Psych 5th Edition Rathus Solutions Manual

PSYCH 5th Edition Rathus Solutions
Manual
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Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Chapter 7
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Lecture Outline
Cognition is defined as the mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and

communicating information.
I. Thinking
Thinking means paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it,
and making judgments and decisions about it. Thinking refers to conscious, planned attempts to
make sense of and change the world.
A. Concepts
Concepts are mental categories used to group together objects, relations, events, abstractions,
or qualities that have common properties. Thinking has to do with categorizing new concepts
and manipulating relationships among concepts, as in problems in geometry. People tend to
organize concepts in hierarchies. Prototypes are good examples. Simple prototypes, such as
dog and red, are taught by means of examples, or exemplars. Dogs are positive instances of
the dog concept. Negative instances—things that are not dogs—are then shown to the child
while one says, “This is not a dog.”
In language development, such over inclusion of instances in a category (reference to horses

as dogs) is labeled overextension.
B. Problem Solving
Problem solving is an important aspect of thinking.
C. Methods of Problem Solving
Understanding the Problem
Successful understanding of a problem generally requires three features:

• The parts of one’s mental representation of the problem relate to one another in a
meaningful way.
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• The elements of one’s mental representation of the problem correspond to the

elements of the problem in the outer world.
• People have a storehouse of background knowledge that they can apply to the
problem.
The Use of Algorithms
An algorithm is a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. An algorithm

invariably leads to the solution. If one was to use the systematic random search
algorithm, one would list every possible letter combination, using from one to all five
letters.
The Use of Heuristic Devices
The shortcuts are called heuristics, or heuristic devices—rules of thumb that help
individuals simplify and solve problems. In contrast to algorithms, heuristics do not
guarantee a correct solution. When they work, they permit more rapid solutions. One type
of heuristic device is the means–end analysis, a heuristic device in which one tries to
solve a problem by evaluating the difference between the current situation and the goal.
The Use of Analogies
An analogy is a partial similarity among things that are different in other ways. The
analogy heuristic applies the solution of an earlier problem to the solution of a new one.
D. Factors That Affect Problem Solving
Expertise
Experts solve problems more efficiently and rapidly than novices do. People who are
experts at solving a certain kind of problem share the following characteristics (Bassok &
Novick, 2012; Bunt et al., 2013):
• They know the particular area well.
• They have a good memory for the elements in the problems.
• They form mental images or representations that facilitate problem solving.
• They relate the problem to similar problems.
• They are more goal-directed and have efficient methods for problem solving.
Experts seemed to use parallel processing. That is, they dealt simultaneously with two or
more elements of the problems. Novices were more likely to engage in serial processing—
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that is, to handle one element of the problem at a time.
Mental Sets
The tendency to respond to a new problem with the same approach that helped solve
similar problems is termed a mental set. Mental sets usually make an individual’s work
easier, but they can mislead him or her when the similarity between problems is illusory.
Insight
Insight, in Gestalt psychology, is a sudden perception of relationships among elements of

the mentally represented elements of a problem that permits its solution.
Incubation
Incubation in problem solving refers to standing back from the problem for a while as
some process within may continue to work on it. Later, the answer may come to one in a
flash of insight. Standing back from the problem may help by distancing one from
unprofitable but persistent mental sets (Gilhooly et al., 2013; Koppel & Storm, 2013).
Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness is the tendency to think of an object in terms of its name or its
familiar function. It can be similar to a mental set in that it makes it difficult to use familiar
objects to solve problems in novel ways.
E. Judgment and Decision Making
People make most of their decisions on the basis of limited information. They take shortcuts.
They use heuristic devices—rules of thumb—in judgments and decision making just as they
do in problem solving (Mousavi & Gigerenzer, 2014).
Heuristics in Decision Making
• Representativeness heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which people make

judgments about samples according to the populations they appear to represent.
• Availability heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which the estimates of
frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it is to find examples.
• Anchoring and adjustment heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which a
presumption or first estimate serves as a cognitive anchor; as people receive
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additional information, they make adjustments but tend to remain in the proximity of
the anchor.
The Framing Effect
The framing effect refers to the way in which wording, or the context in which
information is presented, affects decision making (Takemura, 2014). Political groups, like
advertisers, are aware of the framing effect and choose their words accordingly.
Overconfidence
Whether one’s decisions are correct or incorrect, most people tend to be overconfident
about them. People tend to view their situations with 20/20 hindsight. There are several
reasons for overconfidence, even when people’s judgments are wrong.
• People tend to be unaware of how flimsy their assumptions may be.
• People tend to focus on examples that confirm their judgments and ignore those that
do not.
• Because people’s working memories have limited space, they tend to forget
information that runs counter to their judgments.
• People work to bring about the events they believe in, so they sometimes become
self-fulfilling prophecies.
Handout
Concept Chart
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Thinking
Problem Judgment
Solving Concepts Decision
Making
II. Language
A. Communication by Nonhumans
The exclusive human claim to language has been brought into question by studies of
communication with various animal species. A language is a system of symbols along with
rules that are used to manipulate the symbols. Symbols such as words stand for or represent
other objects, events, or ideas.
Do Apes Really Use Language?
A chimpanzee named Washoe, who was a pioneer in the effort to teach apes to use
language, was using 181 signs by the age of 32 (King, 2008). One chimp, Kanzi, picked up
language from observing another chimp being trained and has the grammatical abilities of
a two-and-a-half-year-old child. Critics of the view that apes can learn to produce
language, such as Herbert Terrace (Terrace & Metcalfe, 2005) and Steven Pinker (1994a,
2011), note that:
• Apes can string together signs in a given sequence to earn rewards, but animals lower
on the evolutionary ladder, such as pigeons, can also peck buttons in a certain
sequence to obtain a reward.
• It takes apes longer to learn new signs than it takes children to learn new words.
• Apes are unreliable in their sequencing of signs, suggesting that by and large they do
not comprehend rules of grammar.
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• People observing apes signing may be subject to observer bias—that is, they may be
seeing what they want to see.
B. What Is Language?
Language is the communication of thoughts and feelings by means of symbols that are
arranged according to rules of grammar. By these rigorous rules, only humans use language.
Language makes it possible for one person to communicate knowledge to another and for one
generation to communicate to another. It creates a vehicle for recording experiences. It allows
people to put themselves in the shoes of other people, to learn more than what they could
learn from direct experience. Language also provides many units of thinking. True language is
distinguished from the communication systems of lower animals by properties such as
semanticity, infinite creativity, and displacement (Hoff, 2005):
• Semanticity—the sounds (or signs) of a language have meaning.
• Infinite creativity—the capacity to create rather than imitate sentences.
• Displacement—the capacity to communicate information about events and objects in
another time or place.
C. Language and Cognition
Jean Piaget (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958) believed that language reflects knowledge of the world
but that much knowledge can be acquired without language. For example, it is possible to
understand the concepts of roundness or redness even when people don’t know or use the
words round or red.
D. Language and Culture
Different languages have different words for the same concepts, and concepts do not
necessarily overlap.
The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis
The linguistic-relativity hypothesis is the view that language structures the way people
view the world. In English, there are hundreds of words to describe colors. Shona-speaking
people use only three words for colors, and Bassa speakers use only two corresponding to
light and dark. Most cognitive scientists no longer accept the linguistic-relativity
hypothesis (Pinker, 2007, 2013). Adults use images and abstract logical propositions, as
well as words, as units of thought. Infants, moreover, display considerable intelligence
before they have learned to speak.
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III. Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion
Languages around the world develop in a specific sequence of steps, beginning with the
prelinguistic vocalizations of crying, cooing, and babbling. These sounds are not symbols. That
is, they do not represent objects or events.
A. Prelinguistic Vocalizations
As parents are well aware, newborn children have one inborn, highly effective form of verbal
expression: crying—and more crying. Babbling, like crying and cooing, is inborn and
prelinguistic. Children tend to utter their first word at 11 to 13 months, but a range of 8 to 18
months is normal (McCardle et al., 2009; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2014). By about 18 months,
children are producing a couple of dozen words.
B. Development of Grammar
Holophrase refers to a single word used to express complex meanings. Most children show
their parents what they intend by augmenting their holophrases with gestures and intonations.
Toward the end of the second year, children begin to speak two-word sentences. These
sentences are termed telegraphic speech because they resemble telegrams. There are different
kinds of two-word utterances. Some contain nouns or pronouns and verbs (“Daddy sit”).
Others contain verbs and objects (“Hit ball”).
Overregularization
Overregularization is an important development for understanding the roles of nature and

nurture in language development (Ambridge et al., 2013; Pinker, 2013). They become
aware of the grammatical rules for forming the past tense and plurals. The tendency to
regularize the irregular is what is meant by overregularization.
Other Developments
By the age of six, children’s vocabularies have expanded to 10,000 words, give or take a
few thousand. By seven to nine, most children realize that words can have more than one
meaning, and they are entertained by riddles and jokes that require some sophistication
with language.
C. Nature and Nurture in Language Development
Language development, like many other areas of development, apparently reflects the
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interactions between nature and nurture.
Learning Theory and Language Development
Learning theorists see language as developing according to laws of learning (Hoff, 2005).
They usually refer to the concepts of imitation and reinforcement. From a social–cognitive
perspective, parents serve as models. Children learn language, at least in part, through
observation and imitation. Learning theory cannot account for the unchanging sequence of
language development and the spurts in children’s language acquisition.
The Nativist Approach to Language Development
The nativist theory of language development holds that the innate factors—which make up
children’s nature—cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways.
According to psycholinguistic theory, language acquisition involves the interaction of
environmental influences—such as exposure to parental speech and reinforcement—and
the inborn tendency to acquire language. Noam Chomsky (see Cherniak, 2009) refers to the
inborn tendency as a language acquisition device (LAD). Evidence for an LAD is found
in the universality of human language abilities and in the specific sequence of language
development (Cherniak, 2009; A. Clark & Lappin, 2013).
IV. Theories of Intelligence
The concept of intelligence is closely related to thinking. Intelligence is the underlying ability to
understand the world and cope with its challenges (Strenze, 2015). Although intelligence, like
thinking, cannot be directly seen or touched, psychologists tie the concept to achievements such
as school performance and occupational status (Nisbett, 2013).
A. Factor Theories
Factor theories argue that intelligence is made up of a number of mental abilities, ranging
from one kind of ability to hundreds. In 1904, British psychologist Charles Spearman
suggested that the behaviors people consider intelligent have a common underlying factor that
he labeled g, for “general intelligence” or broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities. He
also noted that even the most capable people are relatively superior in some areas. For this
reason, he suggested that specific, or s factors account for specific abilities.
American psychologist Louis Thurstone (1938) analyzed tests of specific abilities and
concluded that Spearman had oversimplified intelligence. Thurstone’s data suggested the
presence of eight specific factors, which he labeled primary mental abilities:
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• Visual and spatial abilities

• Perceptual speed
• Numerical ability
• Verbal meaning
• Memory
• Word fluency
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
Handout
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B. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
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Thurstone wrote about various factors or components of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s

(1983/1993, 2009) theory of multiple intelligences proposes, instead, that there are a number
of intelligences, not just one. Gardner refers to each kind of intelligence in his theory as “an
intelligence” because they can differ so much. Two of these “intelligences” are familiar ones:
language ability and logical–mathematical ability. Gardner also refers, however, to bodily–
kinesthetic talents (of the sort shown by dancers and athletes), musical talent, spatial–relations
skills, and two kinds of personal intelligence: awareness of one’s own inner feelings and
sensitivity to other people’s feelings. Gardner (2001) more recently added “naturalist
intelligence” and “existential intelligence.”
Critics of Gardner’s view agree that people function more intelligently in some aspects of life
than in others. But these critics question whether such talents are best thought of as
“intelligences” or special talents (Neisser et al., 1996). Language skills, reasoning ability, and
ability to solve math problems seem to be more closely related than musical or gymnastic
talent to what most people mean by intelligence.
C. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg (2000; 2006) has constructed a three-pronged or triarchic

