Lecture 2 Material
Lecture 2 Material
Lecture 2 Material
Lecture Three
Objectives
By the end of this lecture the learner is expected to do the following:
2.1 Definitions
Neighbourhood
z z 0 is called the epsilon ( ) neighbourhood of z 0 . It consists of all points z lying inside
but not on the circle centred at z 0 with the circle having a positive radius . Note here that the
region of interest is inside the circle but not on the circumference.
Deleted neighbourhood This is also called a punctured disk. It is the set 0 z z 0 and is
the epsilon neighbourhood of z 0 but excluding the point z 0 itself.
Boundary point: A point z0 in the complex plane is said to be a boundary point of a set S if every
epsilon neighborhood of z0 contains a point that is in S as well as a point that is not in S. The set
z 1 is the
of all boundary points of a set S is called the boundary of S. Example the circle
boundary of each of the sets z 1 and z 1 .
Accumulation point a point z0 is called an accumulation point of a set S if each deleted
neighbourhood of z0 contains at least one point of S. E.g. (0,0) is the accumulation point of the set
i
z n , n 1,2,3,...
n
the union of a finite number of line segments lying in S. Example the open set
z 1 is connected.
Region. A region is a domain together with some, none or all of its boundary points
z R otherwise it is unbounded.
A set is bounded if every point of S lies inside some circle
Periodic functions: A function f(z) is periodic in if there is some fixed non zero number w
such that the identity f (z + w) = f (z) holds for every z . Any constant w with this property
is called a period of the function f (z).
Example 2
Solution
e z e x eiy
ez ex 1 i 2
1
y Tan 1 2n n 0, 1, 2,...
1 4
1
e x 2 , x ln 2 ln 2
2
1 1
z x iy ln 2 2n i n 0, 1, 2,...
2 4
Solution
(c) Trigonometric functions from the identities for z in we define the trigonometric functions
e iz e iz
cos z and sin z in terms of the exponential function as cosz and
2
eiz e iz
Sin z . These are derived from solving the identities eiz Cos z i Sin z and
2i
eiz Cos z i Sin z
The other trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of the cosine and sine functions.
Further, the other identities as found in trigonometry apply. These include
Sin z1 z2 Sinz1 Cos z2 Sinz2 Cos z1
Cos z1 z2 Cosz1 Cos z2 Sinz1 Sin z2
Sin 2 z 2SinzCos z
Cos 2 z Cos 2 z Sin 2 z
Sin 2 z Cos 2 z 1
(d) Hyperbolic functions suppose that z is in C we define the hyperbolic functions cosh z and
e z e z e z e z
sinh z in terms of the exponential function as Cosh z , Sinh z
2 2
The functions tanh (z), coth (z), sech (z) and csch (z) can be defined in terms of cosh (z) and
sinh (z).
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the trigonometric functions as
Cosh z Cos iz , Cos z Cosh iz
Sinh z i Sin iz , i Sin z Sinh iz
Exercise 3
1. Given e z 1 i , express z in the form z x iy .
2. Verify that
1
a. log 1 i ln 2 2n i
2 4
1
b. log i 2n i n 0, 1, 2,...
2
Lecture Four
Objectives
By the end of this lecture the learner is expected to do the following:
whenever 0 z z 0
This definition will be perfectly in order if the function f is defined in some open set containing z0,
with the possible exception of z0 itself.
It follows that if z0 is an interior point of the region S of definition of the function, our definition is
in order. However, if z0 is a boundary point of the region S of definition of the function, then we
agree that the conclusion need only hold for those z S satisfying 0 z z 0
Note that unlike the real case where a number say zero can be approached from only two sides (left
or right) in the complex plane, we have an additional dimension to play with. This means that the
statement” a complex function has a limit...” is in many senses stronger than the statement “real
function has a limit...”.
z
Example 6 Test if the limit lim exists.
z 0 z
Solution
If we compute this limit as z 0 on the real and on the imaginary axis. In the first case, we can
z x x
write z x R , and hence lim lim lim 1 :
z 0 z
x 0 x
x 0 x
z
So we get a different limit depending on the direction from which we approach 0. Thus lim
z 0 z
does not exist.
The following limit rules are valid for complex functions.
f z zlim f z
z0
(c) lim
z z0 g z g z
zlim
z0
Example 7
Evaluate each of the limits at the given points.
a. lim z 2 2 z 1
z 1
2 z
b. lim
z 2 z 1
z2 2
c. lim
z 1 2 z 3
z 1
d. lim 2
z 1 z 1
Solution
a.
lim z 2 2 z 1 lim z 2 2 lim z lim 1
z 1 z 1 z 1 z 1
1 2 1 1 2
2
b.
2 z lim 2 z
lim z 2
z 2 z 1 lim z 1
z 2
22 0
0
2 1 3
c.
1 2 3
2
2 1 3 5
z 1 0
d. lim
z 1 z 2 1 0
Example 8
Evaluate each of the following.
z 2 5z 1
a) lim
z 3 z 3 7 z 2
3z 2 z 1
b) lim 5
z z 2 z 4 6 z 7
Solution
b)
3z 2 z 1
5 5
3z z 1
2 5
lim 5 lim 5 z 4 z z
z z 2 z 4 6 z 7 z z 2z 6z 7
5
5 5 5
z z z z
3 1 1
3
4 5
lim z z z
z 2 6 7
1 4 5
z z z
0
1
0
Theorem
Let z0 and w0 be points in the z and w planes respectively, then we define the following limits
1
a) lim f z iff lim 0
z z0 z z0 f z
1
b) lim f z w0 iff lim f w0
z z 0
z
1
c) lim f z 0 iff lim 0
z z 0 1
f
z
Example 9
2z i
b) lim
z z 1
2z3 1
c) lim 2
z z 1
Solution
a)
3i
is not defined
11
1 1 z
lim lim
z 1 f z z 1 3 iz
0
3i
1
0 i.e. lim 0
z 1 f z
3 iz
therefore lim
z 1 1 z
b) Substituting z is undefined
2
i
1
lim f lim z
z 0
z z 0 1 1
z
2 iz
lim
z 0 1 z
2
1 2z i
Since lim f 2 then lim 2
z 0
z z z 1
c)
0
0
2
2z3 1
therefore lim 2 0
z z 1
If the degree of the denominator function is higher than the degree of the numerator function then
divide both the numerator and denominator function with the highest power of z. in this case, we
k
have lim n 0 where k is a constant.
n z
Example
z 2 5z 1
Evaluate lim
z 3 z 3 7 z 2
Solution
Geometric representations
(a) |z| = r represents all points on a circle of radius r units about the origin (0, 0).
(b) |z – z0 | = r represents all points on a circle of radius r units about the point z0.
(c) |z – z0 | < r represents an open disc of radius r, centred at z0
(d) z z 0 r represents a closed disc of radius r, centred at z0
(e) r z z0 R represents an annulus with inner radius r and outer radius R units and having
centre at z0
(f) x A represents a half plane
(g) A x B represents a strip
(h) 0 2 represents a sector
(c) lim f z f z 0
z z0
Solution
f z 0 f i i 2 1
lim f z i 2 1
z i
Example 12
z 2 , z i
Test the continuity at z i of f z
0, z i
N.B:
Exercise 4
1. Sketch the locus of the points satisfying each the following
a. z 2
b. z2 5
c. z 3i 1
d. z4 2
2. Sketch the region satisfying the following , x 4, y 3
2
Definition
Complex analysis is the study of complex valued functions of complex variables. Here we shall
restrict the number of variables to one, and study complex valued functions of one complex
variable. The behavior of such functions can be studied using three different approaches: