MA8351- DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

II year CSE - III Semester

UNIT IV – ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
CLASS NOTES
Definition: Algebraic Structure (or) Algebraic system:
A non-empty set G together with one or more n-aryoperations say * (binary) is called an
algebraic system or algebraic structure.
Example: Some binary operations are  ,  ,*, / ,  ,  .

Properties of Binary operations:

(i) Closure : a  b  x  G, for all a, b  G

(ii) Commutative: a  b  b  a for all a, b  G

(iii) Associative:  a  b   c  a *  b  c  for all a, b  G

(iv) Identity: a e  ea  a for all a, e  G , e is called identity element.

1
(v) Inverse: a  b  b  a  e (identity) b is called inverse of ' a ' and is denoted by b  a .

(vi) Distributive property: a  (b  c)  (a  b)  (a  c) left distributive

(b  c)  a  (b  a)  (c  a) right distributive for all a, b, c  G

(vii) Cancellation property: a  b  a  c  b  c (left cancellation)

b  a  c  a  b  c (right cancellation) for all a, b, c  G.

Example: (Z, +) is an algebraic system.
Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, and lattices.

Note:
Z – the set of all integers
Q – the set of all rational numbers
R - the set of all real numbers
C – the set of all complex numbers
R+ – the set of all positive real numbers
Q+ – the set of all positive rational numbers.
Definition: Semi Group
Let S be non empty set, * be a binary operation on S. The algebraic system (S, *) is called a semi
group, if the operation is associative.

In other words (S,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z  S,

x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.

Examples : (Set of integers, +), and (Matrix ,*) are examples of semigroup.

Definition: Monoid
A semi group (M, *) with identity element with respect to the operation * is called a Monoid.
In other words (M,*) is a Monoid if for any x, y, z  M, x * (y * z) = (x * y ) * z and there exists an
element e  M such that for any x  M then e * x = x * e = x.
Examples :
 (Set of integers,*) is Monoid as 1 is an integer which is also identity element .

 (Set of natural numbers, +) is not Monoid as there doesn’t exist any identity
element. But this is Semigroup.
 (Set of whole numbers, +) is Monoid with 0 as identity element.

Definition: Group
An algebraic system (G,*) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:
(i) * is associative.
(ii) Identity element exists.
(iii) Inverse element exists.

Note: 1. A group is always a monoid, semigroup, and algebraic structure.

2. (Z,+) and Matrix multiplication are examples of groups.

Definition: Abelian Group

In a group ( G, *), if a * b = b * a, for all a, b in G then the group is called an abelian group.
Examples: (Z,+) is a example of Abelian Group but Matrix multiplication is not abelian group as it
is not commutative.
 Problems
1. Show that the set N of natural numbers is a semigroup under the operation x * y = max {x, y}. Is it a
Monoid?
Proof:
Closure: Let x, y  N then
x * y = max{x,y} = x , if x > y
& max{x,y} = y , if x < y
In both cases, x or y  N.
Hence x * y  N
Hence closure is true.
Associative: Let x, y, z  N
Now (x*y)*z = max {x,y}*, z
= max {max {x,y},z}
= max{x,y,z}…(1)
Now x*(y*z) = x*max{y,z)
= max(x,max{y,z}}
= max{x,y,z}. ..(2)
From (1) and (2), (x*y)*z = x*(y*z)
Hence N is associative.
Identity: e = 1 is the element in N such that

x*e = e*x = x.
Hence (N, *, 1) is Monoid.

2. Give an example of a semigroup that is not a monoid. Further prove that for any commutative
monoid (M , *), the set of idempotent elements of M form a submonoid.
Solution:
Example of a semigroup that is not a monoid:
(Set of natural numbers, +) is not Monoid as there doesn’t exist any identity
element. But this is Semigroup.
Let (M , *) be a commutative monoid.
Let S  a  M / a * a  a, the set of idempotent elements of M.
Clearly e  S , as e * e  e
 Let a, b  S with a * a  a and b * b  b
Now, (a * b) * (a * b)  (a * (b * b) * a  a * b * a  a * a * b  a * b
Hence a * b  S
 ( S , *) is a submonoid of ( M , *).
3. Let (S , *) be a semigroup such that for x, y  S , x * x  y, where s  {x, y}.