theory of intelligence that includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
• Analytical intelligence can be defined as academic ability.
• Creative intelligence is defined by the ability to cope with novel situations and generate
many possible solutions to problems.
• Practical intelligence (“street smarts”) enables people to deal with other people,
including difficult people, and to meet the demands of their environment.
Handout
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D. Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence
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Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer developed the theory of emotional intelligence,
which holds that social and emotional skills are a form of intelligence, just as academic skills
are (Boyatzis et al., 2015; Stein & Deonarine, 2015). Emotional intelligence resembles two of
Gardner’s “intelligences”—intrapersonal skills and interpersonal skills. Failure to develop
emotional intelligence is connected with poor ability to cope with stress, depression, and
aggressive behavior (Brackett et al., 2011).
E. Creativity and Intelligence
Creativity is the ability to generate novel and useful solutions to problems. Creative people
share a number of qualities (Plucker et al., 2015): they take chances. They refuse to accept
limitations. They appreciate art and music. They use common materials to make unique
things. They challenge social norms and take unpopular stands. They challenge ideas that
other people accept at face value.
• In convergent thinking, thought is limited to present facts; the problem solver narrows
his or her thinking to find the best solution.
• In divergent thinking, the problem solver associates freely to the elements of the
problem, allowing “leads” to run a nearly limitless course.
Problem solving can involve both kinds of thinking. At first, divergent thinking helps generate
many possible solutions. Convergent thinking is then used to select likely solutions and reject
others.
V. The Measurement of Intelligence
A. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
Early in the 20th century, the French public school system was looking for a test that could
identify children who were unlikely to benefit from regular classroom instruction. The first
version of that test, the Binet–Simon scale, came into use in 1905. The Binet–Simon scale
yielded a score called a mental age (MA). The MA shows the intellectual level at which a
child is functioning.
Louis Terman adapted the Binet–Simon scale for use with American children at Stanford
University. The first version of the resultant Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale was published
in 1916. The SBIS included more items than the original test and was used with children aged
2 to 16. The SBIS also yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ) rather than an MA. The IQ
reflects the relationship between a child’s mental age and his or her actual chronological age
(CA).
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IQ = mental age (MA)/chronological age (CA) X 100. IQ scores on the SBIS today are
derived by comparing results to those of other people of the same age.
B. The Wechsler Scales
In contrast to the SBIS, David Wechsler developed a series of scales for use with children and
adults. The Wechsler scales group test questions into a number of separate subtests. Each
subtest measures a different intellectual task. Wechsler described some of his scales as
measuring verbal tasks and others as assessing performance tasks. Verbal subtests require
knowledge of verbal concepts, whereas performance subtests require familiarity with spatial-
relations concepts.
Wechsler also introduced the concept of the deviation IQ. He based IQ scores on how a
person’s answers compared with those attained by people in the same age group. The average
test result at any age level is defined as an IQ score of 100. Wechsler distributed IQ scores so
that the middle 50% were defined as the “broad average range” of 90 to 110. Only 4% of the
population have IQ scores of above 130 or below 70.
C. Group Tests
Group tests for children were first developed during World War I. At first these tests were
hailed as remarkable instruments because they helped school administrators place children.
As the years passed, however, group tests came under attack because many administrators
relied on them exclusively and did not seek other sources of information about children’s
abilities. Numbers alone, and especially IQ scores, cannot adequately define children’s special
abilities and talents.
D. The Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests
Over the years, the SBIS and the Wechsler scales have been shown to be reliable and valid. In
terms of reliability, the scores are rather consistent from testing to testing. This kind of
reliability is called test–retest reliability.
E. Differences in Intellectual Functioning
The average IQ score in the United States is very close to 100.
Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences
Lower-class U.S. children obtain IQ scores some 10 to 15 points lower than those obtained
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by middle- or upper-class children. African American children tend to obtain IQ scores

some 15 points lower than those obtained by their European American age-mates (Nisbett
et al., 2012; Saklofske et al., 2015). Latin American and Native American children also
tend to score below the norms for European Americans. There may also be intellectual
differences between Asians and Caucasians. Asian Americans, for example, frequently
outscore European Americans on the math portion of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Most
psychologists believe that such ethnic differences reflect cultural attitudes toward
education rather than inborn racial differences (Nisbett at al., 2012).
Gender Differences
Girls are somewhat superior to boys in verbal abilities, such as vocabulary, ability to
generate sentences and words that are similar in meaning to other words, spelling,
knowledge of foreign languages, and pronunciation (Andreano & Cahill, 2009; Lohman &
Lakin, 2009). Males seem to do somewhat better at manipulating visual images in working
memory. For half a century or more, it has been believed that male adolescents generally
outperform females in mathematics, and research has tended to support that belief (Else-
Quest et al., 2013; Miller & Halpern, 2014). The reported gender differences are group
differences. There is greater variation in these skills between individuals within the groups
than between males and females (Miller & Halpern, 2014).
VI. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
A. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Research on genetic influences has employed kinship studies, twin studies, and adoptee
studies. The IQ scores of identical (monozygotic, or MZ) twins are more alike than scores for
any other pairs, even when the twins have been reared apart. In sum, studies generally suggest
that the heritability of intelligence is between 40% and 60% (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin et
al., 2013). Several studies with one- and two-year-old children in Colorado (Baker et al.,
1983), Texas (Horn, 1983), and Minnesota (Scarr & Weinberg, 1983) have found a stronger
relationship between the IQ scores of adopted children and those of their biological parents
than between the children’s scores and those of their adoptive parents.
B. Environmental Influences on Intelligence
The Home Environment
Children of parents who are emotionally and verbally responsive, furnish appropriate play
materials, are involved with their children, encourage independence, and provide varied
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daily experiences obtain higher IQ scores later on (Bradley, 2006). Organization and safety
in the home have also been linked to higher IQs and achievement test scores (Bradley et
al., 1989; Petrill et al., 2010).
Education
Although intelligence is viewed as permitting people to profit from education, education

also apparently contributes to intelligence. Head Start programs, for example, enhance IQ
scores, achievement test scores, and academic skills of disadvantaged children (Bierman et
al., 2008) by exposing them to materials and activities that middle-class children take for
granted. Children who have been in school longer obtain higher IQ scores (Neisser et al.,
1996). Test scores tend to decrease during the summer vacation (Neisser et al., 1996).
The Flynn Effect
Philosopher and researcher John Flynn (2003) found that IQ scores in the Western world
increased substantially between 1947 and 2002, some 18 points in the United States.
Psychologist Richard Nisbett (2009) argues that people’s genetic codes could not possibly
have changed enough in half a century to account for this enormous difference and
concludes that social and cultural factors such as the effects of improved educational
systems and the penetration of the mass media must be among the reasons for the change.
Lecture Topics
I. Thinking
Lecture Topic 1: Heuristic Judgment Theory
The use of heuristics is common among people. This problem-solving strategy works well but
can lead to errors in judgment. The topic of heuristics can be a fun discussion as students begin
to relate to the errors that are made in daily judgments. To help students understand a new theory
of heuristic judgment, access the article titled “Heuristic Judgment Theory” written by Harvey
(1998). The article discusses the importance of heuristics in human decision making, proposes a
decision-making process, and discusses the psychology of decision making.
Lecture Topic 2: Decision Making
An interesting article titled “Problems for Judgment and Decision Making” written by Hastie
(2001) can be discussed. It explores the area of judgment and decision making in cognitive
psychology. The author attempts to review recent developments in the field of judgment and
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decision making and also discusses what makes a good research problem in this area. Finally, the
author suggests 16 problems that could be considered for judgment and decision-making
research. This information can help students see the contemporary thought in this area.
Lecture Topic 3: ‘Like Me’: A Foundation for Social Cognition
Infants try to understand their own perception (of actions) by comparing it with others. In other
words, they begin to recognize that their own self is a lot like others with relation to perceptions
and emotions. This “like me” perception of others is an infant’s first steps toward social
cognition. To help students understand this area of research, access the article titled “‘Like Me’:
A Foundation for Social Cognition” written by Andrew N. Meltzoff (2007). This article will
provide information for students by illustrating an expanded view of cognition.
II. Language
Lecture Topic 1: Language and Nature
To help students understand the argument made by Chomsky and others about language being
more natural, access the article titled “Language and Nature” written by Chomsky (1995). In this
article, Chomsky suggests that the mind and brain need be thought of as natural processes and
should be studied that way. As language is a part of the brain, language should also be studied
and understood through naturalistic principles.
Lecture Topic 2: Culture, Language, and Color
For an interesting discussion that instructors can have with students about how language
development can actually alter perceptions, access the article titled “A Study of Colour Grouping
in Three Languages: A Test of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis” written by Davies (1998).
This article discusses a research project where individuals who speak different languages were
asked to group color tiles. The results indicate that grouping differences were seen between those
who speak different languages. A possible explanation presented by the authors is that language
development may impact perceptions.
Lecture Topic 3: Childcare and Language Development
This lecture topic will give instructors an opportunity to discuss various environmental factors
that contribute to language and cognitive development. A study was conducted with children
from ten sites in the United States to determine the factors that contribute to language and
cognitive development. The main independent variables explored in the study were daycare and
family environments. Instructors can access this article titled “The Relation of Child Care to
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Cognitive and Language Development” written for Child Development (2000). This article
discusses such topics as quality, type, and amount of care and how these variables relate to
development. One result from the article is that at age three, children in daycare centers
performed better than children in other types of care.
Lecture Topic 4: Translating between Languages: English and Japanese
The process of how bilinguals maintain two languages has intrigued cognitive psychologists
attempting to determine the processes of translation. Two hypotheses are at the forefront: (1)
“word association,” where the word is directly translated with the corresponding word in the
second language; and (2) concept mediation hypothesis, which suggests that semantic memory
plays a role. To help students understand these two hypotheses, access the article titled “The
Process of Translation between English Words and Japanese Words” written by Ikeda (1998).
This article describes a research study exploring which hypothesis might be correct and suggests
that word association has more support.
III. Intelligence
Lecture Topic 1: Race and Intelligence
An interesting topic to share with students is that of race and intelligence. It is perhaps this area
that is more controversial than any other in the field of psychology. An article titled “Race and
Intelligence: Separating Science from Myth” written by Reeve (2002) is a book review that
focuses on this issue. Topics covered in the book (which would also make excellent topics for
discussion in class) include the following: (a) race exists only as a socially defined category, (b)
racial categories are developed for the purpose of justifying and perpetuating social inequalities,
(c) the merits of intelligence testing, (d) the misuse of statistical concepts, and (e) alternative
interpretations of the bell curve.
Lecture Topic 2: Sex Differences in Intelligence
A topic that can lead to an interesting class discussion is that of sex differences and intelligence.
The correlation between brain size and intelligence has been established, and, just over a decade
ago, it was determined that males have larger brains compared to females, even when making
adjustments for body size. Thus, it could be concluded that males should be more intelligent.
Yet, research utilizing large samples does not support males being more intelligent in the
traditional categories of fluid and crystallized intelligence. In an article titled “Sex Differences in
Intelligence and Brain Size: A Developmental Theory” written by Lynn (1999), this topic is
discussed. The author presents his own explanations, and he reviews the explanations of others.
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Lecture Topic 3: Music and Intelligence
For an interesting study regarding the relationship between music and intelligence, access the
article titled “Music for Your Brain” written by Knox (1994). This article describes what the
authors call the Mozart Effect, which suggests that listening to classical music (specifically
Mozart) can increase ability in spatial reasoning tasks. Though the effect may be short-lived, the
conclusion of the research is interesting.
IV. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
Lecture Topic 1: The Evolution of Human Intelligence
To help students better understand the evolutionary nature of intelligence, access the article titled
“The Evolution of Human Intelligence” written by Clamp (2001). This article discusses how
intelligence has evolved over time and allowed humans to adapt. The costs that are seen in this
process are discussed, as well as two specific theoretical perspectives explaining why it makes
sense to take this perspective (ecological theory and social theory). This information can help
students see the value in such a perspective.
Lecture Topic 2: Giftedness: Infancy to Adolescence
To help students better understand the developmental nature of giftedness, access the article
titled “Giftedness: Infancy to Adolescence—A Developmental Perspective” written by Dalzell
(1998). This in-depth article discusses historical perspectives of giftedness and then transitions
into modern approaches. The authors suggest that gifted children differ from their peers of the
same age in such ways as motivation, independence, and introversion. This article contains
interesting information that will assist students in their understanding of giftedness.
Lecture Topic 3: What Is Intelligence?
In a slightly different approach to understanding where intelligence comes from, access the
article titled “Human Abilities” written by Sternberg and Kaufman (1998). This article explores
definitions of intelligence, which include cognitive, biological, psychometric, and traditional
approaches. Presenting these approaches to students can help them see that the concept of
intelligence may just come from the theory rather than the theory attempting to explain the
construct of intelligence.
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Classroom Demonstrations
I. Thinking
Classroom Demonstration 1: Framing Effect
To help students understand the power of framing, access the article titled “Influence of
Elaboration on the Framing of Decision” written by Takemura (1994). This article provides an
example of the framing effect, which can be used in class to describe an unusual disease
expected to kill 600 people. Instructors may want to create an overhead of the framing example.
Two alternatives are presented between which students need to choose. One option is positively
framed, and one is negatively framed. After presenting the scenario to the students, have them
write down which option they would choose. This demonstration will help students understand
framing.
Classroom Demonstration 2: Why Overconfidence Occurs and How to Overcome it
For this demonstration, instructors would have to create a survey on a similar topic where
students are sure to make overtly confident guesses about a particular outcome (e.g., a sports
event, a court verdict, or the winner of local elections etc.).
The article titled “Why Overconfidence Occurs and How to Overcome It” written by Winston
Sieck (2016) offers an interesting example of overconfidence. This article discusses a research
study that college students used to demonstrate overconfidence about financial knowledge. They
chose finance as a topic because major decisions in life are made using financial management. A
replication of this study can help students understand this phenomenon. To demonstrate how
overconfidence truly works, have students complete a similar survey that tests their
overconfidence. The collected data will help demonstrate the concept of overconfidence.
Classroom Demonstration 3: Research on Cognition
John Krantz of Hanover College provides a number of cognitive experiments on his website,
http://psych.hanover.edu/JavaTest/CLE/Cognition/Cognition.html. Studies include research on
automaticity, attention, and decision making. Choose one or more of the experiments, and then
simply demonstrate to the class how a person would participate in the study, or (if the instructor
has the time) have some students participate in the study and investigate the results as a class.
Classroom Demonstration 4: Cognitive Demonstrations
Visit the website http://www.gocognitive.net/demos, which offers a number of free
21
demonstrations on cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Instructors can choose from
these demonstrations and share them with their class.
II. Language
Classroom Demonstration 1: That’s Not What He Meant
One way to get students engaged in the study of language is to present them with a variety of
(humorous) ambiguous sentences. Reisberg (2010) offers a number of them, drawn from actual
newspaper headlines. Reading these aloud to the class can be a good icebreaker to begin the
discussion of language and also underscores how important language rules are for correct
comprehension.
Classroom Demonstration 2: Research on Language
Langston (1998) suggests a number of demonstrations of how research is conducted in the field
of psycholinguistics. Instructors can read the article and choose demonstrations that they think
would be the most informative and interesting for their class.
Classroom Demonstration 3: Bilingualism
For this demonstration, have a student (or more than one, if there are more bilingual students)
demonstrate his or her ability in the languages he or she has learned. Ask this person to talk
about when the languages were learned and how this education has been a benefit. Then present
an article titled “Banishing Bilingualism” written by Katz and Kohl (2002). This article discusses
attempts to remove bilingualism from education and how some states have advanced with this.
This topic can lead to a lively debate with students for bilingualism or English only.
III. Intelligence
Classroom Demonstration 1: Prodigies Grow Up
For this demonstration, share with the class the three case studies listed in an article titled
“Prodigies Grow Up: College at Age 11, Chess at 6. Now Adults, Five Former Superkids Look
Back” written by Jerome, Cheakalos, and Horsburgh (2003). This article describes five child
prodigies who are now adults. They look back and describe their lives and the special talents that
they have. This demonstration will provide an illustration of highly intelligent individuals.
Classroom Demonstration 2: One-Minute Intelligence Test
22
Instructors will need to recreate Figures 1 and 2 from the article mentioned below. Copying and
enlarging the figures should work. Then, instructors shall create overheads from the
enlargements.
For this project, instructors will introduce a type of intelligence test to their students. Though not
technically an intelligence test, it can be used to introduce the topic of intelligence testing and
lead to a discussion on reliability and validity. The tests are actually brainteasers often called
rebus puzzles. These “intelligence tests” can be found in an article titled “A One-Minute
‘Intelligence’ Test” written by Griggs (2000). This article found in the Teaching of Psychology
journal presents the two tests, directions on how to administer the tests, and the answers. An
example of one of the items is DEATH/LIFE with the keyed response “life after death.”
Classroom Demonstration 3: Artificial Intelligence
Is intelligence a characteristically human feature or could nonhuman—and even inanimate—

