TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

GROUND RULE 3

INTRODUCTION 4

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS : 5

a.Explain the phases and events during interphase

b.General duration of phases in cell cycle for a general human cell
c.Describe stages in mitosis
d.Describe stages in meiosis
e.Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis
f. Explain cytokinesis in plants and animals

CONCLUSION 14

ISLAMIC POINT OF VIEW 14

REFERENCE 15

2
INTRODUCTION

Each and every living thing in this world has been specified for its
functionality whether to themselves or to be benefited by others. Even the
smallest creature, that we never had the thought of, plays a big role in
the cycle of life. The invention of microscopes in science and technology
allow us to observe these small creatures’ behaviour, on how it
moves,reproduces,survives in certain environments, and how it evolves
and sustains its existence to this day. The persistence of a species makes
us question how it maintains its population until now, and scientists
explained it with the theory of cell cycle which proves the perseverance of
a species. In theory, a cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a
cell as it grows and divides in a phase known as interphase and continues
its growth for the mitotic phase where the cell divides, producing two or
four daughter cells depending on the type of cell.

In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle, in which replicated

chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. The division produces
genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is the
same as their parent cells. In general, mitosis is preceded by the S stage
of interphase where the DNA replication occurs, and is followed by
telophase and cytokinesis which divides one cell into two new identical
cells. The different stages of mitosis altogether define the M phase of the
cell cycle and also known as mitotic phase. Meiosis results in four haploid
daughter cells undergoing the replication of DNA, once followed by two
divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division,
and sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these
cell division cycles are used in the process of growth, development, repair,
and the generation of reproductive cells. Both are believed to be present
in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.

4
DISCUSSION QUESTION :

(a) Explain the phases and events during interphase

The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells or cell division.

In every cell’s growth, there’s a cell cycle with complex and critical events
occurring in between the growth of cells. Cell cycle is defined as a
sequence of growth and division of a cell and consists of a series of
biological processes particularly the resting phase (G0), the interphase
(G1,S,G2) and cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis). Mammal cells spend
about 24 hours in interphase, this accounts for about 90-96% of the total
time involved in cell division.

Interphase is known as the longest mitotic phase in the cell cycle

which is divided into three smaller phases. The phases are G1 phase (first
gap), S phase (synthesis) and the G2 phase (second gap). The purpose of
interphase in all cells is to prepare the cells for cell division.

The G1 phase often occurs for 5-6 hours but its duration may vary
depending on the type of cells. In this first gap, the cell begins to acquire
and synthesise the materials required for cell division. Proteins and new
organelles are being synthesised and this phase is highly crucial as the
cell will decide whether to continue dividing or stop. The external
conditions may affect the growth of the cell. During G1, chromosomes are
extremely fine which is called chromatin.

Entering the S phase, the longest phase in interphase, its duration

is estimated to be 10-12 hours. In this phase, the DNA is duplicated. The
chromatin becomes densely coiled and foiled, resulting in the
chromosome size becoming shorter and thicker. Identical copy of
chromosomes bound together as sister chromatids (having identical DNA
on each chromosome).

The cell will proceed into the G2 phase which lasts for 4-6 hours.
Other than the second gap it is also known as the Growth phase. The cell
continues to grow and accumulates energy before entering the M phase
(Mitotic phase).In this particular phase of cell cycle, a cell grows by
producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum.

5
 (Figure 1.1, Cell cycle, Campbell 12th edition, 2021)

(b) General duration of phases in cell cycle for a general human

cell

The duration of the cell cycle differs from one organism to the next and
from one cell to the next. In a multicellular organism, some cells divide
infrequently or not at all. In a 24-hour period, a human cell may divide
once. The mitotic phase (M) would take the shortest period of time, 1
hour. In nearly half of the cell cycle, the synthesis phase (S) for DNA
synthesis lasts 10-12 hours. Because of the intricacy of the genetic
material being copied, the synthesis phase (S) of interphase takes the
longest. The remaining time would be split equally between the G1 and
G2. It normally takes 4-6 hours for the G2 phase to complete. Because it
is dependent on the nutrients that are accessible to the cell, G1 is the
most variable in length in different types of cells.