Pr ove that (1) x * y  y * x (2) y * y  y

Proof:

Since (S , *) is a semi group, closure property and associative property are true under *

Given x * x = y … (1)

Now x * x * x  x * x * x Associative property

x *y=y*x From1
We have S = x, y.

Since closure property is true under * and S = {x,y} ,

x * y = x or x * y = y

Assume x * y = x … (2)

From (i), x * y = y * x … (3)

y * y  y * x * x  From (1)

=  y * x * x (By Associative Property)

= x * y  * x [ From (3)]

=x*x From(2)
=y [ From (1)]

Assume x * y = y … (4)

y * y  x * x  * y [ From (1)]

= x * ( x * y) (By Associative Property)

 =x*y (From 4)

=y

y* y  y

ab
4. Show that (Q+, *) is an abelian group where * is defined as a * b  for all a, b  Q+
2
Proof:
Q+ is the set of all positive rational numbers.
To prove: (Q+, *) is an abelian
i.e, to prove: (i) Closure
(ii) Associative
(iii) Identity
(iv) Inverse
(v) Commutativity
(i) Closure : Let a, b  Q+

ab
Now a * b  Q
2
(ii) Associative: : Let a, b, c  Q+ then

 ab 
  c abc
a *b * c  * c   2  
ab
2 2 4
 bc 
a 
a * b * c   a *    
bc 2 abc
2 2 4
 a * b  * c  a * b * c 

ae
(iii) Identity: a * e  a   a  e  2  Q
2
Therefore e = 2 is the identity element.
(iv) Inverse: Let ‘a-1’ be the inverse element of ‘a’.

aa 1 4
a * a 1  e   2  a 1   Q
2 a
 ab ba
(v) Commutativity: a * b    b*a
2 2
Hence (Q+, *) is an abelian group

 1 0   1 0 1 0    1 0  
5. Prove that G     ,  0 1  ,  0  1 ,  0  1  forms an abelian group under matrix
  0 1       
multiplication. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Proof:

1 0   1 0 1 0   1 0 
Let I    , A   , B  and C   
0 1   0 1 0 1  0 1
The matrix multiplication table is,

 I A B C

I I A B C

A A I C B

B B C I A

C C B A I

Claim 1: Closure property

Since all the elements inside the table are the elements of G.
Hence G is closed under multiplication.
Claim 2: Associative property
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative
Claim 3: Identity property

From the above table we observe that the matrix I G is the Identity matrix.

Claim 4: Inverse property

From the above table we observe that all the matrices are inverse to each other.
Hence Inverse element exists.
Claim 5: Commutative property
From the table we have

A  B  C  B  A,
 A  C  B  C  A,

B  C  AC B
Therefore commutative property exists.
Hence G forms an abelian group under matrix multiplication.

6. Prove that G  1, 2, 3, 4 is an abelian group under multiplication modulo 5.
Proof: For finite set, weuse Cayley table.

5
[1] [2] [3]
[4]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[2] [2] [4] [1] [3] [2]
[3] [3] [1] [4] [2]
[4] [4] [3] [2] [1]

(i)Closure property

 a , bG  a  5 b  G

Clearly from the Cayley table,G is closed under  5 .

(ii) Associative property: a   5  b c  a b c,

5 5 5  a , b, c G

In multiplication , associayive property is true.

Hence the binary operation  5 is associative.

(iii) Existence of Identity: From the table, we get the identity element e  1G

(iv) Existence of Inverse:

From the table, we get

Inverse of [1]= [1]

Inverse of [2]= [3]

Inverse of [3]= [2]

Inverse of [4]= [4]

 Hence (G ,  5 ) is a group.

Also it is clear that a   5 b  b 5 a ,  a , bG

Therefore commutative law is true under  5

Hence the binary operation  5 is commutative.

Therefore (G ,  5 ) is an abelian group.

7. Prove that every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group of degree n.
Proof:
Let G be a finite group of order n.