entities one day possess intelligence too? To get students talking about the possibility of artificial
intelligence, introduce them to the ELIZA website, an example of artificial intelligence:
http://www-ai.ijs.si/eliza/eliza.html. Have students volunteer to ask ELIZA questions. In what
cases does ELIZA work well, and where does she fall short? Why is it difficult to replicate
human intelligence in a machine? Do students think true artificial intelligence will ever be
possible? Why, or why not?
Classroom Demonstration 4: The Flynn Effect
The “Flynn Effect” takes its name after John Flynn, who proposed that there is a noticeable
increase in standardized test scores of individuals from the 1930s to the year 2000. To engage
students in a debate, have them access the article titled “The Flynn Effect: A Meta-analysis”
written by Fletcher, Hiscock, Stuebing, and Trahan (2014). Have students think about concepts
such as intellectual disability and special education and how the Flynn effect factors in these
criteria. Have students consider environmental factors, technological advances, and other factors
that might have played a role in the increase of IQ tests over the years. Ask students to read this
article and then write a two-page response paper summarizing what they learned.
Classroom Demonstration 1: Intelligence Video
Show students a video from the Discovering Psychology series titled #16: Testing and
Intelligence. The video includes interviews with Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner. It is
available streaming for free from the Annenberg Foundation at
23
http://www.learner.org/resources/series138.html.
Classroom Demonstration 2: Intelligence Meter
In class, explain that a fictional intelligence meter has been developed that will measure an
infant’s intellectual potential. This meter is so modern that testing is no longer necessary;
instead, the child is passed through what appears to be an airport metal detector, and a
measurement is taken.
In this fictional scenario, two children have been measured: “Child A” and “Child B.” On the
day of their birth, both children are measured for intelligence, and both are shown to have a
potential IQ score of exactly 100, which is at the 50th percentile in the normal bell curve and
considered to be average. Child A and Child B are from different families and different
environments. The parents of Child A want the best for all of their children, but neither parent is
well educated. They lack parenting skills, and both have to work extremely long hours in order to
make ends meet.
The parents of Child B are just the opposite. Child B is able to attend museums and visit zoos,
and he or she has a strong vocabulary because of books and reading. Each child, due to
circumstances, experiences his or her world differently.
Years later, both children sit next to each other in a classroom and take an intelligence test. Ask
the class if it seems reasonable that the enriched environment that has been provided for Child B
would be worth 15 more points on an IQ test. Next, ask if it also seems reasonable that there
could be a loss of 15 points in Child A’s score due to the less nurturing environment. After the
response from students, illustrate for them the normal bell curve, and place Child B at the first
standard deviation (84th percentile) and Child A at the standard deviation below the mean (16th
percentile). Child A is headed toward remedial education, and Child B is close to being gifted.
Solicit from students their reaction to this scenario.
Classroom Demonstration 3: Intelligence Live!
The Society of the Teaching of Psychology offers a free e-book with ideas for classroom
activities at http://teachpsych.org/ebooks/pse2011/vol2/index.php. Scroll down to find the
chapter on intelligence by Amber Esping and Jonathan Plucker. They offer a number of ideas for
classroom demonstrations that instructors may want to share with their class.
24
Student Projects and Activities
I. Thinking
Student Project 1: Individual Differences in Problem Solving
Insight refers to the solution to a problem that seems to be non-obvious and functional. For this
project, students will explore the phenomenon of insight. Students can access the article titled
“Cognitive Abilities Involved in Insight Problem Solving: An Individual Differences Model”
written by DeYoung, Flanders, and Peterson (2008). After reading this article, students will write
a one-page response paper defining insight.
Student Project 2: Neural Basis of Cognition
For the project, students will explore a website created to report findings from research in the
area of the neural basis of cognition: http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu. This website is the research page
for the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition. Students shall explore it and write a one-page
summary of what they learned.
Student Project 3: Genes to Cognition
Explore the website for Genes to Cognition: http://www.g2conline.org/. This organization

