soil properties
tion as indicated by microbial biomass and phospholipid- showed no improvement.
derived fatty acids contents (Blanchet et al. 2016). 3.5% of
increase in crop yield was also observed due to applica- Enhancement in Plant Growth and Productivity
tion of farmyard manure. Microbial biomass also plays a
significant role in growth of plants and crops in the field Organic waste amendments in agricultural soils contribute
(Zuo et al. 2018). Overall results of the study revealed positively by improving physico-chemical and microbiologi-
that organic amendments not only improve soil’s biological activity thereby improving crop production (Hernández
cal properties and crop yield but also reduce the require- et al. 2016). Utilizing stabilized organic wastes in the form
ment of mineral N fertilizer in large amounts. Addition of of compost in agriculture enables recycling of organic matter
organic waste composts enhances microbial activity and and beneficial plant nutrients. In addition, composts/ver-
stimulates overall nutrient cycling in soil. Application of micompost has properties to regulate plant growth (indole
vermicomposts significantly increases the activity of soil acetic acid, gibberellins, cytokinins and humic acids) and
enzymes viz. arylsulfatase, catalase, phosphodiesterase, cause reduction in phytopathogens present in soil (Atiyeh
phosphomonoesterase, sucrase and urease (Albiach et al. et al. 2002; Garcia-Gomez et al. 2002). Table 2 enlists many
2000; Zuo et al. 2018). Significant increase in enzyme studies showing effect of different organic wastes
13
Table 2 Effect of different organic wastes on growth and productivity responses in different plants
Organic wastes Amendment rates/doses Test plant Maximum increase in germination/ References
yield/biomass (%)
(a) Chicken manure compost (CMC) CMC @19 t ha−1 Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) 74% increase in yield Wang et al. (2017)
(b) Vermicompost (VC) VC @30 t ha−1
(a) Cattle manure VC 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or Petunia (Petunia sp) 62.5% increase (no. of flowers per Arancon et al. (2008)
(b) Food wastes VC 100% (by volume) plant)
(c) Paper wastes VC
(a) Chicken manure (CM) 150 kg N ha−1 Spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) 257.14% increase (Late autumn) Citak and Sonmez (2010)
(b) Farmyard manure (FYM)
(c) Blood meal (BM)
(a) Rabbit manure VC 10.75 g of VC per pot Pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) 16% increase in the germination Lazcano et al. (2010)
percentage
(a) Cattle slaughterhouse waste com- CSW-C @10Tn/ha Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Capi- 105.1% increase in yield Coria-Cayupán et al. (2009)
post (CSW-C) CSW-VC @ 10Tn/ha tata)
(b) Cattle slaughterhouse waste ver- FVSW-C @10Tn/ha
micompost (CSW-VC) FVSW-VC @ 10Tn/ha
(c) Fruit and vegetable solid waste CM-C @10Tn/ha
compost (FVSW-C) USW-C @10Tn/ha
(d) Fruit and vegetable solid waste

vermicompost (FVSW-VC)
(e) Cow manure compost (CM-C)
(f) Urban solid waste compost (USW-
C)
Cow manure Vermicompost 0:7, 1:7, 2:7, 4:7, 7:0 (w/w) Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris 148% increase in marketable weight Wang et al. (2010)
ssp. chinensis)
(a) Sewage sludge (SS) Both SS and compost @ 0.5% i.e. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) variety Super 37% and 48% increase in rice and Riaz et al. (2018)
(b) Solid waste composts 5 g kg−1 soil Basmati wheat yield
@ 1.0% i.e. 10 g kg−1 soil Wheat (Triticum
aestivum L. cv. Galaxy)
Two Agro-industrial composts 25, 50 and 100 t ha−1 Barley (Hordeum vulgare) 59% increase in grain yield Courtney and Mullen (2008)
(a) Spent mushroom compost (SMC)
(b) Forced aeration compost (FAC)
(a) Stabilized anaerobic digestate 140 kg ha−1 of N Lettuce 55.2% increase in marketable yield Montemurro et al. (2010)
(SAD) from wine distillery waste- (Lactuca sativa L.)