Let a  G

Define f a : G  G by f a ( x)  f a ( y)

Since f a ( x)  f a ( y )  x  y

 f a is 1  1.

Since, if y  G, then f a (ay )  y

 f a is 1  1.

 f a is a bijection.

Since G has n elements, f a is just permutation on n symbols.

Let G    f a / a  G

To Prove: G is a group.

Let f a , f b  G

 f a  f b ( x)  f a  f b ( x)   f a (bx)  abx  f ab ( x)
 G  is closed .

Associative condition holds obviously.

 f a in G  is the identity element.

1
The inverse of f a in G is f a

Hence G is a group.

To Prove: G and G are isomorphic.

Define  : G  G  by  (a)  f a

 (a)   (b)  f a  f b  f a ( x)  f b ( x)  ax  bx  a  b
Hence  is 1  1.
Since f a is onto,  is onto.

Also  (ab)  f ab   (a)   (b)

  : G  G  is an isomorphis m.
 G  G

8. Let G be a group. Prove that (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1 for all a, b in G.

(or) In a group, prove that the inverse of the product of two elements is equal to the product of their
inverses in reverse order.
Proof:
Let a, b  G and a-1, b-1 be their inverses respectively.
a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e ;
b * b-1 = b-1 * b = e (identity property).
Now (a * b) * (b-1 * a-1 ) = a * (b * (b-1 * a-1 )) (* is associative)
= a * ( b * b-1 )* a -1
= a * ( e * a-1 )
= a * a-1 = e ….(1)
Similarly we can prove that (b-1 * a-1 ) * (a * b) = e ….(2)
From (1) and (2) we have (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1

9. Prove that (G, *) is an abelian group if and only if (a * b)2 = a2 * b2

Proof:
Let G be an abelian group.
Now (a * b)2 = (a * b) * (a * b)
 = a * (b * a) * b (Associative law)
= a * (a * b) * b (G is abelian i.e a*b=b*a)
= (a * a) *( b * b) (Associative law)
= a2 * b2.
Conversely, let (a * b)2 = a2 * b2
(a* b) * (a*b) = (a * a) * (b * b)
a* (b * a)*b = a *( a * b) * b (Associative law)
By applying left and right cancellation law we get b * a = a * b.
Hence G is abelian.

10. Prove that in any group, identity element is the only idempotent element.
Proof:
Let a be an idempotent element of G, then a * a  a.........(1)

1
Now a  G  a  G

pre multiply a 1 on both sides of (1)

a 1 *(a * a )  a 1 * a      (2)
a 1

* a * a  a 1 * a  e
e*a  e
a  e

11. Prove that identity element of a group is unique

Proof: Let (G,*) be a group.

Let ‘e1’ and ‘e2’ be the identity elements in G

Suppose e1 is the identity, then

e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e2

Suppose e2 is the identity, then

e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e1

Therefore e1= e2.

Hence identity element is unique.

Sub group:
 Let G be a group under the operation *. Then (H , *) is said to be a subgroup of (G , *) if
H  G and (H , *) itself is a group under the operation *.

(i.e.) (H, *) is said to be a subgroup of (G , *) if

 e  H where e is the identity element in G
 for a  H, a-1  H
 For a,b  H  a * b  H.

12. Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset H of a group (G, *) to be a

subgroup is a , b  H  a * b1  H . (Nov/Dec 2012)

Proof:
Necessary Condition:

Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself a group, we have if a , b H implies

a * b H
1 1
Since b H then b  H which implies a *b H

Sufficient Condition:
1
Let a *b H , for a *b H
Claim 1: Identity property

1
If a  H , which implies a * a  e H

Hence the identity element e H .

Claim 2: Inverse property

1 1
Let a , e  H , then e * a  a H

Hence a 1 is the inverse of a .

Claim 3: Closure property
1
Let a , b  H , then

 
1
a * b1  a *bH

Therefore H is closed.
 Claim 4: Associative property
Clearly * is associative.

Hence H is a subgroup of G.

13. Prove that intersection of two subgroups of a group G is again a subgroup of G, but their union need
not be a subgroup of G. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Proof:
Claim 1: Intersection of two subgroups is again a subgroup.

