BGYCT-137

STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
PALAEONTOLOGY

Stratigraphy Volume 1
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
PALAEONTOLOGY
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences

Volume

1
STRATIGRAPHY
BLOCK 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF STRATIGRAPHY 8

BLOCK 2
STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA 79

1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Volume Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. S.K. Shah (Retd.) (Units 1 & 2) Dr. Omkar Verma (Units 3, 5 & 7) Prof. Meenal Mishra (Unit 4)
Department of Geology School of Sciences School of Sciences
University of Jammu, Jammu IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Sreepat Jain (Unit 6) Dr. Varun Parmar (Unit 8)
Department of Applied Geology Department of Geology
Adama Science and Technology University University of Jammu, Jammu
Adama, Ethiopia
Content Editor Language Editor
Prof. G.V.R. Prasad (Block 1) Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) (Block 2) Dr. Kishor Kumar
Department of Geology Department of Geology Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Jammu, Dehra Dun
Jammu
Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi

Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on
behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU. Printed by:

2
BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy

Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification

Unit 3 Physiography of India

Block 2 Stratigraphy of India

Unit 4 Precambrian of India

Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India

Unit 6 Mesozoic of India

Unit 7 Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps

Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya

Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology

Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation

Unit 10 Microfossils

Unit 11 Evolution of Horse

Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora

Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology

Unit 13 Brachiopods and Corals

Unit 14 Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods

Unit 15 Molluscs – Cephalopods

Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms

3
List of audio/video materials related to this course
1. Evolution of Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVGZKqrjVZY
2. Himalaya – an overview
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vK5Cglisa1Y
3. Fossils in Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLUqzsz1E80
4. Application of Palaeontology
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbDXz8dZDWY
5. Science of Palaeontology (Fossils and Fossilization)
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEN6q5CCJCU
6. Deccan Volcanism and Mass Extinction at K/T Boundary
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxifXuAnSPE
7. Age and duration of Deccan Volcanism
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rodlNJOA-r8
8. Deccan volcanism: an inside story
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1a3glcg0oGs

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

pertaining to the course you may visit YouTube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at
http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575

4
 BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
The scientific study of strata and prehistoric life is stratigraphy and palaeontology. Both these
branches are considered to be the oldest and fundamental branches of geology that document the
historical, geological and biological events of the Earth. Stratigraphy, primarily, concerns with the
systematic arrangement of layered (stratified) rocks and is based on the law of superposition. This
law states that in a normal rock sequence, the youngest layer occurs at the top and the oldest layer
lies at the bottom of the sequence. Prior to 1960, the lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy were the
two techniques available for studying the stratigraphy. However, after the beginning of 1960,
stratigraphy witnessed dramatic changes and several modern techniques emerged for its study.
Currently, geologists are using lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy in conjunction with modern
techniques like magnetic, event, sequence, chemical and facies stratigraphy in order to better
understand the history of life and Earth.
Palaeontology, the study of fossils, aids the stratigraphy. It is a geological clock, which helps to
document origin and evolution of life on the Earth. Fossils are found mostly in sedimentary rocks.
Therefore, palaeontology also helps to determine the times in Earth history when and where the beds
containing the fossils were deposited. It provides a record of past life, where it is inferred that with the
passage of time, many old life forms were replaced by newer and more complex forms. Life was not
uniform throughout the geological history. Hence, each era or period of geological past is marked by
the dominance of a particular organic group like invertebrates, vertebrates or plants. Presently, each
type of life form is living in a particular type of environment likes terrestrial, freshwater or marine. In
order to understand various aspects of strata and fossils, it is assumed that the scientific laws,
geological processes and forces operating today were also operating in the past. This simple principle
referred as the Principle of uniformitarianism, which states that present is the key to the past. It is a
fundamental base for the study of stratigraphy and palaeontology.
This course provides a broad introduction to stratigraphy and palaeontology by means of two distinct
volumes. Each volume comprises of two blocks. Volume 1 contains first two blocks which deal with
the fundamentals of stratigraphy and stratigraphy of India. Volume 2 comprises the last two blocks
that deal with various aspects of palaeontology.
Block 1 deal with the fundamentals of stratigraphy. In this block, you will learn about principles of
stratigraphy, stratigraphic classification and correlation, and significance of stratigraphy. This block
also gives a glimpse about the physiography and stratigraphy of India.
Block 2 deals with stratigraphy of India. The block will acquaint you with the main stratigraphic
supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as Precambrian, Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and occur in various parts of the country.
Block 3provides insights into basic principles of palaeontology. In this block, you will learn about
fossils, their types, modes of preservation and significances. It will, also educate you about the
evolutionary histories of horses.You would also learn the plant fossils, their modes of preservation,
classification and major groups of Gondwana plant fossils.
Block 4 describes major groups of invertebrate fossils. You will learn general introduction, taxonomy,
morphology and geological history of corals, brachiopods, molluscs, trilobites and echinoderms in this
block.

5
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this course, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphy and palaeontology;
 describe basic principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology;
 discuss various stratigraphic classifications and their units;
 outline the physiographic divisions and stratigraphic units of India;
 discuss the fossils and major groups of fossils;
 describe the morphology, systematics and geological history of major groups of
invertebrate fossils;
 explain the evolutionary histories of horses; and
 discuss major groups of plant fossils.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.

6
 VOLUME 1: STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology, which deals with the study of rock layers (strata), their sequence
and relationship with each other. Stratigraphy provides simple principles used to interpret geologic
events; hence, it is also known as Historical Geology. Stratigraphy of India refers to the
understanding of the sequential arrangement of its rock record from Archaean to Holocene. Rock
record constitutes all type of rocks including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, occur in an area
or in a country.
Palaeontology, the study of fossils, aids the stratigraphy. It may be defined as the science which
deals with the fossilized remains of plants and animals of past geological ages preserved in the
sedimentary rocks constituting of earth’s crust. Strictly speaking it includes palaeozoology and
palaeobotany, but the term is not infrequently used as a synonym of the former. The plants and
animals are represented as fossils in the sedimentary rock-beds at definite times during the geologic
past and hence have importance and chronological significance.
Volume 1 comprises of 2 blocks. In this volume you will learn about principles of stratigraphy,
stratigraphic classification and correlation, and significance of stratigraphy and about the
physiography and stratigraphy of India. The volume will also acquaint you with the main stratigraphic
supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as Precambrian, Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which occur in various parts of the country.
The first two blocks deal with the fundamentals of stratigraphy and stratigraphy of India.
Block 1- Fundamentals of Stratigraphy: The block comprises of three units. In this block, you will
learn about principles of stratigraphy, stratigraphic classification and correlation, and significance of
stratigraphy. This block also gives a glimpse about the physiography and stratigraphy of India.
Block 2 - Stratigraphy of India: The block comprises of five units. The block will acquaint you with the
main stratigraphic supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as
Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and occur in various parts of the country.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this volume, you should be able to:
 describe basic principles and importance of stratigraphy;
 discuss standard geological time scale;
 discuss the physiographic divisions and stratigraphic units of India.
 describe the stratigraphy and economic importance of the major Precambrian Supergroups of
Peninsular India;
 explain the stratigraphic classification and economic importance of the Gondwana Supergroup
and the Deccan Traps.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!!

7
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University PALAEONTOLOGY
School of Sciences

Block

FUNDAMENTALS OF STRATIGRAPHY
UNIT 1
Principles of Stratigraphy 13
UNIT 2
Stratigraphic Classification 35
UNIT 3
Physiography of India 51

Glossary 71

8
 Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. S. K. Shah (Retd.) (Units 1 & 2) Dr. Omkar Verma (Unit 3)
Department of Geology School of Sciences
University of Jammu IGNOU, New Delhi
Jammu
Language Editor
Content Editor Dr. Kishor Kumar
Prof. G.V.R. Prasad Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
Department of Geology Dehra Dun
University of Delhi, Delhi

Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi

Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on
behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU. Printed by:

9
 BLOCK 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF STRATIGRAPHY
The science of sediments and strata is stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is, perhaps, the earliest branch of
geology and is fundamental to all geological studies. It dates back to the time, when human beings
started to observe and record the nature of Earth’s natural processes. The main aim of stratigraphy
involves the subdivision of sequences of rock strata into mappable units for determining their time
relationships and correlating units of the sequence within rock strata or elsewhere. Therefore, all
aspects of stratigraphic studies start from the rocks themselves. In fact, it provides invaluable tools,
which allows reconstruction of the sequence of events of Earth’s history and the evolution of life on
Earth.
This is the first block of the course. It will give you a basic understanding of the stratigraphic principles
and classification as well as an outline of stratigraphy of India. In this block, several diagrams and
illustrations have been included to stimulate your interest.
This block deals with fundamentals of stratigraphy. In this block, you will be introduced to the basic
principles and classification of stratigraphy. It comprises three units in all.
Unit 1 deals with the basic principles of stratigraphy. In this unit, you will learn about principles of
stratigraphy, stratigraphic contacts, unconformities and importance of stratigraphy. You will also learn
the standard geological time scale and collection of data for stratigraphic studies.
Unit 2 deals with the stratigraphic classification. You will learn lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and
chronostratigraphic classifications in this unit. In addition, you will also learn various methods of
stratigraphic correlation and its significance in stratigraphy.
Unit 3 deals with the physiography and stratigraphy of India. For the understanding of stratigraphy of
India, knowledge of physiography of India is essential. In this unit, you will learn the physiographic
divisions of India. It will also give a brief overview of stratigraphic units of India.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphy;
 describe basic principles and importance of stratigraphy;
 discuss standard geological time scale;
 elaborate the litho-, bio- and chronostratigraphic classifications; and
 recognise the physiographic divisions and stratigraphic units of India.
In order to evaluate your learning while reading the self-learning material of this block, we have
provided self-assessment exercises under the caption “Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)” at a few
places and at the end “Terminal Questions” in all units of the block, which invariably end with answers
to the questions, set in these exercises. You should attempt the exercises yourself and not be
tempted to look up the answers given under the caption “Answers” beforehand. It should be noted
that the check your progress is provided as study tools to help you keep on the right track as you read
the units. You have been provided with the links of audio video materials related to this course. They
are blended with the self-learning material. You are instructed to watch/listen these audio video
programmes and answer the questions given after “terminal question”.
We advise that as you read the units, jot down important points in the space provided in the margins
of each page. In fact, broad margins in the booklet are provided for you to write your notes on. Make
10
your notes as you work through the materials. This will help you prepare for the term end examination
(TEE) and also in assimilating the content.
Your feedback pertaining to this block will help us undertake maintenance and timely revision of the
block. Send your feedback to us to the address given below or e-mail to [email protected] or
[email protected]:
The Course Coordinator BGYCT-137
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068 (India)
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.
Wishing you success and all the best in this endeavour!!

11
12
 UNIT 1

PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Structure_______________________________________________
1.1 Introduction 1.5 How to Collect Stratigraphic Data?
Expected Learning Outcomes Equipment Needed
1.2 Stratigraphy Recording the Attitude of the Beds
Concept and Definition Choosing a Traverse
Historical Development Measuring Thickness
1.3 Basic Principles of Stratigraphy Recording Lithological Characters
Order of Superposition Recording and Collecting Fossil data
Original Horizontality Preparing a Stratigraphic Column
Lateral Continuity Stratigraphic Correlation
Cross-Cutting Relationships 1.6 Importance of Stratigraphy
Inclusions 1.7 Geological Time Scale
Unconformities 1.8 Activity
Fossil Succession 1.9 Summary
Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism 1.10 Terminal Questions
1.4 Stratigraphic Contacts and Unconformities 1.11 Further/Suggested Readings
Stratigraphic Contacts and their Identification 1.12 Answers
Unconformities and their Identification

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You already know that the Earth’s surface is composed of rocks and soil. Most of these rocks were
formed by a slow process of deposition of sediments carried by rivers and streams into oceans
and other water bodies such as rivers, lakes, etc. This process has been going on for millions of
years. In due course of time, the soft sediment got consolidated into stratified (layered) hard rocks.
These rock bodies constitute the sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks comprise bulk of the
rock cover of the Earth. In course of time, some of these rocks might get subjected to high
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
pressure and temperature when they sink down below the Earth’s surface and
change in composition and structure. Metamorphic rocks may be intruded or
extruded by the igneous rocks formed from molten rock matter called magma.
Stratigraphy constitutes the study of stratified rocks in terms of their geometric
relations, compositions, origins and age relationships. Thus, it helps us to
interpret the Earth’s history. It is essential to understand the basic principles of
stratigraphy so that you can interpret the history of how the rocks were formed
and what was the kind of sediment and the type of the basin where deposition
took place. Once you get familiar with the basic principles, you would be able
to trace the historical evolution of Earth’s surface in time.
In this unit, we will introduce you to the concepts, historical development and
basic principles of stratigraphy. We will also discuss the stratigraphic contacts
and unconformities, techniques for collection of stratigraphic data and
importance of stratigraphy. Once you know the principles you would know how
to study the rocks and how to collect them to obtain information on their
formation history.

Expected Learning Outcomes_________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphy;
 describe the concepts and historical development of stratigraphy;
 discuss its basic principles;
 identify stratigraphic contacts and unconformities;
 elaborate the breaks in stratigraphic record;
 list the methods of stratigraphic data collection;
 state the significance of geological time scale; and
 explain the importance of stratigraphy.

1.2 STRATIGRAPHY
In simple words, Stratigraphy is the study of stratified rocks, which are
deposited layer by layer. Its study includes classification, interpretation and
correlation of stratified rocks in space and time that help us interpret the
geologic history of Earth. The term Stratigraphy was given by French geologist
d’Orbigny in 1849. The word stratigraphy is a combination of the Latin word
Stratum and the Greek word Graphia, which refersto the description of all
rock bodies forming the Earth’s crust and their organisation into distinctive,
useful and mappable units. Let us discuss the basic concept, definition and
historical development of stratigraphy.
1.2.1 Concept and Definition
Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology, which deals with the study of rock layers
(strata), their sequence and relationship with each other. Stratigraphy provides
simple principles used to interpret geologic events; hence, it is also known as
historical geology.

14
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
Stratigraphic studies deal primarily with sedimentary rocks, but it may also
include layered igneous rocks like lava flows. It also involves the relationship
of intrusive igneous rocks with respect to the sediments.
The stratified rocks always display a record of the past geological events.
Stratigraphy involves the studies directed towards the interpretation of these
events. For this purpose, the sediments and sedimentary rocks are studied to
know the nature of the sedimentary environment. The study also involves the
examination of fossils in the rocks that have a direct bearing on the time of
deposition.
Determining the nature and type of rocks or what is called lithology
constitutes one of the important aspects of stratigraphic studies. This aspect is
called lithostratigraphy. The other important aspect involves the study of
fossils present in the rock sequence that is known as biostratigraphy. From
biostratigraphic studies, it becomes possible to build a time sequence based
on stratigraphic events that is called chronostratigraphy.
1.2.2 Historical Development
Stratigraphy reached the modern level of development through a series of
discoveries and observations made from time to time. The foundation was laid
by Nicholas Steno (Fig. 1.1a), who is regarded as the father of stratigraphy. It
was Steno who proposed the law of superposition and introduced the
principles of original horizontality and lateral continuity in 1669 thereby laying
down the basis of stratigraphy as a science. He was followed by James Hutton
(1726-1797, Fig. 1.1b), who propounded the theory of uniformitarianism which
remained the basic principle of stratigraphic studies and influenced the
subsequent works like those of John Playfair, William Smith and Charles Lyell.

Fig. 1.1: Renowned stratigraphers: a) Nicolas Steno – founder of modern

stratigraphy (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas); and b) James
Hutton. (Source: www.martinfrost.ws/html files/gazette/james_hutton)

While JohnPlayfair (1748-1819, Fig. 1.2a) popularised the Hutton’s principle of

uniformitarianism, it was William Smith (1769-1839, Fig. 1.2b) who first
proposed the concept of layering in sedimentary rocks. He introduced the term
“strata” (singular “stratum”) to denote these layers thus giving a name to the
science of stratigraphy that is derived from this term. Smith also published the
first geological map of Great Britain. Almost simultaneously the concept of
15
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
layering in sedimentary rocks and the significance of different fossils for dating
strata were elaborated in France by Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847, Fig.
1.2c). It was Charles Lyell (1797-1875, Fig. 1.2d), who published the book
Principles of Geology wherein he elaborated on uniformitarianism and defined
the significance of stratigraphic sequence.

Fig. 1.2: Renowned stratigraphers: a) John Playfair (Source: http://www.electric

scotland.com/history/nation/playfair.htm); b) William Smith (Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Smith); c) Alexandre Brongniart
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexandre_ Brongniart.jpg); and d)
Charles Lyell. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/File:Sir_Charles_Lyell-
Bt-jpg)

In recent years, stratigraphy has evolved considerably with dating of rocks

through radiometric and magneto-stratigraphic techniques. Use of chemical
indicators and isotopes has also revolutionised the methods and applications
in stratigraphic studies. For purposes of uniformity of approach, an
International Sub commission on Stratigraphic Classification has been
established by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), which
lays down the applications and principles from time to time depending on the
new findings and discoveries.

1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is based on a set of principles that govern the processes of
sedimentation. The sedimentation is a result of accumulation of rock material
carried by agencies like water, wind and glaciers and deposited in a basin.
The mechanism of sedimentation and accumulation of other stratified rocks
like lava flows determines the principles of stratigraphic studies. There are
eight basic principles or laws of stratigraphy, which are listed below:
 Order of superposition
 Original horizontality
 Lateral continuity
 Cross-cutting relationships
 Inclusions
 Unconformities
 Fossil succession
 Uniformitarianism and catastrophism
16
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
Let us discuss each principle in brief in the same order as given above.
1.3.1 Order of Superposition
It is obvious that when sediments get deposited in a basin they go down to the
bottom layer by layer. The bottom-most layer is thus the first to deposit. This
process continues throughout the course of deposition as more and more
sediments are deposited in the subsequent layers. Thus, in a sedimentary
sequence the beds or layers at the bottom are deposited first and hence, are
the oldest. The beds overlying them are younger. Accordingly, in a
sedimentary sequence it is possible to determine which are the older beds and
which beds are younger (Fig. 1.3). Therefore, a sedimentary sequence
denotes relative time of deposition as the beds lie one upon the other. The
principle is that in a sedimentary sequence, the beds are younger and younger
as we go up from bottom to top. This principle is known as the order of
superposition that constitutes one of the basic principles of stratigraphy.

17
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........

Fig.1.3: Schematic presentation of order of superposition: a) Showing the model

for deposition of three beds at time 1, 2, and 3; and (b-c) Showing their
actual position in space with the oldest bed at the bottom and the
youngest at the top. (Source: http://www.appstate.edu/~marshallst/GLY1101
/lectures/12-Geologic_Time.pdf for a)

1.3.2 Original Horizontality

The sedimentary rocks occur in all dispositions, but they are rarely horizontal
and most of the time they may be tilted or dipping at various angles or may
even be folded. It is obvious that they could not have been deposited in that
condition. Sediments in a basin are always deposited in a horizontal manner
irrespective of the shape of basin. The tilting and folding are structural
changes that take place after the rocks are deposited and consolidated (Fig.
1.4). So, for a study of the rocks you have to visualise their nature not in their
present disposition, but assuming that they were deposited originally in a
horizontal fashion. This is the principle of original horizontality.

Fig. 1.4: Schematic views of original horizontality: a) Rock sequence with

horizontal beds showing the principle of original horizontality, and b)
Same rock sequence with inclined beds after folding or tilting.

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Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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1.3.3 Lateral Continuity
In a basin, sediments are spread in all directions during the course of
deposition, but, when traced they show a lateral continuity. When we study
sediments, we often find that in a valley the deposits cannot be seen. But they
are exposed again across the valley as shown in Figure 1.5. This is because
the subsequent erosion along the valley has removed these sediments. But,
originally, they were deposited in continuity, which extends up to the limit of
the basin, if sufficient amount of sediment is available.

Fig.1.5: Lateral continuity among the beds: a) Original laterally continuous

deposition of a rock sequence; and b) Same rock sequence showing a
disturbed lateral continuity after the erosion of beds along the valley V.

1.3.4 Cross-Cutting Relationships

The basic principle of cross-cutting relationship is that when something cross
cuts a sedimentary sequence, it is always younger than that sequence. In
other words, all cross-cutting features are produced after the sediment is
deposited. The cross-cutting feature may be a structural feature like a fault or
an igneous intrusion like a dyke (Fig.1.6). It could also be a feature of erosion
like a valley or a break in deposition as shown in Figure 1.5b. All these
changes are brought about after the deposition has taken place.

Fig. 1.6: Cross-cutting relationships: a) original sedimentary sequence; and b)

same rock sequence showing the formation of cross-cutting features
like dyke and fault after the deposition of the beds.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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1.3.5 Inclusions
Sedimentary rocks are often made up of clasts or fragments of older rocks that
are carried by river water or any other medium and deposited in a basin. After
deposition, these clasts get consolidated into a rock. These clasts range in
size from very fine silts to fragments of gravel and can be termed as inclusions
in a sedimentary rock (Fig. 1.7a). In lava flows, there can also be some
inclusions and they are known as xenoliths (Fig. 1.7b). The principle of
inclusions is that they are all older than the rock in which they are deposited.
This is obvious because they are derived from denudation of pre-existing
rocks.

Fig. 1.7: Inclusions in rock beds: a) Limestone inclusions in siltstone bed; and
b) Sandstone inclusions in basalt lava flow and basaltic xenoliths in
andesite lava flow. (Source: http://www.appstate.edu/~marshallst/
GLY1101/lectures/12-Geologic_Time.pdf)

1.3.6 Unconformities
When sediments are deposited continuously, they constitute a sedimentary
sequence. Very often it happens that there is a break in sedimentation, which
is called an unconformity (Fig. 1.8). The break in sedimentation can be due
to the non-availability of sediment or to the filling up of the basin. Alternatively,
the basin may be uplifted and hence no sedimentation can take place. The
break may last for a brief period or may be long. In the former case, it may be
difficult to locate an unconformity, but in long breaks, the unconformity can be
located by evidences of erosion or change in the angle of inclination of beds.

Fig. 1.8: Unconformity in sedimentary rock sequence.

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Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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1.3.7 Fossil Succession
Most sedimentary rocks bear fossils that are the remains of organisms of the
past. But the type and species of organisms keep changing from time to time.
As a result, the fossils are not the same in different strata. Therefore, on the
basis of the type of fossils in a bed, it is possible to differentiate between the
beds at different levels (Fig. 1.9). Fossils help in classifying the sequence of
rocks and in establishing a succession in time of deposition.

Fig. 1.9: Use of fossils in a rock sequence: Bed 1 is characterised by the

presence of ammonoids; Bed 2 by ammonoids and brachiopods; Bed 3
by brachiopods and trilobites; and Bed 4 by trilobites and gastropods.

1.3.8 Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism

The principle of uniformitarianism is that the processes as operating on the

Earth at present like sedimentation, erosion, etc. were the same in the past as
well. These processes, over a prolonged period of time, were responsible for
the changes that have taken place on the Earth. The guiding maxim for
understanding the historical evolution of Earth under this principle as proposed
by James Hutton is that “study of the present is the key to the past”.
Uniformitarianism is a slow process and brings about changes after a
prolonged period of time. However, it has been noticed that major changes on
Earth have taken place suddenly through some catastrophic events. So,
Earth’s history consists of long periods of gradual and uniform changes
(uniformitarianism) followed by occasional short period of a catastrophic event
(catastrophism). So, while both uniformitarianism and catastrophism are the
operating processes in Earth’s history the major changes are all a result of
catastrophism.
Learners, you have learnt the concept, historical development and basic
principles of Stratigraphy. Before discussing about the stratigraphic contacts
and unconformities and their identification, spend few minutes to perform an
exercise to check your progress.