water
(b) Non-stabilized organic mate-
rial (NSAD) from wine distillery
wastewater
(c) Olive pomace compost (OPC)
13
415
Table 2 (continued)
416
yield/biomass (%)
13
(a) Dried sewage sludge (SS) Each form of SS was mixed into soil Spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L. 300% increase in aboveground biomass Mackay et al. (2017)
(b) Incinerated SS at a rate of 50 mg P kg−1, which var. Axe) (at 55 days)
(c) 2S gasified SS equated to between 520 and 1310 mg
(d) LT gasified SS of material per kg soil
(e) Pyrolysed SS
(a) Sewage sludge (i) To soil, at rates of 0, 10 and Maize crops (Zea mays L.) 0.6% increase in yield Tejada et al. (2016)
20 Mg ha−1 before sowing (Experiment 1)
(ii) Via foliar fertilization, at total rate 20.8% increase in yield (Experiment 2)
of 0, 10.8 l ha−1 and 21.6 l ha−1
(a) Sewage sludge 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 t h a−1 Triticale (Triticosecale wittmack, Cv 119.5% increase in biological yield Yagmur et al. (2017)
Mikham-2001)
(a) Municipal sewage sludge 0, 10, 20, 40, 60 Mg DM ha−1 Sweet sorghum (GK Csaba, Rona 1, 29.7% increase in total biomass Kołodziej et al. (2015)
Sucrosorgo 506)
(a) Turkey litter vermicompost 10, 20, 30 and 40 kg VC added with Paddy (Oryza sativa, variety ADT-37) 78.3% increase in grain weight Jayakumar et al. (2011)
[farmyard manure (FYM) at 2.0
tonnes acre−1; diammonium
Phosphate at 50 kg acre−1; potash at
25 kg acre−1]
(a) Sewage sludge 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 kg of dry matter Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) 292.8% and 636.9% increase in yield Angin et al. (2017)
per plant for the year 2012 and 2013 respec-
tively
(a) Municipal solid organic wastes and 25% RDF + 3.75 ton ha−1 VC Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) 107.44% increase marketable fruit Mengistu et al. (2017)
dried fecal sludge VC 50% RDF + 7.5 ton ha−1 VC yield
75% RDF + 3.75 ton ha−1 VC
T5 25% RDF + 11.25 ton ha−1 VC
T6 75% RDF + 11.25 ton ha−1 VC
15 t ha−1 VC
(a) Dry leaf litter 5, 10, 15, and 20 t ha−1 Pak-Coi Mustard (Brassica rapa L.) 152.8% increase in marketable yield Nurhidayati et al. (2018)
(b) Cow dung (fourth cropping)
(c) Vegetable waste Vermicomposts
With Spent Mushroom Waste,
Coconut Husk And Sugarcane Trash
Serving As Bedding material
(a) Municipal solid waste (food, yard 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 100% (v/v) Green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 78.3–89.5% higher fruit weights Soobhany et al. (2017)
and paper) composts and vermicom-
posts
Table 2 (continued)
yield/biomass (%)
(a) Digestate obtained from an anaero- 64 and 66 m3 ha−1 digestate for the first Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. 49.2% (first year) and 32.6% (second Alburquerque et al. (2012)
bic co-digestion plant treating a mix- and the second crop seasons lanatus) year) increase in marketable produc-
ture of pig slurry with 1.0% sludge tion for watermelon
from slaughterhouse wastewater plant
and 6.5% biodiesel wastewaters
(b) Cattle manure 20 and 22 Mg ha−1, cattle manure, for Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. 126.9% (first year) and 390% (second
the first and the second crop seasons botrytis) year) increase in marketable produc-
tion for cauliflower
(a) Anaerobic digestate of feeding The total amounts of digestate and liq- Silage corn (DKC-6903, FAO 700, 21% increase in yield Riva et al. (2016)
mixture of cattle slurry (15,440 Mg uid fraction of digestate were applied Monsanto Italy)
y−1) and energy crops (maize silage, as the same amount of N as on the DKC-5401 corn hybrid (FAO class
triticale silage) (15,150 Mg y −1) plots dosed with mineral fertilization 300/400, Monsanto Italy)
(urea)
Five urban waste digestates from dif- 1500 mg TKN/5 L sandy soil Italian ryegrass (cv. Fabio) 5–30% higher yields compared to the Tampio et al. (2016)
ferent biogas plants treating either control mineral fertilizer with a simi-
(a) Domestic food waste lar inorganic nitrogen concentration
(b) Organic fraction of municipal solid

waste (OFMSW)
(c) Mixture of waste activated sludge
and vegetable waste.
(a) Green waste compost (GWC) 50% peat + 50% GWC (PC); Geranium (Pelargonium zonale L.) 57.1% increase (No. of flowers/plant) Gong et al. (2018)
(b) Green waste vermicompost (GWV) 100% GWC (C); and 50% peat + 50% Calendula (Calendula officinalis L.)
GWV (PV); 100% GWV (V).
13
417
amendments on plant growth and productivity. In a study toxicological risk due to lower foliar nitrate concentration in
conducted by Jeyabal and Kuppuswamy (2001), five differ- lettuce grown in compost-treated soils as compared to inor-
ent organic wastes of agricultural and agro-industrial origin ganic fertilizer-treated soils was also seen. In a series of
viz. sugarcane pressmud, biodigested slurry, coir pith, cow experiments on agricultural utilization of biosolids, a hugely
dung and weeds were vermicomposted and consequent popular organic waste worldwide, Singh and Agrawal (2007,
response of their application in rice-legume cropping system 2009, 2010a, b) demonstrated the effect of biosolids amend-
was studied. The wastes were vermicomposted in different ment at 20 and 40% on growth and yield responses of Beta
combinations by mixing in a ratio of 1:1 and the effect of vulgaris L. var Allgreen H-1 (Palak) and Abelmoschus escu-
vermicompost on rice–legume system was compared with lentus L. var Varsha uphar (Lady finger); and at doses rang-
biodigested slurry and farmyard manure. Results showed ing from 3 to 12 kg m−2 for Oryza sativa L. cv. Pusa sugan-
combination of weeds and biodigested slurry to be the most dha 3 (Rice) and Vigna radiata L. (Mung bean), respectively.