6
(c) Describe stages in mitosis

(Figure 1.2,Cell division, Daniel Maciels Honors Biography site)

Mitosis is a cell division where a single cell divides into two identical
daughter cells. Each has the same number of chromosomes replicated as
the parent nucleus. Before undergoing the mitotic phase, the cells will
undergo a longer stage called interphase. Mitosis is listed down to five
stages which are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. Cytokinesis completes the mitotic phase.

G2 OF INTERPHASE

At first, a single centrosome duplicates itself, forming two centrosomes.

Centrosomes provide microtubules assembled into a spindle between the
two centrosomes. Each centrosome contains two centrioles. The
chromosomes during this phase are uncondensed and cannot be seen
individually. The nucleus is enclosed by the nuclear envelope. The nucleus
contains one or more nucleoli.

PROPHASE

The chromatin fibres start to condense and coil into discrete

chromosomes and be able to observe it under the light microscope.
Nucleoli disappear from the nucleus. Two identical sister chromatids join
at their centromeres at each of the duplicated chromosomes. The mitotic
spindle begins to form. The microtubules extend from the centrosomes.

7
The centrosomes move away oppositely from each other, lengthening the
microtubules between them.

PROMETAPHASE

The nuclear envelope becomes fragments. The microtubules from each

centrosome invade the nuclear area. The chromosomes condensed more.
A specialised protein structure called kinetochore, formed at the
centromere of each chromatid. The microtubules that are attached to the
kinetochores are called "kinetochore microtubules" which jerk the
chromosomes back and forth. Nonkinetochore microtubules interact with
the other nonkinetochore microtubules at the opposite pole of the spindle,
lengthening the cell.

METAPHASE

Each centrosome is at the opposite pole of the cell. All the chromosomes
are at the metaphase plate, which is equidistant between the two poles of
the spindle. Chromosomes' centromeres lie at the metaphase plate. The
kinetochores of the sister chromatids for each chromosome are attached
to the kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles.

ANAPHASE

Shortest stage of mitosis, lasting only a few minutes. Cohesin proteins are
cleaved, allowing two sister chromatids of each pair to separate. Each
chromatid becomes an independent chromosome. Two new daughter
chromosomes move toward each opposite end of the cell because of the
shortening of the kinetochore microtubules. The nonkinetochore
microtubules lengthen and elongate the cell. Two ends of the cell have
identical and complete collections of chromosomes.

TELOPHASE & CYTOKINESIS

Two daughter nuclei formed. Nuclear envelopes arise from the fragments
of the parent cell's nuclear envelope. Nucleoli reappear,chromosomes
become less condensed. The remaining spindle microtubules are
polymerized. Now mitosis has completely happened. The division of the
cytoplasm of the cell happened. There is formation of a cleavage furrow
which pinches the animal cell into two.

8
(d) Describe stages in meiosis

(Figure 1.3, Meiosis I, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis)

Meiosis is preceded by interphase, which includes S phase (the

duplication of chromosomes). However, this is followed by two
consecutive cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II. These two
divisions result in four daughter cells, each with only half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell.

In Meiosis I, it is started with prophase I. During early prophase I,

each chromosome pairs with its homolog, aligned gene by gene, and
crossing over occur in which the DNA molecules of nonsister chromatids
are broken (by proteins) and are rejoined to each other. Each homologous
pair has one or more X-shaped regions called chiasmata, where
crossovers have occurred. Centrosome movement, spindle formation, and
nuclear envelope breakdown occur. Chromosomes condense progressively
throughout prophase I. Then, microtubules from one pole or the other
attach to the kinetochores, one at the centromere of each homolog. (The
two kinetochores on the sister chromatids of a homolog are linked
together by proteins and act as a single kinetochore.) Microtubules move
the homologous pairs toward the metaphase plate.

In metaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes are now

arranged at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome of each pair
facing each pole. Each pair has lined up independently of other pairs. Both
chromatids of one homolog are attached to kinetochore microtubules from
one pole, while the chromatids of the other homolog are attached to
microtubules from the opposite pole.