Let A and B be two subgroups of a group G. we need to prove that A B is a subgroup.

(i.e.) It is enough to prove that A B   and a,b  A B  a* b1  A B .

Since A and B are subgroups of G, the identity element e  A and B .

 A B 

Let a,b  A B  a,b  A and a,b  B

 a* b 1  A and a* b 1  B

 a* b1  A B
Hence A B is a subgroup of G.
Claim 2: Union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup
Consider the following example,

Consider the group  Z ,  ,where Z is the set of all integers and the operation + represents usual addition.

Let A  2Z  0, 2, 4, 6, ... and B  3Z  0, 3, 6, 9, ... .

Here  2Z ,  and  3Z ,  are both subgroups of  Z , 

Let H  2Z 3Z  0, 2, 3, 4, 6,...

Note that 2 , 3  H , but 2  3  5  H  5  2Z 3Z

(i.e.) 2Z 3Z is not closed under addition.
Therefore 2Z 3Z is not a group
Therefore (H, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +).

14. Show that the union of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup if and only if one is contained in the
other.
 (or)
Let H & K be two subgroups of a group G. Then H  K is a subgroup if and only if
H  K (or ) K  H .
Proof:

Assume that H & K are two subgroups of G and H  K (or ) K  H .

 H  K  K (or ) H  K  H

 H  K is a subgroup.
Conversely, suppose H  K is a subgroup of G. we claim that H  K (or ) K  H .

Suppose H 
 K and K  H . ….(1)
a  H and a  K , b  K and b  H …..(2)

Clearly a, b  H  K

Since H  K is a subgroup of G, ab  H  K

Case  i  Let ab  H sin ce a  H , a 1  H ( H is a subgroup)

 a 1 (ab)  b  H which is contradiction to (2)

Case  ii  Let ab  K sin ce b  K , b 1  K ( H is a subgroup )

 b 1 (ab)  b  K which is contradiction to (2)

 our assumption H  K and K  H is wrong.  H  K (or ) K  H .

15. Find all the non-trivial subgroups of (Z12 , 12 )

Solution: Z 12   0, 1, 2, 3, 411 

Let H be a subgroup of Z 12 .

Then by Lagrange’s theorem O(H) divides O(G).

i.e.,O(H) divides 12. (Here O(G) = 12)

Hence O(H) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 12

O(H) = 1  H  0 

O(H) = 12  H  Z 12 .
 O(H) = 2  H  0, x 

Since inverse of [0] is [0], inverse of [x] is [x].

x x 0 12

 2x  12

x6

 H= 0, 6 
O(H)=3  H  0, x, 2x 

Since inverse of [0] is [0], inverse of [x] is [2x].

 [x] + [2x] =[0] = [12]

 [3x]=12

 x=4

Hence H= 0, 4, 8 

Also H= 0, x, 3x

Since inverse of [0] is [0],inverse of [x] is [3x]

 x   3 x   0  12
4 x 12
x = 3

Hence H= 0, 3, 9 

O(H) = 4  H= 0, x, 2x, 3x 

Inverse of [x] must be [5x]

 x   5 x   0  12
6 x 12
x = 2

Hence H = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10  are the non-trivial subgroups of (Z12 , 12 )
 Normal Subgroup:
Let H be a subgroup of G under *. Then H is said to be a normal subgroup of G, for every
x  G and for every h  H, if x * h * x-1  H
i.e, x * H * x-1  H

16. Prove that intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group (G, *) is a normal subgroup of a
group (G, *). (Nov/Dec 2016)
Proof:
Let G be the group and H and K are the normal subgroups of G.
Since H and K are normal subgroups of

 H and K are subgroups of G

H K is a subgroup of G.
Now we have to prove H K is normal
Since e  H and e  K  e  H K.
Thus H  K is nonempty.

Let x  G and h  H K
x  G and h  H , h  K
x  G , h  H and x  G , h  K

So, x  h  x 1  H and x  h  x 1  K

 x  h  x1  H K

Thus H K is a Normal subgroup of G.

