SOIL

- defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles)
along with the liquid and gas that occupy the empty spaces between the solid particles.
Foundation engineering
- the application and practice of the fundamental principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (i.e.,
geotechnical engineering) in the design of foundations of various structures. These foundations
include those of columns and walls of buildings, bridge abutments, embankments, and others. It also
involves the analysis and design of earth-retaining structures such as retaining walls, sheet-pile walls,
and braced cuts
- clever combination of soil mechanics, engineering geology, and proper judgment derived from past
experience. To a certain extent, it may be called an art.
The design of foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams generally requires a
knowledge of such factors as:
o the load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to the foundation system, The design of
foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams generally requires a knowledge
of such factors as:
o the requirements of the local building code,
o the behavior and stress-related deformability of soils that will support the foundation system,
and
o the geological conditions of the soil under consideration.
The geotechnical properties of a soil can be assessed through
Proper laboratory testing Proper field testing
✓ grain-size distribution, ✓ Field density test,
✓ plasticity, ✓ Borehole test,
✓ compressibility, ✓ Plate load test, etc.
✓ shear strength, etc..

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

The various properties of soil which would be considered as index properties are:
1. The specific gravity
2. The size and shape of particles
3. The relative density or consistency of soil
1. Grain-Size Distribution
- The grain-size distribution of coarse-grained soil is generally determined by means of sieve analysis.
For a fine-grained soil, the grain-size distribution can be obtained by means of hydrometer analysis.
sieve analysis
- conducted by taking a measured
amount of dry, well-pulverized soil
and passing it through a stack of
progressively finer sieves with a
pan at the bottom. The amount of
soil retained on each sieve is
measured, and the cumulative
percentage of soil passing through
each is determined. This
percentage is generally referred to
as percent finer
Hydrometer analysis
- based on the principle of sedimentation of soil particles in water. This test involves the use of 50
grams of dry, pulverized soil. A deflocculating agent is always added to the soil.
Distribution Curve
- A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a
given soil
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as:
where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.
3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as:
4. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed as:
1. Curve I represents a type of soil in which most of the
soil grains are the same size. This is called poorly
graded soil.
2. Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes
are distributed over a wide range, termed well
graded. A well-graded soil has a uniformity
coefficient greater than about 4 for gravels and 6
for sands, and a coefficient of gradation between 1
and 3 (for gravels and sands). A flat S-curve
represents a soil which contains the particles of
different sizes in good proportion.
 3. Curve III represents a soil might have a combination of two or more uniformly graded fractions.
This type of soil is termed gap graded. A curve with a hump in which some of the intermediate
size particles are missing.
2. Size Limits for Soil
Several organizations have attempted to develop the size limits for gravel, sand, silt, and clay on the
basis of the grain sizes present in soils.

3. Atterberg Limits
- a Swedish scientist, developed a method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with
varying moisture contents.
✓ At a very low moisture content, soil behaves
more like a solid.
✓ When the moisture content is very high, the
soil and water may flow like a liquid.
✓ The behavior of soil can be divided into four
basic states: solid, semisolid, plastic, and
liquid
✓ Atterberg limits are the limits of water
content used to define soil behavior.
4. Liquidity Index
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state can be defined by a ratio called the
liquidity index, which is given by