21
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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SAQ1
a) Stratigraphy is the study of …………………….
(a) Stratified rocks (b) Igneous rocks(c) Mineral deposits (d) Plutonic rocks
b) List the main principles of stratigraphy.
c) Present is the key to the past is known as ……………………….
(a) Order of superposition (b) Uniformitarianism (c) Unconformity (d) Fossil

1.4 STRATIGRAPHIC CONTACTS AND

UNCONFORMITIES
The stratified rocks comprise beds of different rock types. When these beds
overlie one another, in a sequence, the junction between the two constitutes a
stratigraphic contact. The contact is generally vertical, but it can also be lateral
when one rock type abuts against another, horizontally. These are normal
types of depositional contacts, but there can be others that are intrusive or
structural in nature.
1.4.1 Stratigraphic Contacts and their Identification
A stratigraphic contact is the boundary between the two rock units. In
stratigraphy, a number of contacts are recognised and important ones are
discussed below.
i. Vertical Depositional Contacts: When beds are deposited one above the
other, the junction between them is known as a vertical stratigraphic
contact. It can be conformable or unconformable. Conformable contacts
indicate unbroken deposition where there are no perceptible breaks and
the sequence is uninterrupted. As has been discussed in Section 1.3.2
above, the original deposition is always horizontal. But it is rare to find
strata in a horizontal condition as they often get tilted subsequently due to
structural deformation. A conformable sequence may be tilted or folded but
the contacts remain uninterrupted.
Vertical contacts may be abrupt or gradational. In abrupt contacts two
different kinds of rocks, say sandstone and limestone are in contact, one
overlying the other, along a fixed line (Fig.1.10a). While there is no break
the rock changes suddenly. The gradational contacts show a gradual
change upwards from one type of rock to another. For example, an
underlying sandstone may slowly become calcareous with addition of
calcium carbonate content and with increasing amount of calcium
carbonate may eventually become a limestone. This change is not along a
particular line but extended for a considerable thickness of the rock (Fig.
1.10b).
ii. Lateral Depositional Contacts: Laterally, the strata may extend in all
directions up to the basin extremity. However, the thickness of individual
strata may increase or decrease as we follow the beds laterally. A
particular bed may even taper off and be replaced by another bed with a
different lithology. The lateral contacts are seldom abrupt and are generally
gradational (Fig.1.11).
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Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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Fig.1.10: Stratigraphic contacts: a) Abrupt; and b) Gradational.

Fig. 1.11: Limestone passing laterally into sandstone showing a lateral

depositional contact.

iii. Intrusive Contacts: Sedimentary rocks may be intruded by igneous rocks

in the form of sills, dykes or batholiths. A sill is an intrusion that is parallel
to the bedding plane and thereby concordant with the sequence of the
strata. It is disposed like one of the beds of the sedimentary sequence
(Fig. 1.12). A dyke cuts across the sedimentary sequence and is
discordant with the bedding (Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12: Intrusive contacts; the discordant dyke intruding across four
sedimentary beds and a concordant sill intruding along the siltstone
bed.

iv. Fault Contacts: A sedimentary sequence may be faulted as a result of

structural deformation after the deposition and consolidation of the rock. A
fault disturbs the sequence of the strata along a plane that cuts across the
bedding. As a result, rocks of different kinds and ages come in contact with
23
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
each other along a discordant plane that may be cutting across the
bedding as shown in Figure 1.13.

Fig. 1.13: Fault contact. Note that fault is younger than shale, limestone and
sandstone but older than basalt. Half arrow symbols indicate upward
and downward movement of beds.

1.4.2 Unconformities and their Identification

A break in a stratigraphic record takes place when sediment is not being
deposited or when some previously deposited sediment has been removed by
erosion. Such a break in stratigraphic record is called a hiatus. The indication
of a hiatus in stratigraphic record is called an unconformity. In other words,
an unconformity is indicative of either a break in sedimentation or a period of
erosion separating the two strata. These periods can be long or short. The
unconformities are of various types and generally can be easily identified.
Following are some of the common types of unconformities:
i. Angular Unconformity: Angular unconformity is one of the most easily
identifiable unconformities. In an angular unconformity, the two sets of
strata are at an angle and not parallel to each other. Generally, the lower
set of strata is tilted whereas the overlying set may be horizontal or tilted at
a different angle. An angular unconformity is produced as a result of
deformation of the older rocks during a period of uplift and non-deposition
(Fig. 1.14a) and at a later stage, a younger set of sedimentary beds get
deposited over the tilted older beds. These unconformities are easy to
recognise in field because of the angular relationship of the two sets of
strata.

Fig. 1.14: Types of unconformity: a) Angular unconformity; and b)

Nonconformity. Note the orientation of the beds.

ii. Nonconformity: Nonconformity is another easily identifiable unconformity.

In nonconformity, an igneous or a metamorphic rock is overlain by a
sedimentary rock or vice versa as shown in Fig. 1.14b. The line of contact
24
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
is always an erosional surface and may represent a long hiatus. Since the
two sets of rocks are totally different the nonconformity can be easily
recognised.
iii. Disconformity: A disconformity is marked by an erosional surface but
there is no angular difference between the underlying and overlying beds
(Fig. 1.15). The erosion may be indicated by the presence of a pebble or
boulder bed or the development of a layer of old soil called palaeosol.
Disconformities are harder to recognise because there are seldom any
clear indications of a break in deposition. They can be recognised either
by the presence of pebble beds or palaeosols or by comparing the
underlying and overlying beds in respect to the rock type or fossil content.

Fig. 1.15: Disconformity: marked by wavy line along which erosion has taken
place.

iv. Paraconformity: In paraconformity, the bedding planes in lower as well

as the upper set of rocks are parallel and there is no apparent break or
evidence of erosion that could indicate a period of non-deposition. This
type of unconformity is very difficult to recognise since it marks a period of
non-deposition that has not left any evidences. The only way of
recognising such an unconformity is by the fossil content in the two strata
that may indicate the time span of non-deposition.
Learners, you have learnt about the stratigraphic contacts and unconformities
and their identification. Before discussing about how to collect stratigraphic
data, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) What is the difference between an angular unconformity and a
disconformity?
b) What is the difference between a sill and a dyke?
c) What is the difference between uniformitarianism and catastrophism?

1.5 HOW TO COLLECT STRATIGRAPHIC DATA?

For understanding the history and nature of a rock formation, it is necessary to
collect stratigraphic data in a systematic manner so as to know how the rocks
were deposited and what changes took place after their deposition. It would
also be possible to know about the nature of basin in which deposition took
place. Let us discuss the equipment and techniques required for collection of
data.
25
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
1.5.1 Equipment Needed
For collection of stratigraphic data in the field, some simple equipment is
necessary. These includes a field diary, a measuring tape, a hammer with a
set of chisels, a brunton compass (or a clinometer compass), a set of pencils,
a haversack, a hand lens, etc. It is preferable to carry a topographical map of
the area, if available.
1.5.2 Recording the Attitude of the Beds
From the topographical map or a base map of the area we choose a point to
start the study and data collection. At this point it is necessary to record the
attitude or dip and strike of the beds. If the beds are horizontal, we need to
look for a ravine, gorge or a valley. Because in a flat terrain, the sequence of
beds cannot be seen as the same bedding surface and will extend throughout
the area. However, if the beds are inclined and dipping, the study and data
collection can be made even in a flat terrain. In a dipping terrain, it is
necessary to record the direction and amount of the true dip. This can be
done by a brunton compass or a clinometer compass. The highest value of the
dip is always in the direction of the true dip.
1.5.3 Choosing a Traverse
It is necessary to choose a traverse for the study of the sequence. A traverse
is a direction along which one can move and systematically collect the data. It
is preferable to choose the traverse along or across the true dip. Only where it
may not be possible due to some obstructions, a traverse along or across
apparent dip may be taken. But in no case the traverse should be along strike
of the beds because in that case we will be following the same bed.
While moving along the true dip we have to remember that older beds dip
towards the younger beds. In this situation we are following the beds in a
natural stratigraphic order from older to younger beds. If our traverse is across
the dip then we are following the sequence from younger to older beds and the
recording has to be made accordingly.
1.5.4 Measuring Thickness
The next important step is to measure the thickness of individual beds. If the
beds are horizontal and the study is being undertaken in a ravine. The
thickness of each bed can be measured directly by placing the measuring tape
at right angle to the bedding plane that will give the true thickness of each bed.
The same technique can be applied for dipping strata in a gorge. However, in
dipping strata in a flat or sloping terrain the outcrop width of each bed is only
the apparent thickness and not the true thickness. From this apparent
thickness the true thickness can be calculated by applying the sine formula.
For example, if the terrain is flat the true thickness can be calculated by
multiplying the apparent thickness with sine of the angle of the dip (Figs. 1.16
and 1.17).
True Thickness: True thickness is the perpendicular distance between the
lower and upper bedding plane of a rock formation.
Apparent Thickness: Apparent thickness is the thickness at an oblique angle
to the bedding plane. In flat terrain the dipping strata display only the apparent
thickness.

26
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
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Fig. 1.16: Relation between true thickness and apparent thickness. True
thickness (in this case) = Apparent thickness × Sin Ø, where Ø is the
angle of dip.

Fig. 1.17: Relation between true thickness and apparent thickness as illustrated
above in three-dimensional framework.

1.5.5 Recording Lithological Characters

The lithological characters of each measured unit have to be systematically
recorded in the field diary. These include the nature of the rock type
(limestone, sandstone, shale or conglomerate, etc.), the nature of bedding
(thin bedded, thick bedded), the sedimentary structures (cross-bedding,
ripple marks, etc.) and any other features like colour and grain size.
1.5.6 Recording and Collecting Fossil Data
While studying the individual rock units it is necessary to look for the fossils
that may be present in the rocks. The larger fossils can be seen with a naked
eye or with the use of a hand lens. All the different types of fossils have to be
carefully extracted with the hammer and chisel. However, the rocks may not
show fossils on surface but may still contain microfossils. For that purpose, the
rock samples need to be carried to the laboratory to extract and study them. It
is important to properly label these samples so that it is exactly known as to
from which bed a particular rock sample has been collected.
1.5.7 Preparing a Stratigraphic Column
The purpose of study and collection of data along a traverse is to prepare a
stratigraphic column. A stratigraphic column depicts the interpreted sequence
as it would have been deposited originally. It is always made to the scale
based on the thickness of the individual beds. There is a code of hachuring to
denote the different rock types. For example, the limestone is denoted by
brickwork, sandstone by dots and siltstone by horizontal broken lines and dots
as shown in Figure 1.18.
27
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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Fig. 1.18: A sample stratigraphic column with a scale (5 metres) indicating the
thickness of each rock type.

1.5.8 Stratigraphic Correlation

Stratigraphic correlation is the comparison of the rock types of different
traverses and equating them with one another in respect of their characters. A
number of traverses are undertaken in an area from which the stratigraphic
data has to be collected. For each of these traverses a stratigraphic column is
prepared. When many columns are prepared, the next important function is to
correlate them as shown in Figure 1.19. This is done by identifying the
individual units by their lithology or fossil content or both. The thickness of
each unit in different stratigraphic columns may vary and that will give the total
picture of the stratigraphic setting of the basin.

Fig. 1.19: Stratigraphic correlation; stratigraphic columns of sites A and B are

correlated. It is inferred that shale bed is absent at site B and nature of
contact between limestone and sandstone shows the presence of an
unconformity which is a disconformity (marked by a wavy line).

1.6 IMPORTANCE OF STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is the basic branch of Geology that depicts the Earth’s history
through time from its consolidation to present day. It gives the distribution of
land and sea at different periods of time. It also provides the data on the
evolution of organisms and their diversification in space and time throughout
the Earth’s history. While stratigraphic studies focus primarily on sedimentary
rocks, they also deal with layered igneous rocks like lava flows, metamorphic

28
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
rocks and intrusive igneous rocks. Stratigraphic studies allow the classification
of rocks into mappable units with a time control. This forms the basis of all
other studies to know the Earth’s history and evolution. On the economic front,
it is the cornerstone in location of oil and gas and is a basic science for
Petroleum Geology. Because oil and natural gas almost always occur in
stratified sedimentary rocks, the process of locating petroleum reservoir traps
has been facilitated significantly by the use of stratigraphic concepts and data.
In addition to providing data on the evolution of life through space and time,
stratigraphy also finds application in Archaeology where the law of
superposition helps in location of different stages of human cultural evolution.
With the help of stratigraphy, we can know about the distribution of land and
sea and other geographical information at different points of time. Together
with the help of fossils, stratigraphy provides data on past climate and
environment.

1.7 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

You have already read that the vertical sequence in stratigraphy is indicative
of time. This is because the older beds are overlain by the younger beds. In
stratigraphy, the vertical sequence reflects the passage of time. On the basis
of fossils, the geological time has been classified into units, which are then
grouped together into larger units. The process is similar to our daily
classification of time into seconds, minutes, hours and days.

Fig.1.20: Geological time scale, Gyr–billion years ago and Myr–million years ago.
29
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
The only difference is that we do not use the absolute time in thousands or
millions of years, but we use relative time on the basis of changes in fossil
content. A geologic time scale has accordingly been prepared in which the
smallest time unit is an age. A number of ages grouped together constitute an
epoch, while several epochs constitute a period. Likewise, many periods
together constitute an era. Eon is the largest unit comprising many eras. Thus,
in descending order Eon, Era, Period, Epoch and Age are the divisions used
for geological classification of time (Fig. 1.20).
Learners, you have learnt how to collect stratigraphic data, importance of
stratigraphy and also learnt about geological time scale. Now, spend few
minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 3
a) What kind of field observations should be made while collecting the
stratigraphic data?
b) Define stratigraphic correlation.
c) List the periods of Palaeozoic era.

1.8 ACTIVITY
1. Draw diagrams of abrupt and gradational types of contacts.
2. A sedimentary sequence consisting of five beds is given below (Fig. 1.21).
Label the oldest and youngest beds of the sequence.

Fig. 1.21: Sedimentary sequence of five beds.

3. Arrange the following eons and eras in ascending order:
(i) Phanerozoic eon, Archaean eon and Proterozoic eon.
(ii) Mesozoic era, Palaeozoic era and Cenozoic era.

1.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have introduced you to the basic principles of stratigraphy. Let
us now summarise what you have learned in this unit;
 Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology which deals with the sequence of rocks
in relation to the time of their deposition.
 It focuses primarily on stratified rocks that include sedimentary rocks and
lava flows. It also includes study of metamorphic and other igneous rocks in
relation to the time of their formation.
30
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy
.…………………………………………………………………………………...………….….............….….....…
 The principles on which the stratigraphic studies are based include order of
superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, cross-cutting
relationships, inclusions, unconformities, fossil succession,
uniformitarianism and catastrophism.
 Stratified rocks that are continuous vertically as well as laterally have
normal contacts. However, there may be breaks in deposition that
constitute an unconformable contact. Likewise, the contact may be faulted
or an igneous rock may produce an intrusive contact.
 The breaks in deposition or unconformities can be of various types like
angular unconformity, non-conformity, disconformity, paraconformity or
diastem.
 Stratigraphic studies can be undertaken with simple equipment by taking
traverses, recording attitudes, measuring sections, collecting fossils and
preparing a stratigraphic column.
 Stratigraphy helps in unravelling the history of the Earth and organisms
through time and helps in location and exploration of minerals, notably fossil
fuels.
 Time in stratigraphy is divided into eons, eras, periods epochs and ages
based on important events notably in the evolution of organisms as seen
from the fossil record. Thus, a standard scale is prepared that is being
periodically modified. We can also determine the absolute age of some
rocks by radiometric methods.

1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is stratigraphy? Discuss the concept and historical development of
stratigraphy.
2. Describe the various principles of stratigraphy.
3. Describe stratigraphic contacts and unconformities with the help of labelled
diagrams.
4. Discuss the methods and techniques of stratigraphic data collection.
5. Write a note on importance of stratigraphy.
6. What is geological time scale?

1.11 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Boggs, S. (2012) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Prentic
Hall, New Jersey.
 Christiansen, E. H. (2014) Dynamic Earth, Jones & Bartlett Publishers,
Burlington.
 Mukherjee, P. K. (1997) A text book of Geology, The World Press Pvt. Ltd.,
Calcutta.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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1.12 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. i) Stratified rocks.
ii) The main principles of stratigraphy are order of superposition, original
horizontality, lateral continuity, cross-cutting relationships, inclusions,
unconformities, fossil succession, uniformitarianism and catastrophism.
iii) Uniformitarianism.
2.a) In angular unconformity the two sets of beds are at an angle and not
parallel whereas in disconformity the two sets of beds are parallel to
one another.
b) A sill is concordant to the bedding plane meaning thereby that it is
parallel to the sedimentary beds whereas a dyke is discordant and cuts
across the beds.
c) Uniformitarianism is a slow process of change that takes place through
a prolonged period of time. Catastrophism is an abrupt change brought
about through some major catastrophic event.
3. a) The main field observations that need to be recorded in the field diary
while collecting the stratigraphic data are attitude, thickness,
lithological characters and fossils contents of beds. The nature of
traverse taken should be recorded with a sketch of map of the study
area.
b) Stratigraphic correlation is the comparison of rocks in different
traverses relating them to each other in respect to similarity of
characters.
c) The periods of Palaeozoic era are Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 1.2.
2. Refer to section 1.3
3. Refer to section 1.4.
4. Refer to section 1.5.
5. Refer to section 1.6.
6. Refer to section 1.7

32
 UNIT 2

STRATIGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION

Structure______________________________________________
2.1 Introduction 2.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.5 Summary
2.2 Principles and Types of Stratigraphic 2.6 Terminal Questions
Classification
2.7 Reference
Lithostratigraphy
2.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Biostratigraphy
2.9 Answers
Chronostratigraphy

2.3 Stratigraphic Correlation

Definition and Introduction

Methods

Need for Correlation

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You are by now familiar with the general principles of stratigraphy and how stratigraphic studies are
undertaken. It was also discussed in Unit 1 that what you have to observe in the rocks and some
information was also given on how to collect and present the stratigraphic data that form the base of
stratigraphic classification. In this unit, you will be introduced how rock sequences are classified so
that you arrive at conclusions about their mode and time of deposition. For the study of any rock
sequence, it is necessary to classify it so that it can be studied in parts with respect to its thickness
and time of deposition that it indicates. The factors that need to be considered for stratigraphic
classification are the rock type, its physical and chemical characters, nature of bedding and fossils it
contains. From all these, the type of the basin and the time of deposition can be interpreted.
In this unit, we will discuss three basic classifications of stratigraphy, namely, lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy. You will also learn about the various units of classification
and how we name these different units. It is important to note that for classifying the rock
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
sequences, you should be able to identify the rock types. The most common
types of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone, shale and conglomerate.
In addition, you should also be able to identify the breaks or unconformities in
the rock sequence. The fossils present in the sequence also need to be
identified. In addition, we will also discuss the methods and importance of
stratigraphic correlation in this unit.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define stratigraphic classification;
 describe lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy;
 discuss basic units of different types of stratigraphic classification;
 differentiate different types of stratigraphic classification;
 elaborate the concept and principles of stratigraphic correlation; and
 explain methods and importance of stratigraphic correlation.

2.2 PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF

STRATIGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION
Stratigraphy involves the definition and description of rock successions from a
historical point of view. It includes determination of the sequence of rocks
locally and relating the same to the regional or global framework of the
geological time scale. You may have become familiar with the geological time
scale while studying the section 1.7 of Unit 1. You may also be familiar with the
fundamental unit of stratigraphy namely the stratum (plural strata) that has
given name to this branch of Earth science. To remind you the stratum denotes
a layer of rock and such layers in a sequence are referred to as strata. Each
stratum indicates deposition of sediment at a particular point of time. Therefore,
stratigraphy has a time significance and the rock sequence constituting the
strata indicates the time of deposition.
It is necessary to classify the strata into various divisions to determine the
nature and time of deposition and to relate it to the geologic time scale.
Therefore, stratigraphic classification includes all rocks of the Earth’s crust.
Each classification is based on certain stratigraphic units, in which each unit
represents a single property or a set of rock properties. Since rocks have many
distinctive and measurable properties, therefore, rocks may be classified
according to any property. It is important to note that the stratigraphic position
on change of any property does not necessarily coincide with that for any other
property. As a result, the stratigraphic units based on one property generally do
not match with those units which are based on a different property. Normally, it
is not possible to show the distribution of all properties in the rocks by using a
single set of stratigraphic units. Hence, different sets of stratigraphic units are
required in order to classify the rock sequence. Thus, there are three main
types of stratigraphic classification namely:
 Lithostratigraphic;
 Biostratigraphic; and
 Chronostratigraphic classifications.
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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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These are based on lithology, fossil content and time of deposition,
respectively. In a broad sense, all these classifications are closely related to
each other because each classification represents a different property of the
same rock sequence. The main aim of all stratigraphic classifications is to
enhance our knowledge and understanding of rock sequences of the Earth and
their history.
It is important to know that for either of these classifications, it is necessary to
follow the prescribed rules and regulations as specified in the Code of
Stratigraphic Nomenclature. When we follow all these rules and classify the
sequence it becomes a formal classification. If we do not strictly follow the code
then it is only an informal classification. For each unit of classification in
lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy, we need to identify a type area and
the sequence in the type area, which is known as stratotype. The type area is
a geographic area or region where the stratotype of a stratigraphic unit is first
identified. Let us discuss each classification one by one.
 Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature was developed by the International
Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classification (ISSC) of the International
Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) created by International Union of
Geological Sciences (IUGS). It has since been accepted by most countries
of the world, including India. All stratigraphic classifications follow this code
to evolve a uniform and formal division of rock sequences.
 Stratotype is regarded as a typical of a stratigraphic unit that it defines. It is
a particular section that shows all the characteristics of the stratigraphic unit.
Identification of stratotypes is mandatory for all lithostratigraphic units and
desirable for chronostratigraphic units but are not used for biostratigraphy.
Let us discuss the three main types of stratigraphic classification in the
following subsections.

2.2.1 Lithostratigraphy
In simple words, lithostratigraphy (litho means rock type and stratum+ graphia
means description of all rock bodies) may be defined as an element of
stratigraphy that deals with the description, definition and naming of the rocks of
the Earth based on their lithology and their stratigraphic relations. Hence, the
lithostratigraphic classification is primarily based on the rock types (i.e. lithologic
properties) present in a rock sequence. That is why it is also called rock-
stratigraphic classification. Lithostratigraphic classification, basically, is the
organisation of rock sequences into different units on the basis of their
lithological properties and their stratigraphic relations to other rocks. It is more
accurate stratigraphic classification and is fundamental to all branches of
stratigraphy. In addition, lithostratigraphic units are basic units of geological
mapping. In this classification, the sequence is divided on the basis of lithology
whereby each rock type or a group of rock types constitutes a unit. These units
are further divided or grouped together as follows:
 Lithostratigraphic Units
The basic hierarchy of lithostratigraphic units is given in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1: Lithostratigraphic units.
Supergroup – a combination of several associated groups
Group – a combination of two or more formations
Formation – basic unit of lithostratigraphy
Member – named lithologic subdivision of a formation
Bed – named distinctive layer in a member or
formation
The arrangement of units in lithostratigraphic classification in descending order
of thickness is Supergroup, Group, Formation, Member and/or Beds. However,
the primary and mandatory unit of this classification is only the Formation.
 Formation: In lithostratigraphy, we start the classification from formation.
Formation is the basic formal unit of this classification. A Formation is a
homogeneous set of strata consisting of a distinct rock type or a set of rock
types. It is laterally continuous and of a sufficient thickness so that it
becomes a mappable unit. In Unit 1 you have already been introduced to
mappable unit. Let us recapitulate, a mappable unit of rock sequence
constitutes a rock type or a set of rock types that is sufficiently thick and
continuous so that it can be recorded in a map to a scale. The homogeneity
may be by way of lithological or other distinctive characters like colour or
weathering characteristics or a combination of these. Talchir Formation of
Damuda Group, Gondwana Supergroup is an example of Formation.
 Member: Each Formation may be further classified into Members. Hence,
member constitutes a formal unit of lithostratigraphy next in rank below a
formation. It possesses certain lithologic properties which distinguishes it
from adjacent parts of formation. Several members may be present within a
formation and each member is characterised by distinctive lithology. It is not
always necessary to divide the formation into members. Depending on the
purpose, some formations may be divided into members while others are not
divided into members or its certain parts may be designated as members.
 Bed: It is the smallest formal unit of lithostratigraphy. In sedimentary
sequences, there are certain distinctive layers such as key beds, marker
beds, etc. of stratigraphic importance. These beds deserve their proper
names and hence, they are considered as formal lithostratigraphic units. For
example, the Boulder bed of the Talchir Formation is a classic example of
bed.
 Group: A group is a combination of two or more formations, in which each
Formation has common significant and diagnostic lithological properties.
Damuda Group consisting of four formations (Karharbari, Barakar, Barren
measures and Raniganj), belongs to the Gondwana Supergroup is an
example of a Group.
 Supergroup: It is a combination of several associated groups or associated
groups and formations, in which significant lithological properties are
common. The Gondwana Supergroup is an example of a Supergroup.
The lithostratigraphic units are named on the basis of locality or geographical
features such as a river or a mountain peak where a type section is exposed.
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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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For example, Raniganj Formation named after the town Raniganj (Bardhaman
District, West Bengal), where this formation is exposed, constitutes its type
section. A type section and stratotype, as mentioned above, are necessary to
be identified for a formation as per the Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature. A
stratotype should include the full complement of the formation. The locality or
geographical feature that gives name to the formation is suffixed by unit name.
For example, we can say Raniganj Formation for a rock formation consisting of
a set of rock types for which Raniganj area in West Bengal is the type area.
When the formation consists of a distinct rock type, we may also use the rock
name as a suffix instead of the Formation like Muth Quartzite and Rohtas
Limestone. For other lithostratigraphic units like Supergroup, Group and
Member also the same procedure is used. The first letter of all formal
stratigraphic units is capitalised.
Learners, you have learnt the principles and types of stratigraphic classification.
In the above section we have discussed about lithostratigraphic classification.
Before discussing about biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic classifications,
spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Complete the following sentences:
i. The factors that need to be considered for stratigraphic classification
are…………………………………………………………………….
ii. For each unit of classification, we need to identify a type area and the
sequence in the type area is known as………………………….
iii. A formation is a homogeneous set of strata consisting of a distinct rock
type or a set of rock types that is laterally continuous and of a sufficient
thickness so that it becomes…………….
b) Arrange the different units of lithostratigraphic classification in descending
order of thickness.

2.2.2 Biostratigraphy

Biostratigraphy (bio means life and stratum+ graphia means description of all
rock bodies) may be defined as an element of stratigraphy that deals with the
distribution of fossils in a rock sequence and organisation of strata into
distinctive units based on the fossils present in it. Biostratigraphic classification
is the systematic subdivision and organization of a rock sequence into named
units on the basis of fossils contained in the rocks. The basic principle of
biostratigraphy is that the evolutionary changes in organisms are non-reversible
and, therefore, the fossils present during a time span are characteristic only of
that particular time interval and cannot repeat or replicate at any other time.
Accordingly, based on the presence of characteristic fossils, the strata are
divided into different biostratigraphic zones or biozones. It is important to
note that biozones constitute the primary units of biostratigraphic classification.
 Biostratigraphic Units or Biozones
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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Biozones are of various types depending on the nature and distribution of
fossils contained therein. However, there are four most commonly used
biozones (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Biostratigraphic units.
1. Range zone (also called Acrozone)
2. Interval zone
3. Assemblage zone (also called Cenozone)
4. Abundance zone (also called Acme zone)

Let us discuss each biozone in brief in the same order as given above.
1. Range Zone: A range zone is based on the total range of a fossil form that
is, the span between its first appearance and final disappearance. In a
sequence, when a particular fossil appears for the first time, that level marks
the beginning of this zone. The zone ends at the level of its last presence
(Fig. 2.1). For fixing a range zone, only those fossils can be utilised which
have a short time range and as far as possible wide geographical
distribution. Such fossils are known as index fossils. On the basis of total
ranges of such fossils, the biozones are fixed. There are two types of range
zone namely – partial range zone and concurrent-range zone.

Fig. 2.1: Types of biostratigraphic zones; interval zone marked by the first
appearance of taxon A and B, range zone defined by first and last
appearance of taxon B, partial range zone is that part of the stratigraphic
range of taxon D which starts from the end of taxon C and beginning of
taxon E and concurrent-range zone defined by overlap of taxa F, G and
H. Taxon is singular and taxa is plural.

A partial range zone is made within a stratigraphical range of a taxon or

form in which part of its stratigraphic range lying above the range of another

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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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taxon and part of its range lying below the range of another taxon (Fig. 2.1).
Concurrent-range zone includes abody of rock sequence corresponding to
the overlapping stratigraphic range of two or more specified fossil taxa as
shown in Figure 2.1.
2. Interval Zone: It contains a body of rock sequence corresponding to the
interval between any two specified biological events (Fig. 2.1). For example,
an interval between two extinction events and an interval between two
origination events or an interval between an origination event and an
extinction event.
3. Assemblage Zone: An assemblage zone is defined as a biozone
characterised by the association of many fossil forms (usually three or
more) as shown in Fig.2.2. Only on the basis of the combined association of
these forms the zone can be identified and not on the presence of any
single form as in the case of range zone. It is necessary for all the identified
forms to be present in the strata in order to qualify for the recognition of an
assemblage zone.
4. Abundance Zone: An abundance zone is defined as a body of strata that
contains a maximum population of one or more species of fossils (Fig. 2.2).
In other words, these species were at their acme or climax during that
period. Abundance zones are used only for local classification and do not
have widespread application. This type of classification is commonly used in
oil industry for classifying local stratigraphic sections in an oil field.

Fig. 2.2: Types of biostratigraphic zones; assemblage zone defined by presence

of taxa A to G and abundance zone marked by the extraordinary
population of taxon H.

It is interesting to note that sometimes in a fossiliferous sequence we have a

bunch of strata that do not contain any fossils. The term Barren Zone is used
for that unfossiliferous part of the sequence.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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Note that for biostratigraphic classification, there are usually no stratotypes, but
reference localities can be named. A range zone or abundance zone is
named on the generic or trivial name of the index or acme species,
respectively. In the case of an assemblage zone, the name can be based on
the two of the assemblage forms. The examples can be Ophiceras Zone for a
range zone, Spiriferella raja Zone for an abundance zone and Tonkinella-
Bailliella Zone for an assemblage zone. The zones may be further divided into
subzones or further into Zonules, the latter being the smallest biostratigraphic
sub-division.
2.2.3 Chronostratigraphy
You have read that lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy are based on the
content of the strata namely lithology and fossils, respectively. The
chronostratigraphy (chrono means time and stratum+ graphia means
description of all rock bodies) is defined as an element of stratigraphy that deals
with the relative time relations and age of rock bodies. It may be noted that
chronostratigraphy is an abstract concept and is based on relative time as
interpreted from biostratigraphy to a large extent. The time is not something that
can be seen within the rocks, but it has to be determined from the fossil content
as indicated by the biostratigraphic classification. The main aim of the
chronostratigraphy is to organise the rock sequence on a global scale into
chronostratigraphic units, so that all local, regional as well as global events can
be related to a single standard geological scale. Thus, chronostratigraphy is
mainly concerned with the age of rock sequence and their time relations.
Hence, chronostratigraphic classification is considered as the organisation of
rocks into units on the basis of their age or time of origin.
 Chronostratigraphic Units
A chronostratigraphic unit may be defined as a body of rocks that includes all
rocks formed during a specific interval of geologic time and it also includes
those rocks formed during that time span (Murphy and Salvador, 1999). In
chronostratigraphy, the time encompassed by a biozone is termed as a
biochron and on the basis of biochrons, the various chronostratigraphic units
can be identified. Chronostratigraphic units are the fundamental working units
of the geological time scale. The hierarchy of chronostratigraphic units is given
in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Chronostratigraphicunits.
Eonothem
Erathem
System
Series
Stage
On the basis of a biochron, we determine and identify stage that constitutes the
lowest unit of chronostratigraphy. The other units in ascending order are series,
system, erathem and eonothem. These are all identified on the basis of fossil
content and are of a relative nature. The order of superposition determines the
sequence of the sediments and characteristic fossils of different beds that
determine their relative ages.
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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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In section 1.7 of Unit 1, you have already learnt how the geological time scale
was prepared on the basis of time. You have also learnt that the time is relative
time and is not measured in absolute years. Therefore, for the better
understanding of chronostratigraphy, a proper knowledge of geochronology is
essential. Geochronology is a branch of geology that deals with the dating of
rock formations and geological events in years by using radioactive dating
methods. Thus, geochronologic units are the subdivisions of geologic time.
These are abstract units and only defined after the chronostratigraphic units.
The hierarchy of geochronologic units is given in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Geochronologic units.
Eon
Era
Period
Epoch
Age

You have already studied in Unit1, the age in absolute years as determined by
radiometric methods may be assigned to these units but that is not the basis of
the classification.
It should be noted that the basic aim of chronostratigraphic and geochronologic
classifications is to arrange systematically rock strata of Earth into named units
(chronostratigraphic units) and corresponding to intervals of geologic time
(geochronologic units). Such arrangement facilitates time correlation and age
determination of rock strata and further, serves as a reference system for
recording events of geologic history. In this arrangement, each
chronostratigraphic unit has its corresponding geochronologic unit as shown in
Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Hierarchy of chronostratigraphic and corresponding
geochronologic units.

Chronostratigraphic Example Geochronologic Example

(time-rock) units (time) units
Eonothem Phanerozoic Eon Phanerozoic
Earthem Mesozoic Era Mesozoic
System Triassic Period Triassic
Series Upper Triassic Epoch Late Triassic
Stage Norian Age Norian

Now, let us discuss the chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding

geochronologic equivalents in brief.
 Stage: It is a basic and lowest ranking unit of chronostratigraphy. It includes
all rocks formed during a particular age. Stage can be recognised worldwide.
It represents a subdivision of a series. Its corresponding geochronologic
equivalent is age.
 Series: It is a chronostratigraphic unit ranking above a stage and below a
system. An epoch is its geochronologic equivalent unit.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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 System: It is a major rank chronostratigraphic unit. It lies above the series
and below erathem, e.g. Triassic System. Period is its geochronologic
equivalent unit, e.g. Triassic Period. Here the relation between these two
units such as Triassic System and Triassic Period is that the rocks of the
Triassic System were all deposited during the Triassic Period.
 Erathem: It consists of a group of systems. For example, Mesozoic erathem
consists of Jurassic System, Triassic System and Cretaceous System. The
geochronologic equivalent of erathem is an era. The Mesozoic era which
consists of Jurassic Period, Triassic Period and Cretaceous Period, is an
example of era.
 Eonothem: It consists of a group of erathem. It is higher in rank than an
erathem. Its geochronologic equivalent is an eon. It may be noted that there
are three eonothems namely Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
 The time-rock and time divisions in the geological time scale are denoted by
the same terms but the suffix indicates if it is a time-rock unit or a time unit.
For example, Cambrian System denotes a time-rock division while Cambrian
Period denotes time division during which those rocks were deposited.
It may be noted that age in absolute years or what is known as
geochronology, when determined by various methods includes radioactive
dating or magneto-stratigraphy. It is superimposed on the time units but their
variation does not change the scale since it is not based on absolute years.
Learners, you have learnt about biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic
classifications. Before discussing about stratigraphic correlation, spend few
minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) Fill in the blanks:
(i) On the presence of characteristic fossils, the strata are divided into
…………… that constitute the primary units of biostratigraphic
classification.
(ii) The span between the first appearance of a fossil form and its final
disappearance is known as…………………
(iii) A biozone is characterised by the combined association of more than
one fossil form is known as …………………..
(iv) The time-rock equivalent of the time unit Epoch is…………………
(v) The time encompassed by a biozone is called a…………………………

2.3 STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION

You have learnt in Section 1.5 of Unit 1, how to collect the stratigraphic data
and how to construct stratigraphic columns. Once you have constructed
stratigraphic columns of different sites of a wide area, then next step will be to
correlate these columns. As you know the principle of lateral continuity states
that rock beds can be traced across a wide area. Therefore, stratigraphic

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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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correlation i.e. connecting similar rock beds is a best means to reconstruct the
geological history of an area. Let us discuss stratigraphic correlation in detail.
2.3.1 Definition and Introduction
Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between geographically
separated geologic units of rocks. The correspondence can be in the character
and stratigraphic position of the rocks. It can be of various types like
correspondence in lithology, fossil content and time of deposition. Thus,
correlation is dependent on what kind of equivalence can be established
according to the character of the rocks to be equated. The scope of correlation
is different in different sequences and the interpretation depends on the type of
correlation undertaken.
When we are looking for correspondence in lithology or lithological correlation
we make use of key beds. Key beds are the marker beds with a characteristic
lithology that may extend for considerable distances and may help in marking a
stratigraphic position. Likewise an unconformity may also be used as a marker
horizon like a key bed and can be of importance in lithological correlation.
Biostratigraphic correlation or correlation by fossil content may be made by
index fossils or a fossil assemblage as indicated in section 2.2.2 above.
2.3.2 Methods
Rock sequences can be correlated in many ways, but there are three simple
and important methods, viz., lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and temporal
correlation. Let us discuss each method of correlation in detail.
i. Lithostratigraphic Correlation: The methods to be applied for correlation
depend on what type of correlation is needed or possible in various
stratigraphic sequences. The easiest correlation is the lithostratigraphic
correlation whereby similar rock units or key beds are used to determine the
correspondence between two separated sequences.

Fig. 2.3: Lithostratigraphic correlation of three sites namely A, B and C. Dotted

lines indicate correlation. Note that shale bed is absent at sites A and B,
but it is present at site C. Unconformity above the conglomerate bed is
marked by the wavy line. The distance between site A, B and C is 10
kms.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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In lithostratigraphic correlation, it is the usual practice to classify one
sequence on the basis of lithology into formations and even members if
possible, and to identify the key beds or marker beds and unconformities, if
any. Then these marker horizons are located in the other sequences and
accordingly, the correspondence between the first sequence and the
second sequence is established. The correspondence may not be
necessarily identical because lithological units are known to thicken or thin
out or sometimes even vanish as we follow them laterally. But a general
correlation is possible while registering the lateral changes.
While lithological correlation is relatively easy, it has to be understood that
this correlation is only of a local nature and may not be applicable or useful
for long distances. The lithological similarity can be only if the deposition
has taken place in a single basin. If the basins of deposition are different
then the lithological similarity may not be there nor can the same key beds
exist in different basins.

Fig. 2.4: Biostratigraphic correlation between two sites, namely, A and B. Here
the beds are correlated on the basis of similar fossils. Dotted lines
indicate correlation. For example in this figure, biozone 1 is
characterised by the occurrence of trilobites and biozone 2 by
ammonoids. Note that top of both sites has different fossils content
hence they cannot be correlated and wavy line in site B indicates a
depositional break (unconformity).

ii. Biostratigraphic Correlation: Biostratigraphic correlation is based on the

fossil content of the rocks. It is more precise and accurate correlation that
can be applied for long distances or even widely separated sequences that
may have been deposited in different basins. In biostratigraphic correlation,
index fossils or an assemblage of fossils is used. In the case of
lithostratigraphy, in practice we choose a sequence and classify it on the
basis of fossil content. You have already learnt how we classify a sequence
on the basis of fossil content in Section 2.2.2 above. To remind you again
we divide the sequence into biozones that may be either range zones,
assemblage zones or abundance zones. Once such a classification is made
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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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we identify these zones in other sequences that may be widely separated.
In this regard, the range zones based on index fossils are usually the best
tools for biostratigraphic correlation. Index fossils may be useful within a
region or may also be applicable for long distance correlation or
intercontinental correlation.
Biostratigraphic correlation is also directly related to chronostratigraphic or
time correlation because as biochrons are based on biozones as they
indicate the relative time. However, one precaution is necessary in this
correlation. The similarity of fossils or homotaxis in two widely separated
localities does not necessarily indicate same time of deposition or
contemporaneity. This is because the organisms that may have evolved at
one place may take a long time to reach another locality and there may be
some time lag of dispersal. However, since we are only dealing with relative
time and not absolute time, the homotaxis need not indicate
contemporaneity as the sequence will remain the same.
iii.Temporal Correlation: Sometimes when fossil content may be scanty and
lithological similarity may not be there we choose only a key bed that may
be based on some kind of a time similarity like an unconformity or some
fossil horizon. From that bed upwards and downwards we build a
stratigraphic column based on superposition and correlate it with the
corresponding known units from an established stratigraphic sequence. This
is based on the principle that overlying beds are younger and underlying
beds are older and they should correspond with the beds of the known
sequence.This is the temporal correlation and it may not be very accurate
since it is only an approximation.
2.3.3 Need for Correlation
The concept of correlation is fundamental to stratigraphy because without
correlation there can be no synthesis of geographically separated rock units.
Moreover, without correlation we will have innumerable rock sections from
different parts of the globe without any relationship or linkage to one another.
The scope of correlation is twofold. The main purpose of correlation is to
determine the equivalence in the time of deposition so that we can establish a
standard time sequence of rocks across the globe. It is only through correlation
that we have been able to establish a geological time scale and we are able to
place the different rock units across the globe at their proper stratigraphic
positions. It is through correlation that we obtain a neat gradation of rock
sequences from old to young. The distribution of fossil types around the globe
has to make sense in terms of the history of the continents and a coherent
pattern usually emerges through correlation. The other scope of correlation may
not be related to time but may deal with geometrical relationships of rocks. In
other words, this correlation is primarily based on lithology and how rock units
change vertically and laterally and the relation between the two. While such a
correlation has only a local value, it has significant application in oil industry
where local correlation is of considerable importance.
Learners, you have learnt about stratigraphic correlation in the above section.
Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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SAQ 3
a) What is correlation?
b) What are the main methods of correlation?
c) Fossil similarity is indicative of (a) homotaxis (b) contemporaneity.
d) Lithostratigraphic correlation is (a) intercontinental (b) regional (c) local.
e) The main purpose of correlation is to determine_______________.

2.4 ACTIVITY
1. Write down the lithostratigraphic divisions in descending order from the
largest unit to the smallest unit.
2. List the various biozones and indicate the two most preferred biozones that
help in regional correlation.
3. In the two stratigraphic columns given in Figure 2.5 below, connect the litho-
units to indicate the lithostratigraphic correlation.

Fig. 2.5: Lithostratigraphic columns of two sites, site A and site B.

2.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the principles and methods of stratigraphic
classification and correlation. Let us now summarise what we have learnt:
 The factors that need to be considered for stratigraphic classification are the
rock type (lithology), its physical and chemical characters, nature of bedding
and fossil content.
 The stratigraphic classification can be of various types depending on the
nature of lithology, fossils present in the rocks and the time of deposition as
interpreted from fossils.
 There are three main types of classification, namely, lithostratigraphic,
biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic classifications.
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Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification
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 The basic unit of lithostratigraphic classification is a Formation which is a
homogeneous set of strata consisting of a distinct rock type or a set of rock
types that is laterally continuous and of a sufficient thickness so that it
becomes a mappable unit. Formations can be further classified into
Members. Formations can also be combined into Groups and Groups into
Supergroups.
 The basic unit of biostratigraphy is a Biozone. There are four primary types
of biozones namely, Range zone, Interval zone, Assemblage zone and
Abundance zone.
 Chronostratigraphic classification is an abstract classification based on
relative time as interpreted from biostratigraphy. The basic
chronostratigraphic unit is a Biochron that is based on a biozone. On the
basis of chronostratigraphy the sequences can be divided into time-rock
divisions and time (geochronologic) divisions. The main chronostratigrapic
(time-rock) units are Eonothem, Erathem, System, Series and Stage. The
main geochronologic (time) units are Eon, Era, Period, Epoch and Age.
 Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between
geographically separated units of rocks. It can be undertaken by lithology or
fossil content. Lithological correlation is local while correlation by fossils can
be regional or intercontinental. It is through correlation that a coherent
pattern emerges in stratigraphy throughout the globe.

2.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the main types of stratigraphic classification?
2. What are the essential requirements for defining a Formation?
3. What is a stratotype? In which classification is it mandatory?
4. What are the main types of biozones?
5. What are index fossils? What are their applications?
6. What is the relation between biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic units?
7. List the main time units and their equivalent time-rock units.
8. What is the purpose of stratigraphic correlation?

2.7 REFERENCES
 Murphy, M.A. and Salvador, A. (1999) International Stratigraphic Guide – An
abridged version. Episodes, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 255-271.

2.8 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Boggs, S. (2012) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Pearson
Education, Inc., New Jersey, USA.
 Schoch, R.M. (1989) Stratigraphy, Principles and Methods, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
 http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-stratigraphicguide.

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2.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) i) The rock type, its physical and chemical characters, nature of bedding
and Fossil content
ii) Stratotype.
iii) Amappable unit.
b) Supergroup, Group, Formation, Member.
2. a) (i) Biozones.(ii) Range Zone.(iii) Assemblage Zone.(iv) Series. (v)
Biochron.
3. a) Correlation is a procedure to indicate correspondence between
geographically separated geologic units of rocks.
b) Main methods of correlation are Lithostratigraphic and Biostratigraphic
correlation.
c) Homotaxis.
d) Local.
e) The main purpose of correlation is to determine the equivalence in the
time of deposition so that we can establish a standard time sequence of
rocks across the globe.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 2.2.
2. Refer to sub-section 2.2.1.
3. Refer to section 2.2.
4. Refer to sub-section 2.2.2.
5. Refer to sub-section 2.2.2.
6. Refer to sub-section 2.2.3.
7. Refer to sub-section 2.2.3.
8. Refer to sub-section 2.3.3.

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 UNIT 3

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

Structure______________________________________________
3.1 Introduction 3.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 3.5 Summary
3.2 Physical and Structural Divisions 3.6 Terminal Questions
Himalayan Mountain System 3.7 References
Indo-Gangetic Plains 3.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Peninsular Plateau 3.9 Answers
Indian Desert
Coastal Regions
3.3 Stratigraphy of India
Precambrian Stratigraphy
Palaeozoic Stratigraphy
Mesozoic Stratigraphy
Cenozoic Stratigraphy

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous Units 1 to 2, you have learnt about the general principles of stratigraphy and the
stratigraphic classifications. You have also learnt that stratigraphic principles and classifications are
primarily used to establish the regional stratigraphy of any area or country that helps to know the
geological history of that particular region. The work on the Indian rock sequences, which has been
carried out by various workers resulted in the establishment of regional stratigraphy of India. It
includes the rock sequences ranging from Precambrian to Recent occurring in all parts of country.
For the study of different stratigraphic units of India, references are usually made according to the
physical and structural divisions of India such as the Peninsular region, Himalaya and Indo-
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
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Gangetic plains. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce you to the physical and
structural setting of India so that you would be able to understand where the
different kinds of stratigraphic units occur.
In this unit, we will introduce you to the fundamental physical and structural
divisions of India. We will also discuss the regional stratigraphy of India that has
been developed as a result of stratigraphic studies undertaken on the rock
sequences of this country by various geologists from time to time.

Expected Learning Outcomes________________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the physical and structural setting of India;
 describe major stratigraphic units of India;
 find coeval rocks of Archaean and Proterozoic ages in Peninsular as well
as Himalayan regions; and
 explain the distribution of marine Phanerozoic rocks in Himalaya and
coastal regions.

3.2 PHYSICAL AND STRUCTURAL DIVISIONS

India is a vast country; its three sides are bounded by the seawaters and the
young Himalayan mountains system separates it from Asia on its fourth
(northern) side. As a result, it becomes an independent entity, which is broadly
known as the Indian subcontinent. India shows a huge diversity in physical and
structural features as its land comprises various natural features like snow-clad
folded mountains in the north, plateaus in the south and plains in between
them. It may be noted that all these features have evolved over a very long
geological time. For example, the Himalayan mountain system started to
develop around 50 - 35 million years (Myr) before present, when the Indian
plate started subducting beneath the Asia. Therefore, it is pertinent to consider
that the distribution of the rocks of various ages reflect the geographic setting of
different regions.
Physically, India can be divided into three broad divisions (Fig. 3.1) as listed
below:
 Himalayan mountain system;
 Indo-Gangetic plains; and
 Peninsular plateau.
These three divisions are well marked, geologically very significant as they
correspond to the three main structural or tectonic divisions of India. These
divisions from south to north constitute the peninsular India, Indo-Gangetic
plains and Himalayan mountain system. The last two are popularly referred to
as extra-Peninsular region. India exposes rocks of many ages ranging from
Archaean to Cenozoic in all these divisions. However, the stratigraphy of these
regions is quite different. For example, the peninsular plateau comprises mostly
older rocks of Precambrian (Archaean and Proterozoic) age, whereas the
Himalayan region bears mostly younger rocks (Phanerozoic) that are

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structurally deformed. However, a large part of the Indo-Gangetic plains is
covered by Recent (Holocene) alluvium.
India is characterised by a great diversity in its physical features and
physiographically, divided into following divisions (Fig. 3.1):
 Himalayan mountain system;
 Indo-Gangetic plains;
 Peninsular plateau;
 Indian desert; and
 Coastal regions.