focuses on cognitive disorders, cognitive processes, and research approaches. Have students
write a two-page paper discussing the areas of the site that they found to be more informative
and interesting, and why they found them to be so. Students should also answer these two
questions. Is there further information that they’d like to see Genes to Cognition add to its site? If
so, what?
Journal Prompt 1: Divergent Thinking
For this journal entry, ask students to think back over their life experience and find a time when
they used divergent thinking by overcoming functional fixedness. Divergent thinking is
illustrated when one uses some object for a purpose other than what it was intended. Were they
creative when they overcame functional fixedness?
Journal Prompt 2: Faulty Thinking?
Ask students to consider the following questions: Have they ever had experiences where their
thinking seemed to be slightly off? Perhaps when they were trying to solve a problem they just
couldn’t solve? Often, when individuals have trouble thinking clearly, their thinking may be
25
influenced by other experiences such as stress, depression, elation, various emotional responses,
etc. For this journal entry, ask students to discuss a time when their thinking wasn’t quite as good
as it should have been, giving reasons.
Journal Prompt 3: Lack of Common Sense
Have students ponder the following question: Have they ever known someone who seemed to
possess intelligence but lacked in the area of common sense? For this journal entry, ask students
to discuss why this might happen. For example, how could a person be so “school smart” and
lack in daily living areas of thinking?
II. Language
Student Project 1: Enhancing Children’s Language Skills
One highlight in parents’ lives is when their child says their first word. Soon after this
celebratory event, language acquisition will accelerate faster than at any other time in life. For
some hints on things parents can do to enhance their children’s language skills, access the article
titled “More Than Baby Talk: 10 Ways to Promote the Language and Communication Skills of
Infants and Toddlers” written by Gardner-Neblett, N. and Gallagher, K. C. (2013). After reading
this article, have students summarize the suggestions provided in the article and discuss if they
think the suggestions would work or not.
Student Project 2: Everybody’s Talking
Everybody’s talking, but how is it that a person comes to acquire language? For this project,
students will explore two semi-opposing theories of how individuals acquire language. One view
suggests that language is learned, and the other says that language ability is innate. An article
titled “Everybody’s Talkin’: Language’s Great Innate Debate Continues to Make Noise” written
by Bower (1997) focuses on this topic. After reading the article, have students write a one-page
paper proposing what they think: innate or learned?
Student Project 3: Love of Languages
For this project, students will explore this website: http://www.ilovelanguages.com/. The website
is the homepage for I Love Languages, which has over 2,000 links to help students learn about
the topic of language as well as various languages spoken around the world. Have students
access this site and explore it until they find something of interest to them. Then have students
write a one-page response paper summarizing what they learned.
26
Student Project 4: Language Development in Bilingual Children
This project will provide an opportunity for students to get to know more about children who are
brought up in bilingual homes. This trend is growing increasingly common, and parents and
teachers want to know about regular bilingual language development. For this project, have
students access the article titled “Bilingualism and Raising Bilingual Children” written by Dr.
Susana Eisenchlas and Dr. Andrea Schalley (2014). After students have read this article, ask
them to summarize the benefits of bilingualism and provide information about the possible
challenges of being bilingual. Also, have them sum up the proposed advice for parents from the
article.
Student Project 5: Flashcards
The website http://anthro.palomar.edu /language/Default.htm provides a rich overview of