The in situ moisture content for a sensitive clay may be greater than the liquid limit. These soils, when
remolded, can be transformed into a viscous form to flow like a liquid.
Soil deposits that are heavily over consolidated may have a natural moisture content less than the
plastic limit. In this case
5. Activity Of Soil
Skempton (1953) observed that the plasticity index of a soil increases linearly with the percentage of
clay-size fraction (% finer than 2 mm by weight) present. The correlations of PI with the clay-size
fractions for different clays plot separate lines. This difference is due to the diverse plasticity
characteristics of the various types of clay minerals. On the basis of these results, Skempton defined a
quantity called activity, which is the slope of the line correlating PI and % finer than 2 mm. This
activity may be expressed as:
6. Volume-Weight Relationship
7. Soil Classification Systems
The two major classification systems presently in use are:
(1) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System
- Originally proposed by the Highway Research Board’s Committee on Classification of
Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type Roads (1945)
- Soils can be classified according to eight major groups, A-1 through A-8, based on their
grain-size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity indices.
- Soils listed in groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are coarse-grained materials, and those in groups A-
4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 are fine-grained materials.
- Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils are classified under A-8. They are identified by
visual inspection
For qualitative evaluation of the desirability of a soil as a highway subgrade material, a number
referred to as the group index has also been developed. The higher the value of the group index for a
given soil, the weaker will be the soil’s performance as a subgrade. A group index of 20 or more
indicates a very poor subgrade material.
(2) Unified Soil Classification System (also ASTM).
- Originally proposed by A. Casagrande in 1942 and was later revised and adopted by the United
States Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
- The system is currently used in practically all geotechnical work.
The record of the first use of soil as a construction material by mankind is lost in antiquity. In true
engineering sense, there is no ‘Geotechnical Engineering’ prior to the 18th Century. One of the most
famous example of problems related to soil bearing capacity and foundations in the construction of
structures prior to 18th century is the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy. The construction of the Tower began
in 1173 A.D. and last over 200 years.

