Chapter Two: Complex functions

Lecture Three
Objectives
By the end of this lecture the learner is expected to do the following:

 Define various term used in relation to complex functions

 Define a complex valued function of a complex variable
 Describe the elementary functions: exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and hyperbolic
functions
 Identify the real and imaginary parts of a complex function

2.1 Definitions
Neighbourhood
z  z 0   is called the epsilon (  ) neighbourhood of z 0 . It consists of all points z lying inside
but not on the circle centred at z 0 with the circle having a positive radius  . Note here that the
region of interest is inside the circle but not on the circumference.
Deleted neighbourhood This is also called a punctured disk. It is the set 0  z  z 0   and is
the epsilon neighbourhood of z 0 but excluding the point z 0 itself.

Boundary point: A point z0 in the complex plane is said to be a boundary point of a set S if every
epsilon neighborhood of z0 contains a point that is in S as well as a point that is not in S. The set
z  1 is the
of all boundary points of a set S is called the boundary of S. Example the circle
boundary of each of the sets z  1 and z  1 .
Accumulation point a point z0 is called an accumulation point of a set S if each deleted
neighbourhood of z0 contains at least one point of S. E.g. (0,0) is the accumulation point of the set
i
z n  , n  1,2,3,...
n

Let S be a point set in C, A point z 0  S is said to be an interior point of S if there

Interior point:
exists an epsilon neighbourhood of z0 which is contained in S. the point z0 is called an exterior
point of S if there is a neighbourhood of z0 containing no points in S.
Open set: The set S is said to be open if every point of S is an interior point of S. thus it contains
no boundary points. A set is closed if it contains all of its boundary points. Example the punctured
disk 0  z  1 is neither open nor closed.
z1 , z2
Connected set: An open set S is said to be connected if every points in S can be joined by

the union of a finite number of line segments lying in S. Example the open set
z  1 is connected.

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Domain: A non empty open connected set is called a domain.
Remark: An open set can be said to be connected if there does not exist non empty open sets
S  S2  S and S1  S2  
s1ands2 such that 1

Region. A region is a domain together with some, none or all of its boundary points

z  R otherwise it is unbounded.
A set is bounded if every point of S lies inside some circle

2.2 Functions of Complex variables

The Complex function

A function f(z) is a rule that assigns to each z in a set S a complex number w. here S is a set of
complex numbers and is called the domain of definition of f.
The complex function is given in Cartesian coordinates as a function of the variable z such that
f z   ux, y   ivx, y  where z = x + iy. The function itself is a complex number with a real part
u(x, y) and an imaginary part v (x, y). The function f(z) is called a single valued function of z if
only one value of f(z) corresponds to each value of z. Example f ( z)  z 2 . On the other hand f(z)
is called a multiple valued function of z if more than one value of f(z) corresponds to each value
of z.

Example 1 f ( z )  z is a multiple valued function of z. Considering f ( z)  z 2 then the point

z=3i is mapped to f (3i)  3i 2  9 . Given f ( z )  z , the point z=4 is mapped to the points
f (4)  4  2 i.e. f ( z1 )  2, f ( z 2 )  2 .

In polar coordinates, we have u  iv  f rei  and we write u  iv  f rei 

Periodic functions: A function f(z) is periodic in if there is some fixed non zero number w 
such that the identity f (z + w) = f (z) holds for every z  . Any constant w  with this property
is called a period of the function f (z).

(a) The exponential function

This is the function f z   e z

let z = x + iy then f z   e z  e xiy  e x e iy  e x cos y  i sin y  where x, y  R or

u  e x cos y and v  e x sin y

We define e z  e x since e z  e x  cos y  i sin y   e x cos y  i sin y  e x and note that e x

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 is always positive.

e z  2 n i  e z e 2 n i  e z since e2n i  Cos 2  i Sin 2  1 . Therefore the exponential function is

periodic in with a pure imaginary period 2i so that e z  e z  2 ni .

