Review 4

REVIEW
FINAL
Direct Time Study
• Direct observation of a task using a stopwatch to record the time
taken to accomplish a task.
• The task is usually divided into work elements and each work
element is timed seperately.
• During the observation, the analyst evaluates the worker’s pace -
performance rating
• Normal time
Tn=Tobs(PR)
where Tn= normal time, min; Tobs=observed time, min;
PR=performance rating of the worker’s pace
• Standard time
Tstd=Tn(1+Apfd)
Policy Allowances
• To cover special work situations that are usually

associated with a wage incentive system.
• Example: Machine allowance – provides an

opportunity of the worker to maintain a high rate of
earnings even though (s)he has control over only a
portion of the cycle.
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)
Example: Use of machine allowance in a wage
incentive plan
Given: A wage incentive plan pays workers a daily

wage at a rate of $15/hr multiplied by the
number of standard hours accomplished
during the shift. Tnw =1 min, Tm =3 min, Apfd
=15%. Workers’ work elements are external.
Determine the standard time for

a) Am=0,
b) Am=30%.
c) What does a worker earn for the day under
each Am (policy!) if (s)he produces 115 parts a
day?
Time the Work Elements
• Each element should be timed over several

work cycles to obtain a reliable average
• Stopwatch timing methods:
1. Snapback timing method – stopwatch is reset
to zero at the start of each work element
2. Continuous timing method – stopwatch is
allowed to run continuously throughout the
duration of the work cycle
Advantages of Each Timing Method
• Advantages of snapback method:
• Analyst can readily see how element times vary
from cycle to cycle
• No subtraction necessary to obtain individual
element times
• Advantages of continuous method:
• Elements cannot be omitted by mistake
• Regular and irregular elements can be more
readily distinguished
• Manipulation and resetting of the stopwatch is
reduced
Comparison of Time Study Modes
Mode Advantages Disadvantages

Snapback 1- Direct readings 1- Adjust ratings
2- Out-of-order 2- Short el. tricky
elements easier
3- Analog lose time
Continuous 1- Easier novices 1- Clerical errors
2- Missed el. 2- Out-of-order
included elements difficult
3- Labor prefers
Performance Rating
• Analyst judges the performance or pace of the worker
relative to the definition of standard performance used by
the organization
• Standard (normal) performance PR = 100%
• Slower pace than standard PR < 100%
• Faster pace than standard PR > 100%
• Normal time Tn = Tobs(PR)
• Problem – qualified vs. average worker
• Need to assess rate of working and relate it to a standard
• Standard (normal) performance = rate of output achieved
by a qualified worker, without exertion, using correct
method, over an 8-hr day = rating of 100%
Westinghouse system of rating:
• A four-factor system, for rating the operator performance,
was developed at Westinghouse and it was originally
published in 1927.
• These four factors are (1) skill, (2) effort, (3) conditions,
and (4) consistency. A scale of numerical values for each
factor was supplied in tabular form, and the selected time
obtained from time study was normalized or leveled by
applying the sum of the ratings of the four factors.
Westinghouse System of Rating
• Once each factor rated
• Sum the four values to give allowance in %
• Or add to 1 to give performance factor
• Best for whole job, not individual elements
Example: Let;
• Selected time = 0.50 minutes,
• Excellent skill, B2 +0.08
• Good effort, C2 +0.02
• Good condition, C +0.02
• Good consistency, C +0.01
Total = +0.13
• Therefore,
Normal time=0.50 x 1.13 = 0.565 minutes.
Calculation of allowances
Example
• Given: A direct time study was taken on a manual work
element using the snapback method. The regular cycle
consisted of three elements, a, b, and c. Element d is an
irregular element performed every five cycles.
Work element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.56 0.25 0.50 1.10
Performance rating 100% 80% 110% 100%
• Determine
(a) normal time
(b) standard time for the cycle using Apfd=0.15
Solution
a) Normal time:
Tn = 0.56(1.00) + 0.25(0.80) + 0.50(1.10)
+ 1.10(1.0)/5 = 1.53 min
(b) Standard time:
Tstd = 1.53(1 + 0.15) = 1.76 min
Machine Cycle in the Task
• If the work cycle includes machine-paced elements,
then standard time may include a machine
allowance applied to the machine time
Tstd = Tnw(1 + Apfd) + max{Tnwi(1 + Apfd),Tm(1 + Am)}
where
Tnw = normal time for worker (external) elements,
Tnwi = normal time for worker (internal) elements,
Tm = machine cycle time (assumed constant),
Am = machine allowance
Example
• Given: The snapback timing method was used in a direct time study of
task includes a machine cycle. Elements a, b, c, and d are performed by
the operator and element m is a machine semiautomatic cycle. Element b
is an internal element performed simultaneously with element m.
Element d is an irregular element performed every 15 cycles. Apfd=0.15.
Work element a b c d .
Observed time, 0.22 0.65 0.47 0.75