Study of soil behavior in a more methodical manner in the area of geotechnical engineering started in the
early part of the 18th century, and last to 1927. The development of soil mechanics can be divided into
four phases, according to Skempton(1985):
1. Preclassical period (1700-1776)
- rough classification of soils
2. Classical soil mechanics Phase I (1776-1856)
 - started from French scientist Coulomb’s presentation on determining the sliding surface in soil
behind a retaining wall; ended by the publication of Rankine’s paper on earth lateral pressure.
Rankine’s theory is a simplification of Coulomb’s theory.
3. Classical soil mechanics –Phase II (1856-1910)
- started from the publication of a paper on the permeability of sand filters by French engineer
Darcy in 1856.
4. Modern soil mechanics (1910-1927)
- marked by a series of important studies and publications related to the mechanic behavior of
clays, most noticeable,
➢ Atterberg(1911) on consistency of clayey soils, the Atterberg limits;
➢ Bell (1915) on lateral pressure and resistance of clays;
➢ Terzaghi(1925) on theory of consolidation for clays.
Geotechnical Engineering after 1927
The development of Geotechnical Engineering as a branch of Civil Engineering is absolutely impacted by
one single professional individual –Karl Terzaghi(1883-1963). His contribution has spread to almost every
topic in soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering covered by the test book:
➢ Effective stress
➢ Elastic stress distribution
➢ Consolidation settlement
➢ Shear strength
KARL TERZAGHI
Born: October 2, 1883 in Prague
Died: October 25, 1963 in Winchester, Massachusetts
He was married to Ruth D. Terzaghi, a geologist.
He won the Norman Medal of ASCE four times (1930, 1943, 1946, and 1955).
He was given nine honorary doctorate degrees from universities in eight different countries.
He started modern soil mechanics with his theories of consolidation, lateral earth pressures,
bearing capacity, and stability
RALPH B. PECK
- an eminent civil engineer specializing in soil mechanics. He was awarded the National Medal
of Science in 1975
- “Few people during Terzaghi’s lifetime would have disagreed that he was not only the guiding
spirit in soil mechanics, but that he was the clearing house for research and application
throughout the world.”
Subsurface Exploration
- Braja Das (2016) “The process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a proposed
structure and their physical characteristics is generally referred to as subsurface exploration”
- Murthy, V. (2007) “The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the essential
information on the subsoil is called soil exploration or soil investigation”
 - Araro, A. (2004) “Subsurface explorations are done for obtaining the information about
subsurface conditions at the site of proposed construction. It is essential for the design of
structures and for planning construction techniques”
- Murthy, V. (2007 “The success or failure of a foundation depends essentially on the reliability
of the various soil parameters obtained from the field investigation and laboratory testing, and
used as an input into the design of foundations. Sophisticated theories alone will not give a
safe and sound design.”
Subsurface explorations involves broadly of the ff:
(a) Planning of a programme for soil exploration
(b) Collection of disturbed and undisturbed soil or rock samples, from the holes drilled in the field. The
number and depths of holes depend upon the project
(c) Conducting all the necessary in-situ tests for obtaining the strength and compressibility
characteristics of the soil or rock directly or indirectly,
(d) Study of ground-water conditions and collection of water samples for chemical analysis,
(e) Geophysical exploration , if required,
(f) Conducting all the necessary tests on the samples of soil/rock and water collected
(g) Preparation of drawings, charts, etc,
(h) Analysis of the data collected,
(i) Preparation of report.
Site investigations are generally done to obtain the information that is useful for one or more of
the following purposes:
(a) To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure
(b) To determine the bearing capacity of soil (
(c) To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements
(d) To establish the ground water level and to determine the properties of water
(e) To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining wall and abutments
(f) To select suitable construction techniques
(g) To predict and solve potential foundation problems
(h) To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material
(i) To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest the remedial measures.
Planning a subsurface exploration programme
A sub-surface exploration programme depends:
a) Type of the structure to be built
b) Variability of the strata at the proposed site
c) Cost of the investigation and the entire project
▪ Small house in an already built-up area
▪ Small house is to be built in a newly developed area
It would, therefore, be more desirable to invest some amount on subsurface exploration than to
overdesign the building and make it costlier.
Cost Increase = Increasing variability of soil strata
Cost Decrease = The site underlain in a uniform deposit
Aim of investigation: To get the maximum information that is useful in the design and construction of the
project at the minimum cost
STAGES IN SUB-SURFACE EXPLORATIONS
1. SITE RECONNAISSANCE
- It includes a visit to site and to study the maps and other relevant records
- It helps in deciding future programme of site investigations, scope of work, methods of
exploration to be adopted, types of samples to be taken and the laboratory testing and in-situ
testing.
- The information about the following features is obtained in reconnaissance:
o general topography of the site
o Existence of settlement cracks
o Evidence of landslides, creep of slopes and shrinkage cracks
o Stratification of soils from deep cuts
o Location of high flood marks
o Depth of ground water (wells)
o Existence of springs, swamps
o Drainage pattern
o Vegetation existing at the site
o Existence of underground water mains, power conduits, etc
2. PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION
- The aim of a preliminary exploration is to determine the depth, thickness, extent and
composition of each soil stratum at the site.
- It is in the form of a few borings or test pits using cone penetrometers and sounding rods to
obtain information about the strength and compressibility of soils.
3. DETAILED EXPLORATIONS
- To determine the engineering properties of the soils in different strata
- It includes an extensive boring programme, sampling and testing of the samples in a laboratory
Field tests: Conducted to determine the properties of soil in natural state
o Vane shear tests
o Plate load tests
o Permeability tests
For complex projects: “detailed investigations”
o Bridges
o Dams
o Multi-storey building
For small projects where the strata are uniform - “detailed investigations may not be required
and generally the design is based on the data from reconnaissance and preliminary exploration”
Sampling in soil
Soils met in nature are heterogeneous in character with a mixture of sand, silt and clay in different
proportions.
Classify:
o Soil with particle size coarser than 0.075mm - Coarse-grained soil
o Soil with particle size finer than 0.075mm - fine-grained soil
Sampling
• Undisturbed Sampling
Are those that represent the in-situ condition of the soil in all respects, such as structural
arrangement of particles, water content, density and stress conditions.
The various laboratory tests that can be conducted on such soil samples are:
1. Shear strength
2. consolidation
3. in-situ density and water content
4. permeability
• Disturbed Sampling
Are representative samples which contain all the constituents in their proper proportions, but the
structure of soil is not the same as in the insitu conditions
The various laboratory tests that can be conducted on such soil samples are
1. Mechanical properties
2. Atterberg limits
3. Specific gravity
4. Chemical analysis

The amount of sampling depends on:

a. Time constraint
b. Topography
c. Cost factors
d. Reason for sampling

How to Collect Disturbed Soil Samples

Basic geotechnical investigations include using a backhoe to create a test pit where you collect soil from
the bucket or using hand augers to collect a sample from a vertical boring. You can use drill rigs to
collect disturbed samples from great depths. Collection tools such as split-spoon samplers, Shelby
tubes and macrocore push samplers are used in conjunction with the drill rig or a direct-push rig to
collect the sample after the rig reaches the desired depth.

How to Collect Undisturbed Soil Samples

Engineers use drill rigs to collect undisturbed soil samples at depth. Common sampling tools include
a) long split-spoon samplers
b) piston samplers and
c) a pitcher barrel sampler
Piston samplers are thin-walled tube samplers that collect undisturbed samples in soft soil. The piston
samples do not work well in gravel, sand or lithified sediments. Like the piston sampler, a pitcher barrel
sampler is pushed into the soil to collect the undisturbed sample. These methods produce the best
undisturbed samples possible; however, engineers must remember to inspect the sample for signs that
the soil was disturbed during collection, especially near the top and bottom of the sample. Engineers will
disregard the disturbed portions of the sample during testing.
HAND OPERATED AUGERS
✓ depth of about 10 m
✓ Suitable for all types of soil above the water table but suitable only in clayey
soil below the water table
✓ A string of drill rods is used for advancing the boring
✓ Diameter of the holes normally vary form 10 to 20cm
✓ Not suitable in very stiff to hard clay nor in granular below the water table
✓ Not practicable in denses and nor in sand mixed with gravel even if the
strata lies above the water table
POWER DRIVEN AUGERS
✓ Fligths act as a crew conveyor to bring the soil to the surface
✓ Used in all types of soil including sandy soils below the water
table but is not suitable is the soil is mixed with gravel, cobbles, etc.
✓ The central stem may be hollow or solid. A hollow stem is
sometimes preferred since standard penetration tests or sampling may be
done through the stem without lifting the auger from its position in the
hole. Besides, the flight of augers serves the purpose of casing the hole.
The hollow stem can be p lugged while advancing the bore and the plug
can be removed while taking samples or conducting standard penetration
tests. The drilling rig can be mounted on a truck or a tractor. Holes may be
drilled by this method rapidly to depths of 60m or more.
SHELL AND AUGER METHOD
✓ Shell (also called as sand bailer) is a heavy duty pipe with a hard cutting edge
and a flat valve which opens only inside. The length of the shell ranges from 1 to 3m
or more depending on the weight required for cutting the soil. The weight ranges from
30 to 60kg or more.
✓ Very useful even in dense sandy deposits or stiff to hard clay soils or even
sandy soil mixed with gravel.
WASH BORING
✓ Its purpose is to drill holes only and not to make use of the disturbed
washed materials for analysis. Whenever, an undisturbed sample is
required, the boring is stop, and the chopping bit is replaced by a sampler.
The sampler is pushed into the soil at the bottom of the hole and the
sample is withdrawn.
✓ It is very convenient method provided the soil is either sand, silt or
clay. Not suitable for the soil mixed with gravel or boulders.
ROTARY DRILLING
✓ Rotary drilling is a procedure by which rapidly rotating
drilling bits attached to the bottom of drilling rods cut and grind the
soil and advance the borehole.
✓ Rotary drilling can be used in sand, clay, and rocks (unless
they are badly fissured).
✓ Water or drilling mud is forced down the drilling rods to the
bits, and the return flow forces the cuttings to the surface.
✓ Boreholes with diameters of 50 to 203 mm (2 to 8 in.) can
easily be made by this technique.
✓ The drilling mud is a slurry of water and bentonite.
Generally, it is used when the soil that is encountered is likely to
cave in.
PERCUSSION DRILLING
✓ Used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata.
✓ The heavy chisel is alternately lifted and dropped in a
vertical hole.
✓ Advantages
o It can be used for all types of materials and useful
for drilling holes in glacial tills containing boulders
✓ Disadvantage
o the material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by
heavy blows of the chisel. ✓ It is not possible to get good quality
undisturbed samples.
o More expensive
o Difficult to detect minor changes on the properties of
the strata penetrated
CORE DRILLING
✓ Used for drilling holes and for obtaining rock cores.
✓ It may be done using either a diamond studded bit or a
cutting edge consisting of chilled shot. ✓ The diamond is superior
to the other type of drilling but is costlier.
✓ The core barrel may consist of a single tube or a double tube.
✓ A double-tube barrel gives a good quality sample of the rock