17. Prove that a sub group H of a group is normal if and only if x * H * x 1  H ,  x  G

Proof:

Let us assume that x * h * x 1  H

To Prove that H is a normal group

x * h * x 1  H  x * H* x 1  H ,  x  G

 H is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, let us assume that H is normal subgroup of G.
 x * H* x1  H ,  x  G (1)

Now x  G  x 1  G

 
1
i.e. x 1 * H* x 1  H ,  x G

 x 1 * H* x  H
 x * ( x 1 * H* x) * x 1  x * H * x 1
 e * H* e  x * H * x 1  H  x * H * x 1 (2)
from1 & 2 we get
 x * H* x 1 H

Cosets:
(i) Left Cosets of H of G: Let (H, *) be a subgroup of (G, *). For any a  G, the left coset of H

denoted by a * H and the set is a * H  a * h : h  H   a G

(ii) Right Cosets of H of G : The right coset of H denoted by H * a and the set is
H * a  h * a : h  H   a G

18. Find the left cosets of [0],[3] in the group  Z6 ,  6  (April/May – 2015)

Answer:

Let Z6 0,1, 2,3, 4,5

H  0,3

0+ H  0,3  H

1+ H  1, 4

2+ H  2,5

3+ H  0,3  H

4  H 0,3 1  H

5  H 0,3  2  H

0+H, 1+H and 2+H are three distinct left cosets of H.

19. State and Prove Lagrange’s theorem on finite groups (or) Prove that in a finite group, order of any
subgroup divides the order of the group. (May/June 2013)& (May/June 2016)
Proof:
Statement:
The order of each subgroup of a finite group is divides the order of the group.
Proof:

Let G be a finite group and O  G   n

Let H be a subgroup of G and O  H   m

Let h1 ,h2 ,h3 , ...,hm are the m distinct elements of H

For x  G, the right coset of H is defined by H x  {h1 x, h2 x, h3 x,........hm x} .

Since there is a one to one correspondence between H and H x , the members of H x are distinct.

Hence, each right coset of H in G has m distinct members.

We know that any two right cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.

The number of distinct right cosets of H in G is finite (say k)

The union of these k distinct cosets of H in G is equal to G.

(i.e.) G  H x1 H x2 H x3 ... H xk

O(G)  O  H x1   O  H x 2   O  H x3   ...  O  H xk 

n = m + m + m + … + m (k times)

O G 
k
OH 

Hence O  H  divides O  G 

Group homomorphism:
Let (G,*) and (H,  ) be two groups. A mapping f: G  H is said to be a group

homomorphism if for any a, b  G, f(a * b) = f(a)  f(b).

Example:

 
Consider multiplicative group of positive real numbers R ,. for any complex number u, the

function f u : R  C defined by f u ( a )  a is a group homomorphism.
u
 Kernel of a Homomorphism:
Let f : G  G  be a group homomorphism. The set of elements of G, which are mapped into

e’ (identity element of G’) is called kernel of f and is denoted by ker f. ker f  x  G / f ( x)  e

Isomorphism:
A mapping f from a group (G , *) to a group (G’ , *) is said to be an isomorphism if

(i) f is a homomorphism. (i.e., f (a * b)  f (a)  f (b)

(ii) f is one-one (Injective)
(iii) f is on-to (Surjective)

20. Prove that the group homomorphism preserves identity and inverse element. (Nov/Dec 2016)
Answer:
Identity

Let a G

Let f :(G,*)  ( H , ) be a group homomorphism.

Clearly f  a  H

Now

f  a   eH  f  a 
f  a   eH  f  a * eG 
f  a   eH  f  a   f  eG 
 eH  f  eG 

Hence eH is the identity element.

Inverse

Let a G

1
Since G is a group, a G
1
Since G is a group, a * a  eG
By homomorphism
 eH  f  eG 


eH  f a * a 1 
eH  f  a   f  a 1 

Hence f  a 1  is the inverse of f  a .

Natural Homomorphism:
Let H be a normal homomorphism of a group G. The map f : G  G / H such that

f ( x)  H *x , x  G is called a natural homomorphism of the group G.