In anaphase I, breakdown of proteins that are responsible for sister

chromatid cohesion along chromatid arms allows homologs to separate.
The homologs move toward opposite poles, guided by the spindle
apparatus. Sister chromatid cohesion persists at the centromere, causing
the two chromatids of each chromosome to move as a unit toward the
same pole.

9
 When telophase I begins, each half of the cell has a complete
haploid set of duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome is composed of
two sister chromatids in which one or both chromatids include regions of
nonsister chromatid DNA. Cytokinesis, which is the division of the
cytoplasm, usually occurs simultaneously with telophase I, forming two
haploid daughter cells. No chromosome duplication occurs between
meiosis I and meiosis II.

(Figure 1.4, Meiosis II, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis)

In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms. In late prophase II,

chromosomes, each still composed of two chromatids associated at the
centromere, are moved by microtubules toward the metaphase II plate.

In metaphase II, the chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase

plate as in mitosis. Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are not genetically identical. The
kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to microtubules extending
from opposite poles.

In anaphase II, breakdown of proteins holding the sister chromatids

together at the centromere allows the chromatids to separate and move
toward opposite poles. Each chromatid has now become an individual
chromosome.

In telophase II, nuclei form, the chromosomes begin decondensing, and

cytokinesis occurs.The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four
daughter cells, each with a haploid set of (unduplicated) chromosomes.
The four daughter cells are genetically distinct from one another and from
the parent cell.

10
(e) Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis

(Figure 1.5, Comparison between meiosis and mitosis, Campbell

12th edition, 2021)

Both mitosis and meiosis are nuclear division processes that occur
during cell division.

Mitosis occurs in somatic cells and divides once at the end of the
process while meiosis occurs in the germ cell and divides twice at the end
of meiosis I and meiosis II ,both during cytokinesis.In addition,cytokinesis
in mitosis happens at the end of telophase while in meiosis, cytokinesis
happens at the end of telophase I and telophase II.Cytokinesis of mitosis
forming two diploid daughter cells that genetically identical to its parent’s
cell.Cytokinesis in meiosis during telophase I forming two haploid
daughter cells which then divides again during cytokinesis in telophase II
forming four haploid daughter cells with distinct from one another and
from the parent cell.

DNA replication of mitosis occurs during interphase ,before mitosis

begin.For meiosis DNA replication occurs during interphase of meiosis I
but not meiosis II. Daughter cells of mitosis are identical with their parent
cell because no synapsis and crossing over occurs during prophase unlike
daughter cells produced from meiosis which are genetically different from
parent cell because of the occurrence of synapsis and crossing over during
prophase I.

11
 (Figure 1.6,crossing over and synapsis ,
https://slideplayer.com/slide/17912533/)

In mitosis,individual chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate

during metaphase .Contrary with mitosis alignment of chromosomes
during metaphase,in meiosis pairs of homologous chromosomes line up at
the metaphase plate during metaphase I then metaphase II homologous
chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase plate same like in
mitosis.During anaphase, sister chromatids seperate towards opposite
pole.By contrast, anaphase I of meiosis separate homologous
chromosomes from tetrads chromosomes towards opposite pole then in
anaphase II separate homologous chromosomes into sister chromatids
towards opposite pole.

(f) Explain cytokinesis in plants and animals

Cytokinesis happens when there is a presence of cleavage

furrow after undergoing a process called cleavage in mitosis and
meiosis for both plant and animal cells. The ultimate objective is to
divide the parent cell into daughter cells. For example, cytoplasm is
divided in eukaryotic cells to produce two distinct daughter cells that
are identical to each other. It appears at the end of the parent cells
cycle after meiosis or mitosis when a cleavage furrow (for animal
cell) or a cell plate (for plant cell) is constructed to divide the cell
membrane into two new cells.we can detect the cleavage furrow by
the display of shallow groove on cell surface in figure 1.7.Moving on
to cytokinesis in animals cell which start just as soon as the actin
microfilaments which develop first on the cytoplasmic side of furrow
with the shaped of contractile ring called as a contractile ring of
actin microfilaments.Then, associate with molecules of the protein
myosin and interconnect with the myosin molecules resulting the
ring to contract.The contraction form of the dividing cell’s ring of
microfilaments is known as pulling a drawstring. Cleavage furrow
deepens until its squeeze into two,producing two completely
separated cells and each own of its nucleus, cytosol and other