Soil Exploration Report

At the end of the soil exploration program, the soil and rock samples collected from the field are subjected
to visual observation and laboratory tests. Then, a soil exploration report is prepared for use by the
planning and design office. Any soil exploration report should contain the following information:
1. Scope of investigation
2. General description of the proposed structure for which the exploration has been conducted
3. Geologic conditions of the site
 4. Drainage facilities at the site
5. Details of boring
6. Description of subsoil conditions as determined from the soil and rock samples collected
7. Groundwater table as observed from the boreholes
8. Details of foundation recommendations and alternatives
9. Any anticipated construction problems
10. Limitations of the investigation
The following graphic presentations also need to be attached to the soil exploration report:
1. Site location map
2. Location of borings with respect to the proposed structure
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special presentations
Lateral earth pressure
- the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction.
- an important parameter for the design of bridge abutment, different types of retaining walls
(Such as gravity retaining walls, cantilever walls, buttresses), sheet piles and other retaining
structures.
- It is important because it affects the consolidation behavior and strength of the soil. Also,
because it is considered in the design of retaining walls, basements, tunnels, etc’
Vertical or near-vertical slopes of soil are supported by retaining walls, cantilever sheet pile walls,
sheet-pile bulkheads, braced cuts, and other, similar structures.
The proper design of those structures requires an estimation of lateral earth pressure, which is a function
of several factors, such as:
(a) the type and amount of wall movement,
(b) the shear strength parameters of the soil,
(c) the unit weight of the soil, and
(d) the drainage conditions in the backfill.
Lateral Supports
Lateral Earth Pressure and Wall Movement
➢ Lateral earth pressure is the direct result of horizontal stresses in the soil. Lateral Earth Pressure
and Wall Movement
➢ In order to understand the lateral earth pressure, we have to define the Coefficient of lateral earth
pressure, K
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K
- It is defined as the ratio of the horizontal effective stress, σh to the vertical effective stress σ v

Stresses in Soil
Total Stress σ = Уsat (h)
Pore Water Pressure u = Уw (h)
Effective stress
σ' = σ - u
σ' = Уsat (h) - Уw (h)
σ’ = (Уsat – Уw) (h)
σ' = У’(h)
SAMPLE PROBLEM #1
Figure 1 shows the soil profile for the top 9 m at a site, where the
water table is at a depth of 5 m below the ground level. The top 3m
consists of dry silty gravel with a unit weight of 17.9 kN/m3 . The next
6m consists of sand where the unit weights above and below the water
table are 17.0 kN/m3 and 19.5 kN/m3 , respectively. Calculate the total
stress, porewater pressure and effective stress
Theories behind…………………….
The lateral earth pressure is usually computed using the classical theories by COULOMB (1773) nad
RANKINE (1857). The general wedge theory proposed by TERZAGHI (1941) is more general and is an
improvement over the earlier theories.
COULOMB (177)
Assumptions;
▪ The backfill is a dry, cohesionless, homogeneous, isotropic soil.
▪ The backfill surface is planar and can be inclined.
▪ The back of the wall can be inclined to the vertical.
▪ The failure surface is a plane surface which passes through the heel of the wall.
▪ The position and the line of action of the earth pressure are known.
▪ The sliding wedge is considered to be a rigid body and the earth pressure is obtained by
considering the limiting equilibrium of the sliding wedge as a whole.
RANKINE (1857)
Assumptions;
▪ Soil is non-cohesive (c = 0) dry, isotropic and homogenous
▪ Backfill is horizontal
▪ Wall is vertical
▪ Wall friction is neglected
▪ Failure is a plain strain problem
Different types of lateral earth pressure
Lateral earth pressure can be grouped into 3 categories, depending upon the movement of the retaining
wall with respect to the soil retained.
1. The wall may be restrained form moving. The lateral earth pressure on the wall at any depth is
called at-rest earth pressure.
 2. The wall may tilt away from the soil that is retained. With sufficient wall tilt, a triangular soil
wedge behind the wall will fail. The lateral pressure for this condition is referred to as active
earth pressure.
3. The wall may be pushed into the soil that is retained. With sufficient wall movement, a soil wedge
will fail. The lateral pressure for this condition is referred to as passive earth pressure.
Comparison of 3 states of lateral earth pressure