suitable for vermicomposting owing to nutrient content and At 20 and 40% biosolids amendment rate, yield of Palak
maturity period of compost. 15.9% increase in rice yield due decreased by 7 and 22%, whereas yield of Lady finger
to integrated application of vermicompost, fertilizer N and showed significant increase by 75 and 135%, respectively.
biofertilizer in a pot experiment was seen in comparison to In case of Rice and Mung bean, both the crops showed sig-
sole application of fertilizer N. Field experiment studies also nificant increment in their yields at different application
showed 12.2 and 19.9% increase in rice (6.25 t ha−1) and doses of biosolids. Maximum increment in yield of Rice
legume (0.51 t ha−1) yields due to integrated application of (137%) and Mung bean (76%) was reported at 12 kg/m2 and
vermicompost (50% N), and 50% N through fertilizer N and 9 kg/m2 amendment rates, respectively. Positive morphologi-
biofertilizer compared to 100% N via fertilizer alone. Atiyeh cal response in terms of increment in root length, shoot
et al. (2002) attributed increasing plant growth responses of length, leaf area, number of leaves, root and shoot biomass
tomato and cucumber evident in parameters such as leaf was also seen in Lady finger, Rice and Mung bean plants at
area, plant height, root and shoot biomass to humic acids different biosolids amendment rates. Organic waste amend-
resultant of pig manure vermicompost and food waste ver- ments generally increase the concentration of heavy metals
micompost. Vermicomposts are known to enhance plant in amended soil. Hence, woody plants due to their higher
growth-containing substances that promote plant growth lifespan, growth and biomass; extensive root system and
such as enzymes, hormones and vitamins (Doan et al. 2015). hyperaccumulation can play an effective role in heavy metals
Maximum increment of 47% in shoot biomass and 79.3% in removal from these waste amendments (Luo et al. 2016).
root biomass of tomato seedlings over control was seen at Chu et al. (2017) conducted a pot experiment with sewage
mixture containing 200 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg pig manure sludge compost mixed with soil at different mass ratios viz.
vermicompost humates, respectively. Hormone-like activity S15, S30, S60 and S100% to assess the growth of tree spe-
of vermicompost-derived humic acids, adsorption of plant cies Mangifera persiciforma. Morphological traits like plant
growth hormones onto humates or elevated nutrient uptake height and ground diameter showed significant increase in
due to increased permeability of root cell membranes by all the treatments through the entire study period of 120 days
humic acids would have contributed to enhancing plant with maximum increment showed by S30% compost treat-
growth. Hernández et al. (2016) performed an experiment ment. Root, leaf, stem and total plant biomass also showed
to test the effectiveness of using organic waste composts as increase, however, significant for only two treatments viz.
a substitute to inorganic fertilizers for lettuce (Lactuca sativa S15 and S30%. Significant increase in concentration of
L.). Two different organic waste composts were used in the macronutrients N, P and K in different plant tissues (root,
study viz. compost prepared from mixing goat and sheep leaf and stem) and total plant was observed across all the
manure and by mixing sewage sludge with sawdust in 1:1 treatments. However, the highest values for total plant N
ratio, respectively. The results of the study revealed incre- (19.20 g kg−1) and P (2.48 g kg−1) were seen in treatment
ment in lettuce yield in soils with compost treatment either S30% and for K in S100% (16.56 g kg−1). Again, treatment
alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizer than in soils S30% showed 2.28, 3.97 and 2.09 times significantly higher
with inorganic fertilizer alone. It is noteworthy that no incre- storage of N, P, K in the test plant as compared to control,
ment in heavy metal concentration in lettuce leaves was seen respectively. Optimum application rate of 30% sewage
on addition of composts. Additionally, significant improve- sludge compost was found to be the best in terms of
ment in soil’s physical properties (water holding capacity; improved plant growth and no risk of heavy metal contami-
stable soil aggregates); microbiological properties (basal nation in amended soil. Apart from various studies stating
respiration; microbial biomass C; dehydrogenase, phos- the beneficial effects of different organic amendments on
phatase and ß-glucosidase activity); and reduced plant growth and productivity, there may be negative effects
13
too. Kchaou et al. (2018) studied the impact of organic a risk of surface water and ground water pollution due to its
wastes viz. sewage sludge and green waste compost on leaching and runoff (Hernández et al. 2016). In contrast to
growth responses of forage crop triticale “X Triticosecale inorganic fertilizers, repeated or long-term application of
Wittmack”. Treatments comprised of four application rates, organic fertilizers augment the benefits to soil properties
i.e., 0, 5, 10, and 20 t ha−1 at which the organic wastes were (García-Ruiz et al. 2012). However, large-scale processing
amended in soil. Growth and physiological parameters such of organic wastes to produce fertilizers and increase their
as plant length, leaf number and chlorophyll index were acceptability requires consideration on following points viz.
either reduced or similar to control in plants grown on com- (1) Technical and economic issues, (2) understanding fer-
post-amended soil; however, significant improvement in tilizer market and (3) adoption of these practices by farm-
these parameters was observed in plants grown on sewage ers and other stakeholders (Flotats et al. 2009; Sunding and
sludge amendments mainly due to high nutrient availability. Zilberman 2001). Besides widely accepted implications of
Yield response of triticale (grain and straw) also followed enhancing soil quality and fertility positively, organic waste
the similar pattern of lower yields in plants grown on com- composts can play a very effective role in remediating soils
post amendments and significantly higher in plants grown contaminated with organic pollutants like petroleum prod-
on sludge-amended soil. The decrease in plant growth due ucts, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
to compost-amended soil can be attributed to several factors chlorophenols, etc. (Chen et al. 2015). It is governed mainly
such as release of plant essential nutrients; reduction or by two mechanisms viz. adsorption of pollutants by organic
immobilization of available soil N coming from highly matter or their degradation by microbes (Puglisi et al. 2007).
matured or immature compost additions and from competi- Compost addition is one of the most cost-effective and eco-
tion by microbes. It could also be possibly due to the pres- friendly strategy for bioremediation of soils compared to
ence and/or release of inhibitory and phytotoxic compounds, conventional and costlier physical and chemical technolo-
for, e.g., phenols, short-chain organic acids, tannins, etc. gies. Additionally, it also leads to reducing the cost and
(Buchanan 2002; Tiquia 2010). On the contrary, increments requirement of storage and treatment of these wastes.
in growth and yield due to sewage sludge amendments can Climate change mitigation by reducing greenhouse gases
be simply linked to augmentation of soil organic C, plant- (GHGs) emissions is one of the most important among sus-
available nutrients, microbial activity and organic matter. tainable development goals. Organic fertilizers also help in
mitigating climate change indirectly due to lesser rates of
Other Environmental Benefits fossil fuel consumption implying reduced GHG emissions
during their production as compared to inorganic fertilizers.
Organic wastes recycling in agriculture as an approach Production and use of inorganic fertilizers result in emission
to integrated waste management option has more to offer of GHG such as carbon dioxide ( CO2), nitrous oxide ( N2O)
than just their well-recognized agronomic benefits. Use of and methane (CH4) (Barthod et al. 2018). Use of fossil fuels
organic waste composts especially in lower income countries as energy source for production and transport of agrochem-
offers great potential due to higher economic and environ- icals like chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides
mental value. Stabilization of organic wastes not only adds results in indirect GHGs emissions (Wood and Cowie 2004).
value in terms of improving nutrient content and availability For instance, fertilizer production accounts for 1.2% of the
to be used as fertilizer in agriculture, but also entails amalga- total GHG emissions in the world approximately (Kong-
mation of popular concepts such as cleaner production, zero shaug 1998). Similarly, increasing consumption rates of N
waste policy, sustainability and bio-based circular economy fertilizer to improve agricultural productivity contributes to
(Case et al. 2017; Lim et al. 2016; Misselbrook et al. 2012; climate change due to N2O emissions (146 Gg, i.e., ≈ 81% of
Wu et al. 2013). Organic wastes can be viewed as a sustaina- total N2O in terms of CO2 equivalent) from applied soils and
ble alternative to inorganic or chemical fertilizers, since their loss of soil nitrogen as well (Pathak et al. 2016). Being the
rampant use in the past decades to increase crop productivity major source of N 2O emissions in agriculture, N fertilizers
and obtain higher yields has had damaging effects on soil account for 77% of the total emissions from soil compared
health. Some of the adverse effects of chemical fertilizers with other sources such as manures (6%) and crop residues
include land degradation, eutrophication, nutrient pollu- (1%) (Pathak et al. 2016). Even though composting and ver-
tion, decreased N use efficiency in crops and N 2O emissions micomposting process of organic wastes emits GHG like
(Pathak et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2015). Chemical fertilizers CO2, biogenic origin of these emissions saves them from
increase plant growth and yield due to immediate supply being considered for their contribution to global GHG emis-
of nutrients required by the plants but fail to condition soil sions (IPCC 2014). However, reducing C O2 emissions aris-
or replenish organic matter and fertility in degrading soil ing from composting processes can be useful to enhance
systems under intensive agricultural practices. Over applica- carbon sequestration thereby helping in climate change miti-
tion of inorganic fertilizers in agricultural fields also poses gation (Barthod et al. 2018). Anaerobic decomposition of
13
organic wastes in landfills devoid of landfill gas collection field as compared to control. The integration of MSW com-
system releases significant amounts of greenhouse gases in post augmented the HM content in the soil crucially, in par-