Fig. 3.1: Map showing physiographic divisions of India.

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3.2.1 Himalayan Mountain System
The Himalayan range is one of the longest systems of mountain chains in the
world. It extends for over 2500 km from Pamir in the west to Mishmi Hills in the
east (Fig. 3.1). It bears some of the loftiest mountain peaks, including the
world’s highest peak, namely the Mount Everest (height 8848 m). It is an
arcuate range with convexity to the south and its width ranges from 150 to 400
km. There are two major knee-bends in the range, one to the west around
Nanga Parbat and the other to the east at Namcha Barwa and these are
commonly referred to as syntaxial bends. The northern margin of the
Himalaya is marked by a lineament known as Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone
(Fig. 3.2). While the bulk of the Himalayan range is in India, it also extends into
Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. Himalaya comprise a chain of parallel
mountain ranges.
Topographically, Himalaya can be linearly divided into five parallel ranges from
north to south, which are separated by deep valleys and plateaus (Fig. 3.2).
These ranges are described below:
(i) Trans Himalaya: It consists of southern region of Asian plate and
northernmost part of the India plate. It is located north of the Tethys
Himalaya and mainly developed in the northern Ladakh (Jammu and
Kashmir) and the northernmost Pakistan. Its height ranges from 3000 to
6000 m and consists of Kohistan, Shyok, Karakoram regions. The Trans
Himalaya is also known as the Tibet Himalaya because its major portion
occurs in Tibet.
(ii) Tethys Himalaya: It is the northernmost region extending partly into
Tibetan plateau. It is given the popular geological name “Tethys domain” or
“Tethyan Himalayan Zone” for want of any other suitable topographic
nomenclature. It consists of a plateau region over 3000 m in height sloping
gently northwards. Stratigraphically, it is composed of sedimentary rocks of
almost all ages. The contact of the Tethyan and Greater Himalaya is termed
as Tethyan Thrust.
(iii) Greater Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Tethys Himalaya and is the
highest part of Himalaya. The Greater Himalaya is also given the Sanskrit
name Himadri. It bears some of the highest mountain peaks (ranging from
6000 to 8000 m) including the Mount Everest. This part is almost
perpetually snow covered and constitutes the watershed for all Himalayan
rivers, except Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra which cut across this region.
The Zanskar, Ladakh and Karakoram are the main mountain ranges.
Greater Himalaya is made up mainly of deformed (crystalline) metamorphic
rocks. The Main Central Thrust demarcates the boundary between the
Greater and Lesser Himalaya.
(iv) Lesser Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Greater Himalaya. Its height
ranges from 1000 to 2500 m. The PirPanjal, Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba and
Mahabharat are common high ranges of the Lesser Himalaya. The terrain is
characterised by a complex structure consisting of superimposed thrust
sheets and composed mainly of Precambrian metamorphic rocks. However,
sedimentary and igneous rocks of other ages are also present. The Main
Boundary Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Lesser and Outer
Himalaya.
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(v) Outer Himalaya: The southern-most part of the Himalaya is called Outer
Himalaya or Sub-Himalaya. It comprises low hills less than 1000 m in
height that merge finally with the Indo-Gangetic plains. Siwalik is one of the
predominant ranges of this part of the Himalaya. It is composed mainly of
sedimentary rocks of Cenozoic age. The boundary between the Outer
Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plains is marked by the Himalayan Frontal
Fault.
From west to east, the different sectors of the Himalaya are named as Kashmir
Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya, Kumaon-Garhwal Himalaya, Nepal Himalaya,
Bhutan Himalaya, Assam and Arunachal Himalaya.

Fig. 3.2: Map showing major ranges of Himalaya. (Source: simplified after Kumar,
1988)

3.2.2 Indo-Gangetic Plains

The major part of northern and eastern India lies to the south of the Himalayan
arc and comprises the Indo-Gangetic plains (Fig. 3.1). The plain comprises the
sediments that are brought down and deposited by the three Himalayan river
systems, namely, the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra along with their
tributaries during the Recent (Holocene) times. The plains cover the states of
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam and parts of Rajasthan. They extend from east to west through which
the rivers of the Indus and Ganga (also known as Ganges) systems flow. The
rivers of Indus system flow towards the southwest into the Arabian Sea, while
the rivers of Ganga system flow towards the south east into the Bay of Bengal.
These two river systems are separated by the Aravalli mountain chain, which
cuts across the plain in a north northeast – south southwest direction. The
Aravalli mountain chain extends from Gujarat through Rajasthan up to Delhi.
The highest point is in the Mount Abu called Gurushikhar, which is 1722 m
high. However, the main range comprises low hills that project out from the
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desert sand. Aravalli mountain chain acts as a water divide between the Indus
and Ganga river systems.
The Indo-Gangetic plains are a flat country comprising mainly the alluvial
sediments, which are not more than 2000 m deep. It is the most fertile region of
the country. It is bounded to the south by the Vindhyan mountain chain and to
the southeast by the Satpura mountains, which separate it from the peninsular
part of India.
3.2.3 Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular plateau is more or less a triangular area enclosed within the low
mountain ranges (Fig. 3.1). To the north, it is bounded by the Vindhyan Hills
and to the northeast by the Satpura chain. The Vindhyan Hills comprise low
mountains and plateaus that extend from Gujarat in the west to Bihar in the
east. The average elevation is between 500and 600 m though some peaks are
as high as 900 m. The Satpura range is a short chain, but higher than the
Vindhyan chain, with some of its peaks are higher than 1000 m, for example
Pachmarhi around 1335 m.
The Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri chain in early Indian literature)
and Eastern Ghats are the major mountain ranges in peninsular region of India.
 Western Ghats: These are a continuous chain of hills extending from South
Gujarat to Kerala (Fig. 3.1). They constitute low hills of an average height of
less than 1000 m though the highest peak called Anaimudi is 2693 m high.
The height of the Western Ghats increases from north to south. Western
Ghats constitute the watershed for most peninsular rivers, notably, the
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, which flow in the easterly direction into the
Bay of Bengal.
 Eastern Ghats: These comprise a chain of detached hills extending from
Odisha to Tamil Nadu (Fig. 3.1). They constitute low hills with a maximum
elevation of about 1500 m at Mahendragiri in Odisha. Eastern Ghats are also
known as Poorvadri. They join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri Hills.
Structurally, the Peninsular Plateau forms the India shield. A shield is, basically,
a large tectonically stable area made up of crystalline igneous and metamorphic
rocks of Precambrian age. The Indian shield, consisting of extensive exposures
of Precambrian rocks, is a mosaic of five Archaean blocks. These blocks are
largely made up of granite (igneous) as well as gneisses and migmatites
(metamorphic) rocks. It is important to note that these Archaean blocks had
achieved tectonic stability for a long geological time and remained unaffected
by mountain building movements since the close of Precambrian. Hence these
blocks are known as cratons and constitute the continental crust. The main
cratons of the Indian Shield are the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand
and Aravalli, located in southern, central, eastern, northern and western
peninsular India, respectively (Fig. 3.3). The east-west trending Son-Narmada-
Tapti (SONATA) lineament separates the Aravalli craton from the Bastar and
Singhbhum cratons (Fig. 3.3). The Aravalli craton lies north of SONATA
lineament whereas the Bastar, Singhbhum and Dharwar cratons lie to its south.
All these cratons are of Archaean age.

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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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 Dharwar Craton is located in Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. It comprises granite-gneiss-greenstone that has suffered
orogeny at different points of time, e.g., at 3400, 3000 and 2600-2800 Myr
ago.
 Bastar Craton is located in central India in the state of Chhattisgarh. It
consists primarily of gneisses and secondarily of basic and ultrabasic rocks.
It shows orogenic dates of 3500, 3000 and 2500-2600 Myr ago.
 Singhbhum Craton lies in the state of Jharkhand and comprises granites
and gneisses associated with banded iron ore. It shows orogenic dates of
3500 and 3000-3300 Myr ago. It is also associated with basic lava flows.
 Bundelkhand Craton is the northernmost craton of the Indian Shield. It is
located in Madhya Pradesh and parts of Uttar Pradesh. It is partly concealed
under the Indo-Gangetic alluvium. It comprises mainly granitic rocks with
subordinate gneisses. The orogenic dates range between 3500 and 2500
Myr ago.
 Aravalli Craton is separated from the Bundelkhand craton by the Vindhyan
basin. It has suffered several phases of orogeny, which have a wide range of
dates from 3300 Myr ago to as low as 1700 Myr ago, the last one placing this
phase of orogeny (i.e., Delhi orogeny) in Proterozoic.
Interestingly, these Archaean cratons are separated from one another by the
mobile or fold belts that were developed during Proterozoic times (Fig. 3.3). The
boundaries of the mobile or fold belts are demarcated by shear or fault zones. A
shear zone is a planar rock area that is under higher strain than the adjoining
rocks. It ranges from a few cms to several kilometers in width. It behaves like a
fault system except that the fault plane cannot be seen anywhere. Shear zones
constitute important discontinuities in the rock groups. The mobile belts consist
of metamorphosed Proterozoic rocks, in which gneiss, amphibolites and
migmatites are dominant rock types. The main mobile belts are the Eastern
Ghat Mobile Belt, Pandyan Mobile Belt, Satpura Mobile Belt, Aravalli Mobile
Belt and Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt.
(i) The Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt borders the Dharwar and Bastar cratons to
the east and the Singhbhum craton to the south. The Mahanadi rift
separates the Singhbhum craton from the Bastar craton. Godavari rift
separates the Bastar craton from the Dharwar craton. The Chitradurga
Shear Zone separates the West Dharwar craton from East Dharwar craton.
(ii) The Pandyan Mobile Belt lies to the south of the Dharwar craton and the
Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt. A system of shear zones consisting of the Moyar
Bhavani Shear Zone and Palghat Cauvery Shear Zones separate the
southern boundary of the Dharwar craton from the Pandyan Mobile Belt.
The Moyar Bhavani Shear Zone is located in the south of the Dharwar
craton and the Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone is found in the north of the
Pandyan Mobile Belt. The Pandyan Mobile Belt is also termed as Southern
Granulite Terrain.
(iii) The Satpura Mobile Belt lies to the north of the Bastar and Singhbhum
cratons separating them from the Bundhelkhand craton.

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(iv) The Aravalli Mobile Belt lies to the west of the Bundhelkhand craton and
separates it from the Aravalli craton.
(v) The Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt forms the northern boundary
of the Singhbhum craton. The Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex is
located to north of the Chhotanagpur-Singhbhum Mobile Belt.