Example 2

Find the numbers z  x  iy such that e z  1  i

Solution

e z  e x eiy
ez  ex  1  i  2
 1  
y  Tan 1     2n  n  0, 1, 2,... 
 1  4
1
e x  2 , x  ln 2  ln 2
2
1  1 
z  x  iy  ln 2    2n   i  n  0, 1, 2,... 
2  4 

(b) Logarithmic function

The logarithmic function of a non zero complex variable z is defined by solving the equation
e w  z . So that w  u  iv and letting z  rei ,      
Then eu eiv  rei or eu  r and v    2n  n  0, 1, 2,...
From eu  r , u  ln r so that the logarithmic function is the multi valued function
log z  ln r  i   2n   n  0, 1, 2,... .
The principal value of log z denoted by Log z is obtained when n  0 so that L og z  ln r  i
Example 3
log1  ln1  i  0  2n   2n i  n  0, 1, 2,...
Log 1  2  0   i  0
Example 4
log  1  ln1  i   2n    2n  1  i  n  0, 1, 2,...
Log  1   2  0   1  i   i
Example 5
Evaluate log z given z  1  3i

Solution

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 z  1  3i  2
 3 2
arg z  Tan 1  1
  Tan 3  
 1  3
 2 
log z  ln 2  i    2n   2n i  n  0, 1, 2,...
 3 
 1
log z  ln 2  2  n    i  n  0, 1, 2,...
 3

(c) Trigonometric functions from the identities for z in we define the trigonometric functions
e iz  e iz
cos z and sin z in terms of the exponential function as cosz   and
2
eiz  e iz
Sin  z   . These are derived from solving the identities eiz  Cos z  i Sin z and
2i
eiz  Cos z  i Sin z
The other trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of the cosine and sine functions.
Further, the other identities as found in trigonometry apply. These include
Sin  z1  z2   Sinz1 Cos z2  Sinz2 Cos z1
Cos  z1  z2   Cosz1 Cos z2  Sinz1 Sin z2
Sin 2 z  2SinzCos z
Cos 2 z  Cos 2 z  Sin 2 z
Sin 2 z  Cos 2 z  1

(d) Hyperbolic functions suppose that z is in C we define the hyperbolic functions cosh z and
e z  e z e z  e z
sinh z in terms of the exponential function as Cosh z  , Sinh z 
2 2
The functions tanh (z), coth (z), sech (z) and csch (z) can be defined in terms of cosh (z) and
sinh (z).
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the trigonometric functions as
Cosh z  Cos  iz  , Cos z  Cosh  iz 
Sinh z  i Sin iz  , i Sin z  Sinh  iz 

Exercise 3
1. Given e z  1  i , express z in the form z  x  iy .
2. Verify that
1  
a. log 1  i   ln 2    2n  i
2 4 
 1
b. log i   2n    i n  0, 1, 2,...
 2

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  1
c. log  1  3i   ln 2  2  n    i n  0, 1, 2,...
 3
d. log e  1  2n i n  0, 1, 2,...

Lecture Four
Objectives
By the end of this lecture the learner is expected to do the following:

 Define and compute the limit of a complex function

 Define and test the continuity of a complex function
 Identify various geometries on the complex plane

2.3 Limits and Continuity

The concept of a limit in complex analysis is defined in exactly a similar way as in real analysis.
We define the limit lim f z   L if, given any   0 , there exists a   0 such that f z   L  
z  z0

whenever 0  z  z 0  

This definition will be perfectly in order if the function f is defined in some open set containing z0,
with the possible exception of z0 itself.
It follows that if z0 is an interior point of the region S of definition of the function, our definition is
in order. However, if z0 is a boundary point of the region S of definition of the function, then we
agree that the conclusion need only hold for those z  S satisfying 0  z  z 0  

Note that unlike the real case where a number say zero can be approached from only two sides (left
or right) in the complex plane, we have an additional dimension to play with. This means that the
statement” a complex function has a limit...” is in many senses stronger than the statement “real
function has a limit...”.

z
Example 6 Test if the limit lim  exists.
z 0 z
 

Solution
If we compute this limit as z  0 on the real and on the imaginary axis. In the first case, we can
z  x  x
write z  x  R , and hence lim   lim   lim   1 :
z 0 z
 
x 0 x
   
x 0 x

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  
In the second case, we write z = iy where y  R and then  z   lim iy   lim  iy   1 :
lim   y 0  iy  y 0  iy 
z 0 z  
 

z
So we get a different limit depending on the direction from which we approach 0. Thus lim 
z 0 z
 
does not exist.
The following limit rules are valid for complex functions.