the atmosphere. Therefore, organic waste fertilizers replac- ticular the concentration of Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd in the upper
ing inorganic fertilizers in agricultural fields further reduces soil layer in the order Zn > Cu > Pb > Cr > Ni > Cd (Madrid
GHG emissions (mainly C H4 and N2O) by diverting the et al. 2007). An improvement in soil cation exchange proper-
wastes from landfills where 90% of it is disposed (Bong ties connected mainly with positive changes in soil fertility,
et al. 2017; Li et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2015). According to as well as an increase in available K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ which
Wu et al. (2015), recycling was beneficial for agricultural in turn might result in improved metal desorption from the
production with 94,174.28 kg CO2-eq yr−1 of net GHG emis- soil (Weber et al. 2007). Soil solution (like ionic metal) is
sion mitigation potential. Li et al. (2017) found reduction in absorbed in vascular plants principally through roots. Metal
overall GHG emissions from upland cropping systems due uptake has been experimented in several crops like clover,
to combined application of biochar, chemical and organic barley and wheat, grape vines, spinach, shrubs, etc. by tak-
fertilizers. Hence, agricultural recycling of organic wastes ing the edible part of most plant species into consideration;
shows potential for carbon sequestration, mitigation of GHG consequently, the menace of relocating HMs from soil to
emissions and sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers. higher trophic level must be seriously considered (Jordao
et al. 2006). Similar study on different amendment of sew-
Risks age sludge has been done by Singh and Agrawal (2010a) that
showed amendment rates more than 4.5 kg m−2 although
Heavy Metal (HM) Toxicity increased the rice production but caused serious risk of food
chain contamination as Ni and Cd concentration were more
In environment, HMs are naturally present in soil and food than Indian safe limits i.e. 1.5 mg kg−1. A small increase in
(Smith 2009a). However, now-a-days, they are extensively HMs in soil consequently raises the amount of Zn, Cd, Pb
employed in manufacturing processes of batteries, inks, and Cu in plants. It is well documented that HMs concentra-
plastics, paints, disposable household materials, body care tion is more in roots as compared to other plant parts (Bose
products and domestic pesticides (NHHWF 2000; Bardos and Bhattacharyya 2008; Lakhdar et al. 2010). Scientists
2004). Continuously changing lifestyles and mixing of waste of several nations have also reported the existence of HMs
are also a reason of abundance of HMs in waste (McGrath in composts, vermicompost, sewage sludge and anaerobic
et al. 2000). Consequently, HMs get transferred to organic digestates (Anjum et al. 2017; Koivula et al. 2000). Table 3
residuals and may become the sources of HM toxicity in presents an insight on how total metal content is modified
soil and plants. Long-term application of waste through by composting and vermicomposting processes. Most of the
composting/vermicomposting, sewage sludge or anaerobic papers cited in the table revealed increase in metal concen-
digestate may cause accumulation of HMs in soil, and from tration during composting process; whereas for vermicom-
soil, they get transferred to different trophic levels of the posting, a significant decrease in metal concentration during
food chain that may cause diverse environmental and human degradation of different organic waste was observed. Metal
health issues (Lopez-Mosquera et al. 2000; Mohee and Soo- immobilization through formation of stable complexes with
bhany 2014; Wang et al. 2003). OH or COOH groups on the solid surfaces of the organic
HMs when exceed the threshold permissible limits have polymers could be contributed by the addition of organic
negative effect on existing organisms and environment (Ceb- amendments to soil (Madrid et al. 2007). Augmentation
ula et al. 1995). Also, they remain unaffected throughout the of organic matter contributes to fixing the HMs in soils
degradation process of organic waste. Several factors such by forming the organometallic complexes and therefore,
as the pH, the redox potential, the kind and the quality of reduction in mobility and phytotoxicity is noticed (Udom
soil, the concentration and the type of ions competing for et al. 2004). However, fresh manure and immature compost,
adsorption, and primarily the occurrence of organic or inor- with comparatively more soluble organic matter content,
ganic ligands are indeed influencing the mobility and acces- may enhance the metal mobility (Madrid et al. 2007). The
sibility of metallic elements in amended soils (Illera et al. organic amendments have different effects on metal avail-
2000; Kabala and Singh 2001). Therefore, HM needs serious ability, depending upon the specific metal, the soil and the
consideration before application of compost/vermicompost, attributes of organic matter supplied, chiefly the degree of
sewage sludge or anaerobic digestate obtained by utilizing humification (Walker et al. 2004). The injudicious applica-
MSW as raw material. Das et al. (2002) stated that during tion of organic waste to recover agricultural yields neglect-
bio-degradation of waste, metal concentration increases with ing possible adverse effects may become a chief concern.
volume reduction of waste. The application of MSW com- Therefore, finished products must be examined for metal
post during 3 consecutive years exhibited positive augmenta- concentration before application.
tion of Pb, Ni, Cu and Zn in 0–25-cm layer in the amended
13
Table 3 Alteration in total metal content of feedstocks during composting (C), vermicomposting (V) and anaerobic digestion (AD) Source:
Adapted from Mohee and Soobhany (2014)
Treatment Metal Change in “Total” References
metal concentration
C (sewage sludge; city refuse; peat residue; grape debris)Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn ↑ Garcia et al. (1995)
C (sewage sludge) Cu, Pb, Zn ↓ He et al. (2009)
C (paper fiber, green waste) Ni, Pb, Cu, Zn – Tandy et al. (2009)
C (tomato crop waste) Fe, Mn, Mo, B ↑ Fornes et al. (2012)
C (water hyacinth) Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr ↑ Singh and Kalamdhad (2012)
V (municipal sewage sludge) Cu ↓ (29–52%) Suthar and Singh (2008)
Fe ↓ (13–20%)
Zn ↓ (15–26%)
Pb ↓ (5–47%)
V (sludge) Cu ↓ (8.6–39.6%) Suthar (2008)
Zn ↓ (15.1–39.6%)
Fe ↓ (5.2–29.8%)
Mn ↓ (2.6–36.5%)
V (primary sewage sludge) Cu, Co, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cr ↑ Hait and Tare (2012)
V (water hyacinth) Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Cr ↑ Singh and Kalamdhad (2013)
V (sewage sludge + passivant) Cu ↓ (16.3–30.6%) Wang et al. (2013)
Pb ↓ (24.4–38.4%)
Cd ↓ (11.4–14.7%)
As ↓ (7.5–33.9%)
V (sewage sludge) Cr, Cd, Pb ↓ (90–98.7%) Azizi et al. (2013)
V (shredded paper) Cd, Cu, Pb ↓ Soobhany et al. (2014)
AD (Domestic food waste, Organic fraction of municipal Pb, Ni, Hg, Cd, As, Cu, Cr, Zn ↑ Tampio et al. (2016)
solid waste (OFMSW), waste activated sludge, vegeta-
ble waste)
C (sewage sludge) Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd ↑ Chu et al. (2017)
V (Municipal solid organic wastes and dried fecal sludge) Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu ↑ Mengistu et al. (2017)
V (Sewage sludge) Al, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu – Yagmur et al. (2017)
V (Sewage sludge) Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cd, Hg ↑ Angin et al. (2017)
C (sewage sludge (SS) and solid waste composts) Cd ↑ (3%) Riaz et al. (2018)
Cu ↑ (68%)
Pb ↑ (84%)
Zn ↑ (37%)
C (organic waste with red mud and fly ash) Zn, Pb ↓ Barthod et al. (2018)
V (Sewage sludge) Pb ↑ (45–60 mg kg−1) Hamdi et al. (2019)
Ni ↑ (16–19 mg kg−1)
Zn ↑ (88–167 mg kg−1)
Cu ↑ (25–35 mg kg−1)
↑ = signifies an increased concentration; ↓ = signifies a decreased concentration; – = not reported; values in parentheses are the % concentration
change
Emerging contaminants/POPs and organochlorine pesticides (Clarke et al. 2010). Recently,

attention has also been paid on PCNs (chlorinated naphtha-
Modern society largely depends on the wide spectrum of lenes), PCAs (polychlorinated alkanes), synthetic musks,
organic chemicals which get sequestered in solids during estrogens, organotin compounds and NPs (nonylphenols)
waste treatment processes (Chari and Halden 2012; Clarke (Clarke et al. 2010; Sjöström et al. 2008). POPs are directly
and Cummins 2015). Significant research has been done on toxic to biota and can increasingly bioaccumulate in higher
this topic during last few decades. Some selected groups of food chain such that chronic exposure of lower organisms
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been given special to low doses can expose humans and wildlife to possibly
attention like PCDD/Fs (chlorinated dioxins/furans) (Clarke harmful concentrations (European Environment Agency
et al. 2008; Clarke and Smith 2011), PAHs (polycyclic aro- 2011). Anaerobic digestate also contains some harmful
matic hydrocarbons), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), micro-pollutants like pharmaceuticals (Ibuprofen, Diazepam
13
and Iopromide), pesticides and detergents (like Triclosan) Pb (Lead) (Madrid et al. 2007). Bio-accumulation of met-
which are bio-transformable during the process; while, other als in soil depends chiefly on the soil composition, fate of
compounds like NPs, estrogens, synthetic musks and alkyl metals in waste and their physical and chemical processes.
benzene sulphonates are resistant to biodegradation (Car- Through contaminated soil, adverse effect on animal and
balla et al. 2007; Hospido et al. 2010; Padhye and Huang human health is caused via direct incorporation through
2012; Sheets et al. 2015). Hence, application of antibiot- food chain (Smith 2009b; Zhuang et al. 2009).
ics and detergents in dairy farming and food could exist in HM toxicity is a significant problem for evolutionary,
anaerobic digestate. This may disrupt endocrine receptor in ecological, and environmental reasons (Jaishankar et al.