12
subcellular structure.As for cytokinesis in plant cell which is slightly
different as there is no cleavage furrow on the contrary there is cell
plate forming from cell wall.During telophase,vesicle extract from
the golgi apparatus and relocate microtubules to the middle of the
cell then coalesce producing cell plate. Inside the cell plate, vesicle
collect carried all cell wall materials and stored in it as it grows.Cell
plate becoming large until its surrounding membrane fuses together
with plasma membranes along the perimeter of the cell.two
daughter cells was formed with each of its own plasma
membrane,along a new cell wall appearing from the contest of the
cell plate forms between the daughter cells.

The figure 1.7 below shows the detailed picture of how cytokinesis
takes place in animal and plant cells.

(Figure 1.7 , cleavage furrow & cytokinesis in animal and plant

cell,Campbell 12th edition, 2021)

13
CONCLUSION

Now we know that the cell within our body has its own cycle which
is orderly arranged by the Al-Mighty,Allah S.W.T. In order to achieve a
successful cell cycle in somatic cells, the process of mitosis should
experience interphase beforehand as preparation for the cell before
division into daughter cells occurs.Immediately after interphase,mitotic
phase which consist of prophase,prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis need to be undergo by cell so that diploid,
identical two daughter cell produced.For meiosis that specifically occur in
reproductive cell,have two parts which are meiosis I and meiosis II with
one time interphase before meiosis I.Basically,The stages of meiosis are
prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, cytokinesis, prophase
II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II, and ends when the gamete
cell is produced.To highlight the important event in meiosis which
differentiates it with mitosis,it have crossing over and synapsis during
prophase I that contributes to recombination of genes in haploid daughter
cells.

ISLAMIC POINT OF VIEW

“MEN! If you are in doubt as to the [truth of] resurrection, [remember

that,] verily, We have created [every one of] you out of dust, then out of
a drop of sperm, then out of a germ-cell, then out of an embryonic lump
complete [in itself] and yet incomplete so that We might make [your
origin] clear unto you. And whatever We will [to be born] We cause to
rest in the [mothers’] wombs for a term set [by Us], and then We bring
you forth as infants and [allow you to live] so that [some of] you might
attain to maturity: for among you are such as are caused to die [in
childhood], just as many a one of you is reduced in old age to a most
abject state, ceasing to know anything of what he once knew so well. And
[if, O man, thou art still in doubt as to resurrection, consider this:] thou
canst see the earth dry and lifeless - and [suddenly,] when We send down
waters upon it, it stirs and swells and puts forth every kind of lovely
plant” 22:5

All the stages of human development are a clear proof that Allah
has designed them with wisdom. Initially, man’s birth is from a
sperm-drop then turns into a complex organism through a wonderful
process. Foods, which a man takes, turns into hair, bones and a part of it
is turned into semen, which is potentially capable of producing millions of
human beings. If we consider the different stages of the child’s birth, we
come to the inevitable conclusion that all these have been designed by
the Almighty Allah s.w.t . The described above related to this assignment
about cell cycle, which encouraged us to be more grateful about the
process of cell development in human bodies that Allah S.W.T. has been
created.

14
REFERENCE

1. Neil A. Campbell, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Chain, Steven A.

Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Rebecca B. Orr. (2021). Biology A
Global Approach, 12th edition, United States: Pearson Education.
2. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/the-c
ell-cycle/
3. Towards Understanding the Quran. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=22&verse=5&to
=7
4. Ayah al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage). (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/22/5/
5. Cell division. (2002, February 2). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Retrieved January 28, 2022, from
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division
6. Meiosis (Chapter 13). (n.d.). SlidePlayer - Upload and Share your
PowerPoint presentations. https://slideplayer.com/slide/17912533/

15