Let f and g be complex functions and c; z 0  C

(a) lim  f  z   cg  z    lim f  z   c lim g  z 

z  z0 z  z0 z  z0

(b) lim  f  z   g  z    lim f  z   lim g  z 

z  z0 z  z0 z  z0

 f  z   zlim f  z
 z0
(c) lim   
z  z0  g  z   g z
  zlim
 z0

Example 7
Evaluate each of the limits at the given points.

a. lim z 2  2 z  1
z 1

2 z
b. lim
z 2 z  1

z2  2
c. lim
z 1 2 z  3

z 1
d. lim 2
z 1 z  1

Solution
a.
lim z 2  2 z  1  lim z 2  2 lim z  lim 1
z 1 z 1 z 1 z 1

 1  2 1  1  2
2

b.
2  z lim 2  z
lim  z 2
z 2 z  1 lim  z  1
z 2

22 0
  0
2 1 3
c.

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 z 2  2 zlim  z 2  2
lim  1
z 1 2 z  3 lim  2 z  3
z 1

 1  2 3
2

 
2  1  3 5
z 1 0
d. lim 
z 1 z 2  1 0

Which is indeterminate. Rewriting the denominator gives

z 1 z 1 1 1
lim 2  lim  lim 
z 1 z  1 z 1  z  1 z  1 z 1 z  1 2

Alternatively you can apply the LHopitals rule

Limits for points at infinity

Given a rational function such that the degree of the denominator function is higher than the degree
of the numerator function then divide both the numerator and denominator function with the highest
k
power of z and use the property that lim n  0 where k is a constant.
n  z

Example 8
Evaluate each of the following.

z 2  5z  1
a) lim
z  3 z 3  7 z  2

3z 2  z  1
b) lim 5
z  z  2 z 4  6 z  7

Solution

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 z 2  5z  1
1 2
z 3 z  5z  1 

3z 3  7 z  2 1
z3
 3z 3  7 z  2 
1 5 1
 2  3
 z z z
7 2
3 2  3
z z
1 5 1 
  2  3 
z  5z  1
2
lim 3  lim  z z z

z  3 z  7 z  2 z 
 3  7  2 
 z 2 z3 
000

300
0

b)

3z 2 z 1
 5  5
3z  z  1
2 5
lim 5  lim 5 z 4 z z
z  z  2 z 4  6 z  7 z  z 2z 6z 7
5
 5  5  5
z z z z
3 1 1
3
 4  5
 lim z z z
z  2 6 7
1  4  5
z z z
0

1
0

Theorem
Let z0 and w0 be points in the z and w planes respectively, then we define the following limits
1
a) lim f  z    iff lim 0
z  z0 z  z0 f z
1
b) lim f  z   w0 iff lim f    w0
z  z 0
z
1
c) lim f  z   0 iff lim 0
z  z 0 1
f 
z

Example 9

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Evaluate the limits of each of the following functions
3  iz
a) lim
z 1 1  z

2z  i
b) lim
z  z  1

2z3  1
c) lim 2
z  z  1

Solution
a)
3i
is not defined
11
1 1 z
lim  lim
z 1 f  z  z 1 3  iz

0

3i
1
 0 i.e. lim 0
z 1 f z
3  iz
therefore lim 
z 1 1  z

b) Substituting z   is undefined
2
i
1
lim f    lim z
z 0
 z  z 0 1  1
z
2  iz
 lim
z 0 1  z