manual, min
Performance rating 100% 80% 100% 100%
Machine element m
Observed time, (idle) 1.56 (idle) (idle)
machine, min .
• Determine (a) normal time and (b) standard time for the cycle
Solution
(a) Normal time:
Tn = 0.22(1.00) + max{0.65(0.80),1.56}
+ 0.47(1.0) + 0.75(1.0)/15 =
=0.22+1.56+0.47+0.05= 2.30 min
Tn = Ta(PR)+max{Tb(PR),Tm}+Tc(PR)+Td(PR)/n
(b) Standard time:

Tstd = (0.22+0.47+0.05)(1 + 0.15)
+ max{0.52(1+0.15), 1.56(1+0.20)}
=0.85+1.87=2.72 min
Tstd = Tnw(1 + Apfd) + max{Tnwi(1 + Apfd),Tm(1 + Am)}
Methods-Time Measurement
“Procedure which analyzes any manual operation or
method into the basic motions required to perform it and
assigns to each motion a predetermined time standard
which is determined by the nature of the motion and the
conditions under which it is made”
• Time units are TMUs
1 TMU = 0.00001 hr = 0.0006 min = 0.036 sec
1 sec = 27.8 TMU; 1 hr = 100,000 TMU
• MTM is a family of products available through the MTM
Association in Des Plaines, Illinois. The basic MTM system
is MTM-1.
• In 1963 a new member of the MTM system called
General Purpose Data (MTM-GPD) was introduced.
• MTM systems include MTM-1, MTM-GPD, MTM-2, MTM-
3, MTM-V, MTM-M, MTM-C, and 4M DATA
MTM-1
• Many of the basic motion
elements correspond to the
original therbligs developed
by Frank Gilbreth
• MTM-1 is the most detailed
system. Motions are broken
down into 10 categories:
Reach, Move, Turn, Apply
Pressure, Grasp, Position,
Release, Disengage, Body
(leg-foot, horizontal, and
vertical) motions, Eye
motions
• The time for each basic
element is given in units of
TMU (Time Measurement
Units)
Objectives in Ergonomics
• Greater ease of interaction between user and machine
• Avoid errors and mistakes
• Greater comfort and satisfaction in use of the equipment
• Reduce stress and fatigue
• Greater efficiency and productivity
• Safer operation
• Avoid accidents and injuries
What Causes These Injuries?
Repetition
Force Posture
Risk
Factors
Personal Environment
How Do I Make a Quick Impact?
Reduce lifting
• Lifting equipment
• Job redesign
How Should You Lift?
Stoop
Squat
Semi-squat
• Avoid lifting from the floor whenever possible. If you must lift
from the floor, do not bend at the waist. The techniques shown
below help the worker to keep the spine in a safer position
while lifting from the floor
• Use a scissors lift, load lifter, or pneumatic lifter to
raise or lower the load so that it is level with the work
surface. Then slide the load instead of lifting.
• Use a turntable. Rotate the turntable to bring the
container closer. Always work from the side closest to
the load.
Improvement Options
• Use a tilter
Establish the best sequences of therbligs for the assembly of the ball pen as shown
below. The ball pen has the components: Barrel, Ring, Grip, Spring, thrust device,
Thrust tube and Ink.
- Design the workstation (arrange the components on the worktable with dimensions)
- Write a list of the therbligs (designing by two hands) that comprise this motion
sequence, label each basic motion with a brief description. Using MTM 1 (Methods –
Time Measurement), determine the time (TMU) of each basic motion and what is the
total time for this work element in sec?
Seq. Left hand (LH) Symbol LH_TMU TMU RH_TMU Symbol Right hand (RH)
1 Distances,
The figure below describes the workers work on the conveyor.
- Please analyze motion and posture of activities; and
- To suggest redesigning the task for improving motion and posture?
(Explain effective improvement; Can redesign the dimensions; Add tools
or equipment)

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REVIEW

• To cover special work situations that are usually

• Example: Machine allowance – provides an

Given: A wage incentive plan pays workers a daily

Determine the standard time for

• Each element should be timed over several

Mode Advantages Disadvantages

Observed time, 0.22 0.65 0.47 0.75

(b) Standard time:

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