Variation of Pressure
Point B: At-rest Case
Point A: Active Case
▪ As the wall moves away from the soil backfill the
active condition develops and the lateral pressure
against the wall decreases with wall movement until
the minimum active earth pressure force (Pa) is reached.
The lateral earth pressure exerted on the wall is a
minimum.
▪ According to Lambe and Whitman (1969), for
dense sand, the horizontal strain is about 0.05%.
Example: For a wall of 5m height, a movement of
0.025m would develop active earth pressure.
Point C: Passive Case
▪ As the wall moves towards (into) the soil backfill,
the passive condition develops and the lateral pressure
against the wall increases with wall movement until the
maximum passive earth pressure (Pp) is reached.

Earth Pressure At-Rest

- If the wall does not move even after back filling, the pressure
exerted on the wall is termed as pressure for the at rest condition of the wall.
Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
▪ Since late 17th century many theories of earth of earth pressure have been proposed by various
investigators. Of the theories the following two are the most popular and used for computation of
active and passive earth pressures:
o Rankine’s Theory (No wall friction)
o Coulomb’s Theory (With wall friction)
▪ Those are usually called the classical lateral earth pressure theories. ❑ In both theories it is
required that the soil mass, or at least certain parts of the mass, is in a state of PLASTIC
EQUILIBRIUM. The soil mass is on verge of failure. Failure here is defined to be the state of stress
which satisfies the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
’
Active Earth Pressure
▪ Consider a rigid retaining wall with a plane vertical face is backfilled with cohesionless soil. If
suppose the wall gradually rotates about point A and moves away from the backfill, the unit
pressure on the wall is gradually reduces and after a particular displacement of the wall at the top,
 the pressure reaches a constant value. The pressure is the minimum possible.
This pressure is termed the active pressure since the weight of the backfill is
responsible for the movement of the wall.
▪ If the wall is smooth, the resultant pressure acts normal to the face of
the wall. If the wall is rough, it makes an angle δ with the normal on the
wall. The angle δ is called the angle of wall friction. As the wall moves away
from the backfill, the soil tends to move forward. When the wall movement
is sufficient, a soil mass of weight W ruptures along surface ADC. This
surface is slightly curved, If the surface is assumed to a plane surface AC,
analysis would indicate that this surface would make an angle of 45o+θ/2
with the horizontal.
▪ If a wall tends to move away from the soil a distance Δx, as shown in the Figure, the soil pressure
on the wall at any depth will decrease. For a wall that is frictionless, the horizontal stress, σ h , at
depth z will equal Koσ’o (=Koγz) when Δx is zero. However, with Δx > 0, σ’ h will be less than Koσ’o.
The depth zc is usually referred to as the depth of tensile crack, because the tensile stress in the soil will
eventually cause a crack along the soil–wall interface.
Thus, the total Rankine active force per unit length of the wall before the tensile crack occurs is:
After the tensile crack appears, the force per unit length on the wall will be caused only by the pressure
distribution between depths z = zc and z = H,
However, it is important to realize that the active earth pressure condition will be reached only if the wall
is allowed to “yield” sufficiently. The necessary amount of outward displacement of the wall is about
0.001H to 0.004H for granular soil backfills and about 0.01H to 0.04H for cohesive soil backfills.
 ’
Passive Earth Pressure
▪ If the wall is now rotated about A towards the backfill, the actual failure
plane ADC is also a curved surface. However, if the failure surface is approximated
as a plane AC, this makes an angle 45-θ/2 with the horizontal and the pressure on
the wall increases from the value of the rest condition to the maximum value. The
maximum pressure that is developed is termed the passive pressure. The pressure is
called passive because the weight of the backfill opposes the movement of the wall.
It makes an angle δ with the normal if the wall is rough.
▪ If the wall is pushed into the soil mass by an amount Δx, as shown in Figure, the vertical stress at
depth z will stay the same; however, the horizontal stress will increase. If the wall moves farther
inward (i.e., Δx is increased still more).