language and its relation to culture. Have students spend time reading the primers and then work
through some of the flashcards that are provided. After they’re done, have students write a two-
page paper summarizing the information and terms they learned that build upon what the
textbook covers and why they may find this information/these terms useful.
Journal Prompt 1: Teaching Second Languages
Should a larger variety of languages be taught to students at a young age in American schools?
As cultural diversity increases, is it important for American children to be multilingual? Should
various languages be mandated in grade school and junior high schools? At what age should they
begin? What languages would be required to graduate from school? Is English the only language
needed? As students contemplate these questions, have them write a journal entry discussing
what they would want their children to experience as they develop.
Journal Prompt 2: Which Language?
For this journal entry, students will write about their experience with other languages. If they
learned a language other than their primary language, which language did they pick, and why?
For those who haven’t learned a second language, if they could learn one, which one would they
choose, and why?
Journal Prompt 3: The Nonverbal Languages
When considering languages, students often overlook communication that is not verbal. Sign
language, Braille, and body language would fit in this category. For this journal entry, discuss
the importance of body language in communicating information. Ask them to ponder the
27
following questions: Do they use body language themselves? Do they pick up on other people’s
body language?
Journal Prompt 4: Bilingual Schools
There are some who advocate that bilingualism should be found in schools. As part of this
proposal, the suggestion is made that courses should be taught in at least two languages. Not long
ago, the United States Secretary of Education proposed an initiative that would create 1,000
dual-language schools. To learn more about this issue, have students access the article titled
“English Is the Goal” written for Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service (2000). Then ask students
to write a journal entry describing their views on this issue. Are they in favor or against such an
initiative?
III. Intelligence
Student Project 1: IQ and the Supreme Court
Intelligence testing is one of the most controversial areas in the field of psychology. IQ tests
were once used to determine placements in schools, and the origins of IQ testing focused on this
purpose. The Supreme Court actually banned the use of such tests with the mentally retarded,
and IQ testing in schools is relatively rare. For this project, have students access the article titled
“Despite Supreme Court Ruling, IQ Tests Likely to Remain Extinct in Schools” written by Usher
(2002). This article discusses a Supreme Court ruling focusing on the use of IQ testing with
inmates scheduled for execution. Ask students to read this article and then write a one-page
response paper summarizing what they learned.
Student Project 2: Emotional Intelligence
For this project, students will explore a topic that many find interesting in the field of
psychology—emotional intelligence. Some have suggested that this is what should be measured
in individuals rather than traditional intelligence. To learn what emotional intelligence is, have
students access the article titled “Emotional Intelligence: Implications for Personal, Social,
Academic, and Workplace Success” by Brackett, Rivers, Salovey, and Caruso (2011). After
reading this article, have students discuss the ability model of emotional intelligence and the four
emotional abilities and summarize what they learned from the article.
Student Project 3: Multiple Intelligences
One of the most widely accepted theories of intelligence is the one proposed by Howard
Gardner, who proposed a theory of multiple intelligence that expanded traditional theories of
28
intelligence. To learn more about Gardner’s approach to intelligence, have students access the
article titled “Gardner’s Theory” written by Brualdi (1998). After reading this article, have
students list and summarize the seven intelligences found in the article. Gardner has since
accepted one more “type” of intelligence. Ask students to access the Internet and see if they can
find the eighth type of intelligence that is now part of Gardner’s theory.
Journal Prompt 1: Nutrition and Intelligence
Researchers have found that babies who are breastfed during the first year of life can have
significantly higher IQ scores when tested at age eight. To learn more about this research study,
access the article titled “Nutrition Is Key to Intelligence” written for USA Today (1994). Have
students read this article and write a journal prompt discussing their reaction to this article.
Journal Prompt 2: The Ultimate IQ Test
For this journal entry, ask students to take an IQ test found at http://www.iqtest.com. After
taking the test, have them write a journal entry and discuss whether they think the score they
received is accurate of their intelligence level. Why, or why not? Note: some intelligence tests
found on the Internet require a payment to receive the results of the test. Paying for the results is
NOT a requirement for the assignment.
Student Project 1: Family Size and Intelligence
This student project will give students an opportunity to explore the influence that family size
can have on a person’s intelligence. Before reading the assigned article, have students write their
hypothesis. Ask them to ponder about the influence that family size has on intelligence. The
assigned article is titled “Small Family, Smart Family? Family Size and the IQ Scores of Young
Men” and is written by Black, Devereux, and Salvanes (2010). After reading this article, ask
students to write a two-page summary of what they learned. Ask them whether their initial
hypothesis was supported by this article.
Student Project 2: Smart Beginnings
This student project will provide an opportunity for students to have a better understanding of
some early contributors to intelligence. Have students access the article titled “Smart
Beginnings: Probing the Roots of Superior Intelligence” written by Nichols (1994). After reading
this short article, ask students to summarize what they learned in a one-page response paper.
29
Student Project 3: Do You Have Genius Hair?
Many have heard of the Biblical character Samson and how his physical strength was directly
related to the length of his hair. Could something like this also be true with intelligence? To
explore this possibility, access the article titled “Geniuses with Black Hair” written by Alias
(1997). After reading this article, ask students to write a one-page response paper summarizing
the information in the article. Students should keep in mind the information on correlational data
that they learned. They may also want to include any anecdotal evidence from their personal
experiences.
Student Project 4: Genes Determine How Well You Do in School
A new study states that students’ high IQ scores have to do with genetic influence. To get a
better picture of this phenomenon, have students access the article titled “Genes Don’t Just
Influence Your IQ—They Determine How Well You Do in School” by Sarah Williams (2014).
After reading this article, ask students to write a one-page response paper summarizing the
information in the article. In their paper, ask students to analyze how traits play a crucial role in
increasing intelligence.
Journal Prompt 1: Smart Pills
For this journal entry, ask students to read a short article titled “Smart Pills That Make You
Smarter” written for Chemistry and Industry (2002). This article suggests the possibility of
creating a pill that could aid in memory and spatial awareness. For this journal entry, have
students discuss their view on the possibility of creating a smart pill. Do they think that this is
something that should be pursued?
Journal Prompt 2: Higher Education
For this journal entry, have students write a few thoughts about their college experience. Do they
think that college is going to help them become better thinkers? After writing these thoughts, ask
them to access the article titled “Relationship between Higher-Order Thinking Skills and L2
Performance” written by Etsuko Toyoda (2015). This short article discusses the relationship
between higher education and thinking skills. Did the article support the students’ expectation of
higher education?
30
Videos and Websites
Cognition:
1. http://www.cnbc.cmu.edu
This website is the research page for the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition.
2. http://www.g2conline.org/
This is the homepage of Genes to Cognition, which focuses on cognitive disorders,
cognitive processes, and research approaches.
3. http://psych.hanover.edu/JavaTest/CLE/Cognition/Cognition.html
This site provides a plethora of cognition laboratory experiments.
4. http://www.gocognitive.net/
This site provides free educational tools related to cognitive psychology and cognitive
neuroscience.
Language:
5. http://www.ilovelanguages.com/
This website is the home page for I Love Languages, which has over 2,000 links to help
you learn about the topic of language as well as various languages spoken around the
world.
6. http://anthro.palomar.edu/language/Default.htm
This site provides a strong overview on language, including how culture affects language.
It also offers flashcards to aid in studying.
7. http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/animals_cell.htm
This website tries to understand how animal communications can be studied to better
appreciate how human language evolved throughout the ages.
Intelligence:
7. http://www.iqtest.com
This website presents an online IQ test.
8. http://www-ai.ijs.si/eliza/eliza.html
This site presents ELIZA, an example of artificial intelligence.
9. http://www.6seconds.org/2014/10/16/emotional-intelligence-overrated
This website presents a debate on whether emotional intelligence is as important as IQ.
31
Annotated Bibliography
Ansburg, P. I. (2000). Individual differences in problem solving via insight. Current Psychology,
19, 143.
This article describes insight and the differences seen in individuals.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P.J., and Salvanes, K. G. (2010). Small family, smart family? Family
size and the IQ scores of young men. Journal of Human Resources 45 (1), 33–58.
This article provides an opportunity to explore the influence that family size can have on a
person’s intelligence.
Bower, B. (1997). Everybody’s talkin’: Language’s great innate debate continues to make noise.
Science News, 151, 275–277.
This article discusses the debate of how individuals acquire language, either through learning or
through an innate ability.
Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., and Salovey, P. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Implications for
personal, social, academic, and workplace success. Social and Personality Psychology, 5(1), 88–
103.
This article discusses how valuable emotional intelligence is for all areas of life.
Brualdi, A. (1998). Gardner’s theory. Teacher Librarian, 26, 26.

This article summarizes Gardner’s theory of intelligence, including the seven types of
intelligences he originally proposed.
Chomsky, N. (1995). Language and nature. Mind, 104, 1–60.

This article is an in-depth presentation of Chomsky’s approach to understanding the mind, brain,
and language.
Davies, I. R. L. (1998). A study of color groupings in three languages: A test of the linguistic
relativity hypothesis. British Journal of Psychology, 89, 433–452.
This article describes a research project that focuses on the influence language might have on
perception.
DeYoung, C. G., Flanders, J. L., and Peterson, J.B. (2008). Cognitive abilities involved in insight
problem solving: an individual differences model. Creativity Research Journal, 20 (3), 278–290.
This article explores the phenomenon of insight.
Elsenchlas, S., and Schalley, A. (2014). Bilingualism and raising bilingual children. Raising
Children Network. The Australian Parenting Website.
32
This article provides an opportunity for students to get to know more about children who are
brought up in bilingual homes.
English is the goal. (2000, March 21). Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service, p.3183.
This article discusses a proposal to create 1,000 dual-language schools and the issue of
bilingualism.
Gardner-Neblett, N., and Gallagher, K. C. (2013). More than baby talk: 10 ways to promote the
language and communication skills of infants and toddlers. Chapel Hill: The University of North
Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute.
This article provides some tips on how parents can enhance their children’s language skills.
Griggs, R. A. (2000). A one-minute intelligence test. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 132–134.