terrestrial or aquatic organisms. However, only few studies 2014a). Toxic HMs reach soil through reutilizing waste in
have focused on their fate and degradation pathways. As the form of compost, vermicompost, sewage sludge and
a result, it becomes very complex to appraise the risk of anaerobic digestate; and from soil they consequently reach
application of anaerobic digestate directly to field (Mitchell different trophic levels. An importance on the following
et al. 2013). It is challenging to comprehend the effect of compounds must be given like benzene and 1,3-butadiene,
emerging POPs on using anaerobic digestates. This is due as possibly inductive agents of leukemia; certain PAHs as
to technical obstacles during characterization of various potentially inductive of cancer; formaldehyde, as a nasal car-
POPs and their land application. Detectable concentration cinogen potential; and the carcinogenic PCDD/Fs which are
of dioxins, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and pharma- the adverse health effects of VOCs. International Agency for
ceuticals has been documented by various scientists (Boxall Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified many compounds
2012; Clarke and Smith 2011). Pharmaceuticals and per- as toxic, and non-carcinogenic; yet, numerous compounds
sonal care products (PPCPs) are emergent concern and have have not been classified. The bad odors must be also encom-
been detected in waste intended for land application (Kinney passed, as it can cause varied indirect health effects like nau-
et al. 2006; Xia et al. 2005). Like naproxen, and others like seas, vomits, hypersensitivity, or even modifications in the
triclosan and fluoroquinolones, have been more persistent respiratory model (Domingo and Nadal 2009). HM contami-
in the soil–water environment (Golet et al. 2003; Lozano nation is of major concern as they possess harmful effect on
et al. 2010; Topp et al. 2008; Ying et al. 2007) they dissi- proper functioning of important organs like brain, kidney,
pate rapidly in soil. It is also imperative to comprehend the liver, lungs, etc. Their long-term intake gradually causes
potential for plant crop uptake of PPCPs resulting from land muscular and neurological disorders and severe diseases
application of biosolids, since PPCPs have been revealed like Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s
to be absorbed and translocated into above-ground tissues disease. Among them, renal, neurological, hematological
(Boxall et al. 2006; Wu et al. 2010). This led to the concern and hepatic alterations, along with mucosal irritations are
that their direct application to field may cause accumula- the most common (Curtis et al. 2006; Kampa and Castanas
tion of series of POPs, dioxins and pharmaceuticals in soils 2008; Rumchev et al. 2007). Also, benzene could cause
and subsequently gets translocated at different trophic levels aplastic anemia and polycythemia; dichloromethane pro-
chain (Roig et al. 2012b). Although, the occurrence of these duces carboxyhemoglobin; toluene, styrene dichlorometh-
emerging contaminants is considerably low (mg k g−1 down ane, tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene are neuro-
to sub ng kg−1), risk assessment experts, epidemiologists toxic, though naphthalene and styrene cause irritations of the
and toxicologists recommend serious concerns over environ- mucosal membranes (Domingo and Nadal 2009). Continu-
ment and human health during their widespread application ous long-term exposure to HM or their compounds may even
(Smith 2009b). cause cancer (Jaishankar et al. 2014b; Järup 2003). Thus, it
is the basic need to identify the benefits and risks of land
Food Chain Contamination and Human Health application of different waste in the form of composting,
vermicomposting, sewage sludge and anaerobic digestate,
Recycling of organic waste as fertilizer propounds num- especially to recognize the fate and degradation pathway of
ber of advantages during management of waste, as it different contaminants like HMs and POPs that affect their
reduces the dependency on inorganic fertilizers and sub- availability and risks of entrance into food chain and ulti-
sequently reduces the treatment and disposal of waste mately affecting human health. Different authors have also
(Hargreaves et al. 2008; Lopes et al. 2011). The applica- proposed restricted doses of application of organic waste to
tion of waste like sewage sludge or MSW via compost- soil without affecting human food chain; 40 t ha−1 is the safe
ing, vermicomposting or anaerobic digestate provides application dose for biowaste compost; while for MSW, it is
soil nutrients enhances SOM (soil organic matter), soil 20 t ha−1. Accordingly, recommended doses may be different
structure improvement and increased nutrient uptake by depending on the soil type, raw material and nature of waste
plants (Singh et al. 2011, 2012). But, they also represent (Alvarenga et al. 2017).
a significant input of toxic metals like Cd (Cadmium) or
13
Economic Evaluation indoor continuous-flow reactor vermicomposting sys-

tem along with capital cost of $2,159,000. The revenue
Crop yield, gross margin, net return and cost–benefit ratio includes the sales of vermicompost as well as landfill
define the economic productivity of any organic waste- savings. Thus, potentially around $2,055,000 profit was
based agricultural system (Gareau 2012). Organic agri- calculated. On the basis of quality, unit size and packag-
cultural system also has other benefits such as need of ing of the vermicompost, its price varies from $200 to
lesser amount of water, minimal contamination by pesti- $1000 per ton (Edwards et al. 2010). In comparison to
cides, reduced soil erosion, reduced carbon emissions and the composting system, the integrated system of biogas
enhanced biodiversity. Composting, vermicomposting and plus composting had higher net present value than com-
anaerobic digestion are the three main processes of con- posting system, but, however, had similar internal rate of
verting organic materials into nutrient-rich fertilizer and return and payback period (Yoshizaki et al. 2012, 2013).