The passive force per unit length of the wall can be

determined from the area of the pressure diagram:

If the backfill behind the wall is a granular soil (i.e., c = 0),

then the passive force per unit length of the wall will be:

The relationship between Kp and Ka

This simple demonstration indicates that the value of Kp is quite large compared to Ka
 ’
In 1776, Coulomb proposed a theory for calculating the lateral earth pressure on a retaining wall with
granular soil backfill. This theory takes wall friction into consideration.
Coulomb made the following assumptions in the development of his theory:
1. The soil is isotropic and homogeneous
2. The rupture surface is a plane surface
3. The failure wedge is a rigid body
4. The pressure surface is a plane surface
5. There is wall friction on the pressure surface
6. Failure is two-dimensional
7. The soil is cohesionless
To apply Coulomb’s active earth pressure
theory, let us consider a retaining wall
with its back face inclined at an angle β
with the horizontal, as shown in Figure.
The backfill is a granular soil that slopes
at an angle “α” with the horizontal. Also,
let δ’ be the angle of friction between the
soil and the wall (i.e., the angle of wall
friction). Under active pressure, the wall
will move away from the soil mass (to the
left in the figure). Coulomb assumed that,
in such a case, the failure surface in the
soil mass would be a plane (e.g., BC1,
BC2, Á ). So, to find the active force,
consider a possible soil failure wedge ABC1.
Under active pressure, the wall will move away from the soil mass (to the left in the figure). Coulomb
assumed that, in such a case, the failure surface in the soil mass would be a plane (e.g., BC1 , BC2 , ….. ).
So, to find the active force, consider a possible soil failure wedge ABC1 . The forces acting on this wedge
(per unit length at right angles to the cross section shown) are as follows:
1. The weight of the wedge, W.
2. The resultant, R, of the normal and resisting shear forces along the surface, BC1. The force R will
be inclined at an angle θ’ to the normal drawn to BC1 .
3. The active force per unit length of the wall, Pa , which will be inclined at an angle δ’ to the normal
drawn to the back face of the wall.
The maximum value of Pa thus determined is Coulomb’s active force which may be expressed as:
Where, Ka is the Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure Coefficient
Coulomb’s Theory of Passive Pressure
To understand the determination of Coulomb’s passive force, Pp , consider the wall shown in the slide. As
in the case of active pressure, Coulomb assumed that the potential failure surface in soil is a plane. For a
trial failure wedge of soil, such as ABC1 , the forces per unit length of the wall acting on the wedge are:
1. The weight of the wedge, W
2. The resultant, R, of the normal and shear forces on the plane BC1 , and
3. The passive force, Pp

The Figure shows the force triangle at

equilibrium for the trial wedge ABC1 . From
this force triangle, the value of Pp can be
determined, because the direction of all three
forces and the magnitude of one force are
known. Similar force triangles for several trial
wedges, such as ABC1 , ABC2 , ABC3 , …,
can be constructed, and the corresponding
values of Pp can be determined. The top part
of Figure shows the nature of variation of the
Pp values for different wedges. The minimum
value of Pp in this diagram is Coulomb’s
passive force, mathematically expressed as:

Where, Kp is the Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient

Cantilever Sheet-Pile Walls
Cantilever sheet piles: A sheet pile wall which derives its support solely through interaction with the
surrounding soil. Cantilever sheet piles are further divided into two types:
a) Free cantilever sheet piles: It is a sheet pile subjected to a concentrated horizontal load at its top.
There is no backfill above the dredge level. The free cantilever sheet piles derive its stability
entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil below the dredge level into which is driven.
b) Cantilever sheet piles: A cantilever sheet pile retains backfill at higher level on side. The stability
is entirely from the lateral passive resistance of the soil into which the sheet pile is driven, like
that of a free cantilever sheet pile
Cantilever sheet-pile walls are usually recommended for walls of moderate height - about 6 m (20 ft) or
less, measured above the dredge line.
Zone A: the lateral pressure is just the active pressure from the land side.
Zone B: because of the nature of yielding of the wall, there will be active pressure from the land side and
passive pressure from the water side.
The condition is reversed in zone C - that is, below the point of rotation, O.