This article presents an activity with two “intelligence” tests that are brainteasers.
Harvey, J. T. (1998). Heuristic judgment theory. Journal of Economic Issues, 32, 47–64.
This article proposes a new theory of heuristic judgment theory and discusses the importance of
heuristics in decision making.
Hastie, R. (2001, Annual). Problems for judgment and decision making. Annual Review of
Psychology, p.653.
This article reviews the area of judgment and decision making and suggests areas for research.
Ikeda, S. (1998). The process of translation between English words and Japanese words. The
Journal of General Psychology, 125, 117–128.
This article presents research to test two hypotheses regarding bilingualism and word translation.
Jerome, R., Cheakalos, C., and Horsburgh, S. (2003). Prodigies grow up: College at age 11,
chess at 6. Now adults, five former superkids look back. People Weekly, 59, 131.
This article describes five child prodigies who are now adults reflecting back on their lives and
special talents.
Katz, S., and Kohl, H. (2002). Banishing bilingualism. The Nation, 275, 7.
This article discusses efforts to banish bilingualism in favor of English only. The authors suggest
that this is not appropriate.
Knox, R. A. (1994, September 6). Music for your brain. The Seattle Times, NA.
This article describes the relationship between classical music and spatial reasoning ability,
suggesting the positive nature between the two.
33
Langston, W. (1998). A demonstration of research methodologies in psycholinguistics. Teaching

of Psychology, 25, 61–63.
This article provides a number of possible classroom demonstrations of research methods in
psycholinguistics.
Matsuda, Y. T., et al. (2011). Processing of infant-directed speech by adults. NeuroImage, 54(1),
611–621.
This article provides an overview of the features of infant-directed speech.
Meltzoff, A. N (2007). ‘Like me’: a foundation for social cognition. Developmental Science, 10
(1):126–134.
This article provides information for students by illustrating an expanded view of cognition.
Nutrition is key to intelligence. (1994). USA Today, 122, 9–10.

This article describes a study exploring the relationship between breastfeeding and later IQ
scores.
Pinker, S. (2011). Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language. New York: HarperCollins
Publishers.
This book provides thorough exposure to the work of Stephen Pinker and others on language
development.
Reeve, C. L. (2002). Race and intelligence: separating science from myth. (Book Review).
Personnel Psychology, 55, 778–781.
This article presents an attempt at uncovering the myths surrounding race and intelligence and
includes such topics as defining race and the bell curve.
Reisberg, D. (2010). Ambiguity. In D. Reisberg (Ed.), The Cognition Workbook: Essays,

Demonstrations, and Explorations (4th Ed., pp. 95–96). New York: Norton.
This chapter provides a number of ambiguous statements, drawn from actual newspaper
headlines.
The relation of child care to cognitive and language development. (2000). Child Development,
71, 960.
This article discusses the contributors to children’s language and cognitive development and the
differences seen with children who experience various types of care.
Toyoda, E. (2015). Relationship between higher-order thinking skills and L2 performance.

Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 12, 200–218.
This article discusses the relationship between thinking skills and higher education.
34
Sieck, W. (2016). Why overconfidence occurs and how to overcome it. Global Cognition.
This article discusses a research study that college students used to demonstrate overconfidence
about financial knowledge.
Sternberg, R. J., Gabora, L., and Bonney, C. R. (2012). Introduction to the special issue on
college and university admissions. Educational Psychologist, 47(1), 1–4.
This article discusses what creativity is and why it is important.
Takemura, K. (1994). Influence of elaboration on the framing of decision. The Journal of

Psychology, 128, 33–39.
This article presents a demonstration of the framing effect.
Trahan, L., Stuebing, K. K., Hiscock, M.K., and Fletcher, J. M. (2014). The Flynn effect: A
meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140 (5), 1332–1360.
This article discusses the Flynn Effect in depth and considers factors such as environment and
genetic hypotheses among others in its analysis.
Usher, N. (2002, August 9). Despite Supreme Court ruling, IQ tests likely to remain extinct in
schools. Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service, p.K3226.
This article discusses a recent Supreme Court ruling regarding the use of intelligence tests with
those who are scheduled to be executed.
Williams, S. C. P. (2014). Genes don’t just influence your IQ—they determine how well you do
in school. American Association for the Advancement of Science.
This article discusses the phenomenon that students’ high IQ scores have to do with genetic
influence.

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PSYCH 5th Edition Rathus Solutions

Cognition is defined as the mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and

In language development, such over inclusion of instances in a category (reference to horses

Problem solving is an important aspect of thinking.

C. Methods of Problem Solving

Understanding the Problem

Successful understanding of a problem generally requires three features:

• The elements of one’s mental representation of the problem correspond to the

The Use of Algorithms

An algorithm is a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. An algorithm

The Use of Heuristic Devices

The Use of Analogies

D. Factors That Affect Problem Solving

that is, to handle one element of the problem at a time.

Insight, in Gestalt psychology, is a sudden perception of relationships among elements of

E. Judgment and Decision Making

Heuristics in Decision Making

• Representativeness heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which people make

The Framing Effect

Do Apes Really Use Language?

C. Language and Cognition

D. Language and Culture

The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis

III. Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion

Overregularization is an important development for understanding the roles of nature and

C. Nature and Nurture in Language Development

interactions between nature and nurture.

Learning Theory and Language Development

The Nativist Approach to Language Development

IV. Theories of Intelligence

• Visual and spatial abilities

B. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Thurstone wrote about various factors or components of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s

C. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg (2000; 2006) has constructed a three-pronged or triarchic

D. Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence

E. Creativity and Intelligence

V. The Measurement of Intelligence

A. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale

B. The Wechsler Scales

D. The Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests

E. Differences in Intellectual Functioning

The average IQ score in the United States is very close to 100.

Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences

by middle- or upper-class children. African American children tend to obtain IQ scores

VI. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence

A. Genetic Influences on Intelligence

B. Environmental Influences on Intelligence

The Home Environment

Although intelligence is viewed as permitting people to profit from education, education

The Flynn Effect

Lecture Topic 1: Heuristic Judgment Theory

Lecture Topic 2: Decision Making

Lecture Topic 3: ‘Like Me’: A Foundation for Social Cognition

Lecture Topic 1: Language and Nature

Lecture Topic 2: Culture, Language, and Color

Lecture Topic 3: Childcare and Language Development

Lecture Topic 4: Translating between Languages: English and Japanese

Lecture Topic 1: Race and Intelligence