21. State and prove fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups. (or)

Prove that every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G. (or)

Let f :G  G  be a onto homomorphism of groups ith kernel K. Then G  G

K
Proof:

Let f be a homomorphism. f :G  G 

Let G be homomorphic image of a group G. Let K be kernel of this omomorphism. Clearly Kis normal

subgroup of G. We claim G  G .
K

Define  : G  G by  ( k * a )  f (a ) a  G
K
(i) To prove  is well defined.
We have k * a = k * b
 a * b-1  k
 f(a * b-1) = e’
 f(a) * f(b-1) = e’
f is homomorphism,  f(a) * (f(b))-1= e’
 f(a) * (f(b))-1f(b) = e’ * f(b)
Multipky f(b) on both sides  f(a) = f(b)
  (k * a) =  (k * b)
  is well defined.
(ii) To prove  is one-one:
 It is enough to prove that  (k * a) =  (k * b)  k * a = k * b

 (k * a) =  (k * b)
 f(a) = f(b)
 f(a) * (f(b))-1 = f(a) * (f(b-1)
 f(a) * (f(b-1) = f(b * b-1)
 f(a * b-1) = f(e) = e’
 f(a * b-1) = e’  a * b-1  K
 k * a = k * b   is one-one.
(iii) To prove  is onto:

Let y  G , since f is one-one, there exists a  G such that f(a) = y

Hence  (k * a) = f(a) = y
 f is onto.
(iv) To prove  is homomorphism:

Now  (k * a * k * b) =  (k * a * b) = f(a * b) = f(a) * f(b) =  (k * a) *  (k * b)

  is homomorphism.
Since  is one-one, onto and homomorphism,  is an isomorphism between G & G
K

G  G
K
22. Let g : G  H be a homomorphism from the group G,* to the group H ,  . Prove that the kernel

of g is a normal subgroup of G. (May/June 2016)

Proof:

Let K be the Kernel of the homomorphism g. That is K {x  G g ( x)  e} where e the identity element

of H. is
Let x, y  K. Now
1 1
g ( x * y 1 )  g ( x)  g ( y 1)  g ( x)   g ( y )   e   e   e  e  e
x * y 1  K

Therefore K is a subgroup of G. Let

 x  K , f G
1 1
g ( f * x * f 1 )  g ( f )* g ( x) * g ( f 1)  g ( f ) e  g ( f )   g ( f )  g ( f )   e
 f * x * f 1  K
Thus K is a normal subgroup of G.

23. Let (G , *) be a group and let H be normal subgroup of G. If G/H be the set aH | a  G then show
that G / H , is a group, where aH  bH  (a * b) H , for all aH , bH  G | H . Further show
that there exists a natural homomorphism f :G  G | H
Proof:

Given: G/H= a * h / a  G
We know that e * H  H

 eH  G / H

 G/H is non empty

If aH ,bH G / H , then aH  bH  a * bH  G / H

 G/H is closed

Let aH, bH, cH  G / H

Now

aH  bH  cH   aH  b * c H
 a * b * c H
 (a * b) H  cH
 (aH  bH )  cH

  is associative

Now aH   eH   a * eH  aH

Also aH  eH  aH
 eH is the identity element for G/H
 Now, 
aH  a 1 H  a * a 1 H  eH 
 a 1 H is the inverse element of a * H

Hence G / H , is a group.

Define f : G  G | H by f (a)  aH

To Prove f is homomorphism:

f (a * b)  (a * b*) H
 aH  bH
 f (a )  f (b)

Hence the proof.

Cyclic group:

n 
Let G be a group. Let a  G. Then H  a / n  Z is a subgroup of G. H is called the cyclic

subgroup of G generated by ‘a’ and is denoted by < a >.

A group G is cyclic if there exixts an element a  G such that < a > = G.

24. State and prove Cayley’s theorem.

Statement: Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to permutation group of degree n.
Proof: Finding a set G  of permutation.

Let G be a finite group of order n. Let a  G.

Define fa :G  G by fa ( x)  ax
To prove f is bijection

(i ) fa (x)  fa ( y )
 ax  ay
x y
 f a is one-one.