soil conditioner for agricultural purposes (Zaman 2013). Even though simple technical complication and low capital
These practices also improve the physico-chemical prop- requirement in composting system make it a low-budget
erties such as pH, electrical conductivity and organic car- technique (Galgani et al. 2014), it is difficult to conclude
bon of soil for healthier plant growth. A study by Bekch- the economic viability of composting system as it rests
anov and Mirzabaev (2018) estimated a reduction of US$ upon the cost of many parameters like nature of compost-
197–357 million in the total waste management and ferti- ing system, production volume, prevailing facilities and
lizer use cost due to recycling of organic wastes through equipment, feedstocks, compost values and more signifi-
composting. According to Chouichom and Yamao (2011), cantly how the evaluations were deliberated (Rynk 2001).
the cost of organic agriculture was nearly 33.5% less than For instance, compost prices and investment costs from
conventional methods. Behera et al. (2012) reported that individual composting farms vary between $20–40 and
50% less expenditure on fertilizer and energy was incurred $15–35 per cubic yard compost, respectively (Rynk 2001).
on organic agriculture than conventional farming meth- Onsite waste management, reutilization of wastes as
ods in producing the same outcrop, while retaining 40% resources, organic manure production and income genera-
more topsoil. Lobley et al. (2009) showed that organic tion venture for livelihood are the primary benefits of this
agriculture also improves rural development due to rise organic agriculture system. Apart from that, in rural areas,
in employment. When we compare the values of sales organic practices are more viable and attractive for farm-
produced per hectare, organic agriculture was recognized ers due to easy land availability, sufficient resources (cattle
to be better, with revenue of £2837 ha−1 as compared to dung, weed biomass, crop residues and other biodegradable
£1857 ha−1 for non-organic farming but there are only a wastes from farm), no transportation and lower labor cost
handful of organic farms generated higher sales per hec- (Suthar 2011). Therefore, the organic agriculture system has
tare, whereas most farms performed at a similar level to been recognized to be effective and is capable to commer-
non-organic farms (Lobley et al. 2009). cialization of farm at a good profit rate. However, the defi-
The current literatures clarify that composting, ver- ciency of economic analysis on these systems requires more
micomposting and anaerobic digestion processes are able research and studies to evaluate the economic sustainability
to degrade a majority of organic solid waste and trans- of these systems over the long term.
form them into valuable products for organic agricultural
and other purposes. Commonly, the economic analysis
in composting system includes capital, labor, biomass, Conclusion
processing energy, repair and maintenance costs, revenue
from compost production and disposal credit (Blumen- This paper explores and represents the plausible approach of
stein et al. 2012). For instance, in a study by Cukjati et al. bioconversion of organic wastes to utilize their ample nutri-
(2012), it was stated that an anaerobic sludge composting ent contents for upgradation of soil quality and also the pro-
plant with a capacity of 7.12 × 106 kg required investment ductivity and quality of crops. Use of organic manure pro-
costs of approximately €462,646 and annual cost between vides adequate nutrients to the soil, acts as a soil conditioner,
€250,000 and €360,000. Of the total compost, 40% was and is an effective replacement of the non-organic fertilizers.
used as landfill cover while remaining 60% was used for Subsequently, it will benefit to rejuvenate and reinstate the
marketing (€0.041 per kg) to generate the revenue. Along soil productivity and will enhance microbial activities for
with this set-up of composting system, their compost prod- sustainable crop production. It can also conserve energy,
uct was economically feasible with a payback period of reduce pollution, save foreign exchange as well as improve
2.9 years. Similarly, the operating cost around $220,000 the fertilizer use efficiency. Proper agricultural utilization of
with an annual return of $2,275,000 was estimated of an organic waste-based fertilizers will contribute in the devel-
opment of a circular economy for nutrients. From economic
13
point of view, comparing the values of sales produced per Alvarenga P, Palma P, Mourinha C, Farto M, Dôres J, Patanita M,
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Department of Environment and Sustainable Development and Direc- residue management and organic amendments. Soil Till Res
tor, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras 72(2):169–180
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(DST-SERB P07-678). BS is thankful to University Grants Commis- Bristol
sion for awarding Junior and Senior Research Fellowship. BV is also Barthod J, Rumpel C, Calabi-Floody M, Mora ML, Bolan NS, Dignac
thankful to Council of Scientific & Industrial Research for awarding MF (2018) Adding worms during composting of organic waste
Senior Research Fellowship. with red mud and fly ash reduces C O2 emissions and increases
plant available nutrient contents. J Environ Manag 222:207–215
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Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: An Environmental Perspective

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International Journal of Environmental Research (2019) 13:409–429

Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: An Environmental

Momentous increase in global population accompanied with

Fig. 1 Agricultural recycling of

(d) Fruit and vegetable solid waste

(b) Organic fraction of municipal solid

Emerging contaminants/POPs and organochlorine pesticides (Clarke et al. 2010). Recently,

Economic Evaluation indoor continuous-flow reactor vermicomposting sys-

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