2
1 2z  i
Since lim f    2 then lim 2
z 0
z z  z 1
c)

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 1 1
lim  lim
z 0  1  z 0  2 
f   z3  1 
 
z
 
 1  1 
 z2 
1
 lim
z 0  1
3 

 z3 2  z  
 

 1 1  z 2 
 z2 

zz 3
 lim
z 0 2  z 3

0
 0
2
2z3  1
therefore lim 2 0
z  z  1

If the degree of the denominator function is higher than the degree of the numerator function then
divide both the numerator and denominator function with the highest power of z. in this case, we
k
have lim n  0 where k is a constant.
n  z

Example

z 2  5z  1
Evaluate lim
z  3 z 3  7 z  2

Solution

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 3 
z  5 z  1
1 2
z  5z  1
2
z

3z 3  7 z  2
3 
3z 3  7 z  2 
1
z
1 5 1
 2  3
 z z z
7 2
3 2  3
z z
1 5 1
 2  3
z 2  5z  1
lim 3  lim z z z
z  3 z  7 z  2 z  7 2
3 2  3
z z
000

300
0
 0
3

We say that a function f(z) is continuous at z0 if f z   f z 0  as z  z 0 . A similar qualification on

z applies if z0 is a boundary point of the region S of definition of the function. We also say that a
function is continuous in a region if it is continuous at every point of the region. Note that for a
function to be continuous in a region, it is enough to have continuity at every point of the region.

Geometric representations
(a) |z| = r represents all points on a circle of radius r units about the origin (0, 0).
(b) |z – z0 | = r represents all points on a circle of radius r units about the point z0.
(c) |z – z0 | < r represents an open disc of radius r, centred at z0
(d) z  z 0  r represents a closed disc of radius r, centred at z0
(e) r  z  z0  R represents an annulus with inner radius r and outer radius R units and having
centre at z0
(f) x  A represents a half plane
(g) A  x  B represents a strip
(h) 0        2 represents a sector

Example 10 Sketch the locus of these points

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Continuity

A single valued function is said to be continuous at z = z0 if f z  satisfies the following conditions:-

(a) f z 0  exists .i.e. the function is defined at z0

(b) lim f z  exists
z  z0

(c) lim f z   f z 0 
z  z0

Example 11 Show that f z   z 2 is continuous at z  i

Solution

f z 0   f i   i 2  1

lim f z   i 2  1
z i

Since lim f z   f i  then f z   z 2 is continuous at z  i

z i

Example 12
z 2 , z  i
Test the continuity at z  i of f  z   
 0, z  i

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 Solution
f i   0
lim f ( z )  lim z 2  i 2  1
z i z i

Since f (i)  lim z 2 0  1 then f (z ) is not continuous at z  i

z i

N.B:

(i). A function f (z ) is said to be continuous in a region if it is continuous at all points of the

region.
(ii). If f ( z ) and g ( z ) are continuous at z  z0 , so also are the functions f  g , f  g , fg and
f provided g ( z0 )  0 .
g
(iii). Among the functions continuous in every finite region are a) polynomials b) e z c) sinz and
cosz

Exercise 4
1. Sketch the locus of the points satisfying each the following
a. z 2
b. z2 5
c. z  3i  1
d. z4 2

2. Sketch the region satisfying the following     , x  4, y  3
2

Definition
Complex analysis is the study of complex valued functions of complex variables. Here we shall
restrict the number of variables to one, and study complex valued functions of one complex
variable. The behavior of such functions can be studied using three different approaches:

 One is usually attributed to Riemann. It is based on differentiation and involves pairs of

partial differential equations called the Cauchy-Riemann equations. This will be discussed in
chapter three.
 The second approach is attributed to Cauchy. It is based on integration and depends on a
fundamental theorem known nowadays as Cauchy’s integral theorem. This approach will be
discussed in chapter seven.
 The third approach is usually attributed to Weierstrass and is based on the theory of power
series. This approach will also be discussed in chapter seven.

Prof. E. Mwenda Complex Analysis I 2021 13

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