( ii ) if y  G , then fa (a 1 y)  a a 1 y  y
 fa is onto.
Since fa has n-elements, fa is just permutation of n-symbols.
 Let G    fa / a  G
Step 2: Claim: G  is a group.

Let fa , fb  G 

fa f b ( x )  f a  f b ( x )   f a  bx   abx  f ab
 f a fb  f ab  G  is closed .

25. Every cyclic group is an abelian group. (Nov/Dec 2013)

Proof:
Let (G, * ) be cyclic group with generator a  G.
For x, y  G
 x = ak, y = at for integers k, t.
x * y = a k * at = ak + t = a t + k = a t * ak = y * x
Hence (G, * ) is an abelian group.

26. Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. (May/June 2016)
Proof:

Let (G,*) be the cyclic group generated by an element a  G.

Let H be the subgroup of G.

Case (i): If H contains identity element alone, then trivially H is cyclic.

Case (ii): Suppose if H contains the element other than the identity element.

Since H  G, any element of H is of the form a k for some integer k.

Let “m” be the smallest positive integer such that a m H.

Now by division algorithm theorem, we have k = qm + r where 0  r < m.

Now ak = aqm + r

= (am)q. ar

and from this we have ar = (am)- q. ar.

Since am, ak H, we have ar  H.

Which is a contradiction that am  H such that “m” is small.

Therefore r = 0 and ak = (am)q.

 Thus every element of H is a power of am

Hence H is cyclic.

27. Discuss Ring and Fields with suitable examples. (Nov/Dec 2014)
Answer:
Ring:

An algebraic system  R, ,  is called a ring if the binary operations + and  satisfies the

following.

(i)  R,   is an abelian group

(ii)  R,  is a semi group and
(iii) The operation  is distributive over +.
Example:
The set of all integers under usual addition and multiplication is a Ring.
Field:

A commutative ring  F , , which has more than one element such that every nonzero element of

F has a multiplicative inverse in F is called a field.

Example:

(1)  R, , is a field

Q, , is a field

28. Prove that every field is an integral domain, but the converse need not be true.
Proof:
Let ( F , , . ) be a field. That is F is a commutative ring with unity. Now to prove F is an integral domain
it is enough to prove it has non-zero divisor.
1
Let a, b F such that a . b = 0 and let a  0 then a  F

Now
 a 1 .(a.b)  (a 1 .a ).b
a 1 .0  1.b
0b
Similarly if b  0, b 1 exists.
 (a.b).b 1  0.b 1  0
a.(b.b 1 )  0
a.1  0
a0
Therefore F has non-zero divisor. Hence F is an integral domain.
The converse of the above property need not be true because every integral domain is not a
field.
For exmaple (Z,+,.) is an integral domain but not a field, since only the element 1, -1
have inverses but all the other elements in Z do not have multiplicative inverses.

29. Prove that the set Z4  0,1, 2, 3 is a commutative ring with respect to the binary operation

 4 and x 4 . (Nov/Dec 2015)

Proof:
Composition table for additive modulo 4.

+4 [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] 0 1 2 3

[1] 1 2 3 0

[2] 2 3 0 1

[3] 3 0 1 2

Composition table for multiplicative modulo 4.

x4 [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] 0 0 0 0

[1] 0 1 2 3

[2] 0 2 0 2

[3] 0 3 2 1

From tables, we get

(i) all the entries in both tables belongs to Z 4

Therefore Z 4 is closed under the both operations addition and multiplication.

(ii) From the both tables, entries in the first, second, third and fourth row is equal to entries in the first,
second, third and fourth columns respectively.
Hence the operations are commutative.
(iii) Modular addition and Modular multiplications are always associative.
(iv) 0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity.
(v) Additive inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively 0, 3, 2, 1. Multiplicative inverses of the non-zero
elements 1, 2 and 3 are 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

(vi) If a, b, c  Z4 then

a  b  c    a  b    a  c 

 a  b   c   a  c   b  c 
The operation multiplication is distributive over addition

Hence  Z 4 , 4 , 4  is a commutative ring with unity.