Fig. 3.3: Map of peninsular India showing major cratons and mobile belts.
(Source: simplified after Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008; Sharma,
2009)

3.2.4 Indian Desert

Next to the Indo-Gangetic plains, the Thar Desert occupies a substantial area
on the north-western margin of peninsular India. It lies to the west of the Aravalli
mountain chain (Fig. 3.1). It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, it was
under the sea. But the onset of Pleistocene epoch (2.6 Myr to 11,700 years
ago) marked a major climatic change from humid to arid condition. This
continued for quite some time with occasional wetter periods. This was one of
the reasons for the desertification of this region. The desert sand occupies a
substantial area of western Rajasthan. The sand dunes of aeolian (wind) origin
constitute the main topography of the region. The desert region also extends
into parts of Pakistan. Below the desert sand there are sedimentary rocks of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic age.
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3.2.5 Coastal Regions
India has a long coastline of over 5700 km. The coastal regions constitute
mostly the areas beyond the Western and Eastern Ghats. In addition, they also
include Saurashtra coast of Gujarat and Bengal coastline. They can be divided
into two coastal regions. They are:
1. Western Coastal Region: It lies along the Arabian Sea and extends from
the Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in the south (Fig. 3.1). The
Rann of Kachchh is a depressed area that gets submerged under sea during
the high tide. It becomes an estuary during the monsoon period, but remains
exposed in winter months.
2. Eastern Coastal Region: It lies along the Bay of Bengal and extends from
Ganga delta in the north to Kanyakumari in the south (Fig. 3.1). This
coastline is broader than the western coastline. It is a region of low-lying
area, where sediments derived from the Ghats are deposited. Accordingly, it
bears some depositional landforms of varying thicknesses like deltas of the
Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery rivers.
The eastern coast is somewhat different from the western coastal region
because all the rivers from the Western Ghats flow to the east into the Bay of
Bengal. As a result, the eastern coastal region comprises mainly deltas and
other depositional landforms. There are also a few lagoons in between the
deltaic regions. While sometimes erosional landforms can be seen, they are
usually few and mostly restricted to Andhra Pradesh coastline.
It may be noted that the coastal regions of eastern Odisha and Bengal are full
of lagoons and lakes in addition to a major deltaic region of the Gangetic river
system. There are no erosional landforms. Moreover, the Sunderbans estuary
is located in this region that gets submerged like the Rann of Kachchh during
the monsoon season.
Learners, you have learnt the physical and structural divisions of India. Before
discussing about the stratigraphy of India, spend few minutes to perform an
exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Name the five linear divisions of the Himalaya.
b) There are two major knee-bends in the Himalayan range, one to the west
around Nanga Parbat and the other to the east at Namche Barwa and these
are referred to as -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) The Indus and Ganga river systems are separated by -----------------------------
d) Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery flow from ---------------------------------------------
e) Name two estuaries of the Indian coastal region.

3.3 STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA

The stratigraphic record of India is extensive, covering the entire span of the
geological time scale, ranging from Precambrian to Recent (Holocene). Among
the five physiographic divisions of India, the three, namely, peninsular plateau,
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extra-peninsular (Himalaya) region and Indo-Gangetic plains cover most of the
areas of the country and hence, the stratigraphic successions. It is convenient
to divide the stratigraphy of India into four different parts that correspond to the
four basic divisions of the geological time scale as given below:
 Precambrian stratigraphy;
 Palaeozoic stratigraphy;
 Mesozoic stratigraphy; and
 Cenozoic stratigraphy.
3.3.1 Precambrian Stratigraphy
Precambrian is a general term (i.e., informal name in a stratigraphic sense)
used to denote all rocks older than Cambrian period. It is a long time covering
more than 90% of the total life span of the Earth, starting from 4.6 billion years
(Gyr) ago and ending at 542 Myr ago. It consists of three eons: Hadean,
Archaean and Proterozoic. There is no rock record of Hadean and the rocks
of Archaean and Proterozoic are mostly of metamorphic type. As a result, they
are either devoid of fossils or yield very little organic matter. Therefore, it is not
generally possible to classify Precambrian time on the basis of biostratigraphic
principles as in the case of Phanerozoic rocks. The boundaries between eons
and period are marked on the basis of radiometric dates which do not indicate
the time of deposition but the time of crystallisation which is usually the time of
orogenic cycle. Let us discuss the Precambrian rocks of Peninsular India and
the Himalayas:
1. Precambrian Rocks of Peninsular India
The Precambrian rocks are found mostly in the peninsular part of India, which is
also known as the Indian Shield. The Indian shield is made up of cratons and
mobile belts of Archaean and Proterozoic age, respectively (Fig. 3.3).
 Archaean Rocks: The Archaean rocks of peninsular India represent oldest
rock deposits and comprise igneous and metamorphic terrains/cratons.
These cratons are the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and
Aravalli. The granite, tonalite, trondhjemite, greenstone and gneisses are
main rock types in these cratons. Out of which, the Dharwar craton is
discussed in detail in Unit 4 of Block 2 of this course.
 Proterozoic Sedimentary Basins: Proterozoic sedimentary basins of
peninsular India comprise the intracratonic basins. These basins were
formed by rifting or splitting of Archaean cratons due to the development of
Proterozoic Mobile Belts among them. These basins are flat,
unmetamorphosed and comprise about 20% of the Indian shield. The
sediments of Proterozoic rocks were derived from the surrounding older
Archaean gneisses and granites. They were mainly deposited in shallow
marine conditions, but sometimes in fluvial conditions as well. There are
many Proterozoic basins spread all over the peninsular India, but four largest
basins are the Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Chhattisgarh and Aravalli known as
Vindhyan Supergroup, Cuddapah Supergroup, Chhattisgarh Supergroup and
Delhi Supergroup, respectively (Fig. 3.4). The Chhattisgarh Supergroup lies
in the Bastar craton. It is bordered by Satpura Mobile Belt to the north. It is
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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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about 2500 m thick and composed mainly of conglomerate, sandstone and
limestone. The other three supergroups, the Vindhyan, Cuddapah and Delhi,
are discussed in detail in Unit 4 of Block 2 of this course.

Fig. 3.4: Map showing major Proterozoic basins of peninsular India.

2. Precambrian Rocks of the Himalaya
Precambrian rocks of the Himalaya can be divided into two parts representing
doubtful Archaean and older Proterozoic rocks that are metamorphosed. They
comprise gneisses and granites and other high-grade metamorphic rocks. They
are given different names depending on the locality where they are best
exposed. For example, the crystalline rocks of Kashmir and adjoining areas are
named as Salkhala Formation and the same rocks in Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand are known as Vaikrita Formation (also called Central
Crystallines).They indicate a possible age of 2000 to 1800 Myr (Palaeo-
Proterozoic). They are exposed in the Greater Himalayan region.
The Meso-Proterozoic rocks are exposed inthe Lesser Himalaya and they
consist of sedimentary or meta-sedimentary rocks. The stratigraphic resolution
of these rocks is beset with problems since superposition is generally disturbed
due to structural complications. The important groups in this area are the
Jammu Limestone, Shali Limestone, Simla Group and Jaunsar Group. The
Neo-Proterozoic rocks in the Lesser Himalaya are known by the Krol and Blaini
groups.
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3.3.2 Palaeozoic Stratigraphy
Marine Palaeozoic rocks are restricted to the Himalayan region except a few
minor marine excursions of Cambrian/Permain age occurring in peninsular
India. These marine Palaeozoic outcrops are present in Umaria and Jabalpur
areas of Madhya Pradesh and Bikaner-Nagaur area of Rajasthan. The
Palaeozoic marine rocks are exposed in Kashmir and Zanskar in Jammu and
Kashmir, Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh. In
Peninsular India, freshwater sediments of Upper Palaeozoic age constitute the
Gondwana Supergroup. Let us discuss the Palaeozoic rocks of Kashmir, Spiti
and Gondwana rocks of Peninsular India.
1. Palaeozoic Rocks of Kashmir
Palaeozoic succession in Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir) consists of well-
developed marine fossiliferous rocks ranging from Cambrian to Permian.
However, there are some breaks in the succession. These breaks constitute
disconformities covering Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician, Devonian and
Upper Carboniferous. In addition, the succession also bears volcanic rocks in
Permian known as Panjal Trap.
Palaeozoic succession in Kashmir is best exposed in north-western part of
Kashmir in the Lolab valley, notably Handwara and Kupwara regions, Liddar
valley of Anantnag District and PirPanjal Range north of Banihal. The
succession, comprise shales, limestones, sandstones, siltstones and quartzites
with rich assemblages of invertebrates notably, trilobites, brachiopods, corals,
mollusks, bryozoans, conodonts, etc. The uppermost Palaeozoic rocks also
yield the Gondwana plant fossils.
2. PalaeozoicRocks of Spiti
The Spiti valley (Himachal Pradesh) contains a complete, best developed,
folded, marine fossiliferous succession of Palaeozoic age. It is important to note
that Palaeozoic rocks of Spiti are more or less similar to those of Kashmir
except for the absence of Permian volcanic rocks. The unconformities are the
same as in Kashmir which include Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician,
Devonian and Upper Carboniferous. A detailed account on the stratigraphy of
Palaeozoic succession of Spiti and Kashmir is presented in Unit 5 of Block 2 of
this course.
3. Gondwana Rocks of Peninsular India
You have read that there are no marine Palaeozoic sediments in peninsular
India except the presence of a few sediments of Cambrian/Permianage in
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. However, freshwater sediments got deposited
from Upper Palaeozoic (Carboniferous-Permian) onwards and these continued
into Mesozoic in the Pranhita-Godavari, Mahanadi, Damodar and Narmada-
Son-Tapti rift valleys. These rift valleys were developed in response of breaking
of Gondwanan landmasses during Upper Palaeozoic. Sediments deposited in
these rift valleys are collectively known as Gondwana Supergroup. At this
time (i.e., Late Palaeozoic), the continents of Africa, South America, Australia,
Antarctica and subcontinent India were joined together called Gondwana
Supercontinent. This supercontinent was surrounding the South Pole in
Carboniferous-Permian times covering with glaciers. As it started moving away
from the pole, the glaciers started melting. As a result, the succession of the

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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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Gondwana Supergroup, started with glacial deposits and known as Talchir
Formation.

Fig. 3.5: Map showing peninsular and the Himalayan Gondwanan basins of India.
(Source: simplified after Naqvi, 2005)
The Gondwana Supergroup is widely distributed in the peninsular as well as
extra-peninsular regions of India (Fig.3.5). It is dominantly composed of
sandstones and shales with rich coal seams as well as fossil remains of plants
and animals. The Gondwana Supergroup is divided into the Lower Gondwana
Sequence (Upper Palaeozoic) and the Upper Gondwana Sequence (Mesozoic).
The Lower Gondwana Sequence commences with a glacial deposit as you
have read above. As the temperature rapidly increased, there was a
widespread expansion of plants during the greater part of Permian. As a result,
thick deposits of coal were deposited during this time. Of the total production of
Indian coal about 95% comes from the Lower Gondwana Sequence. The rocks
of this sequence have a domination of shales and are best preserved in
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and northern parts of Andhra Pradesh.
The stratigraphy of the Gondwana Supergroup is discussed in detail in Unit 7 of
Block 2 of this course.
Learners, before discussing about the Mesozoic stratigraphy of India, spend
few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) Name the important cratons of the Indian peninsula.
b) Name the Neo-Proterozoic groups of rocks of the Lesser Himalaya.
c) What is the name and age of volcanic rocks in Palaeozoic of Kashmir?

63
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3.3.3 Mesozoic Stratigraphy
You already know that freshwater Gondwana rocks extend into Mesozoic and
constitute an important element in the peninsular India. Apart from these, the
rocks deposited in marine conditions also occur in the peninsular India. They
constitute the coastal facies of rocks that were deposited as a result of marine
incursions or transgressions along the western and eastern coasts of the
peninsula. These marine incursions took place at different intervals of Jurassic
and Cretaceous, depositing marine rocks in Kachchh in Gujarat, and Jaisalmer
and Barmer in Rajasthan. These rocks were also deposited along the west
coast and in the Cauvery basin in Tamil Nadu along the east coast. In addition,
one incursion during Cretaceous extended almost to the central part of India
along the Narmada region. In the Himalayan region, the marine Permian rocks
pass upwards with a minor break into Triassic followed by Jurassic and
Cretaceous rocks. Let us discuss the Mesozoic rocks of peninsular India and
Himalaya.
1. Mesozoic Rocks of Peninsular India
The highly fossiliferous sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous age are
deposited in the pericratonic basins located in the western and eastern coasts
as well as central part of the peninsular India. The volcanic rocks of Cretaceous
age occur in the central and eastern peninsular India. These basins are:
 Kachchh Basin: It consists of Mesozoic succession, which comprises rocks
ranging in age from Lower Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous. These rocks are
situated between the Great Rann of Kachchh in the north and the Kathiawar
(Saurashtra) peninsula in the south Gujarat. In Kachchh, the hillocks
projecting out in the Rann are composed of these rocks (Fig. 3.6). The
succession is divided into four formations, namely, Pachcham, Chari,
Katrol, and Umia. The Pachcham, Chari and Karol formations are of
Jurassic age and Umiais of Lower Cretaceous. These rocks are highly
fossiliferous and contain ammonoids, bivalves, brachiopods, echinoids and
some other groups. Similar rocks are also found in Jaisalmer and Barmer
regions of Rajasthan.
 Cauvery Basin: Along the eastern coast, Cretaceous rocks are exposed in
the Cauvery basin in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry (Fig. 3.6). They are
divided into four groups, namely, Uttattur, Trichinopoly, Ariyalur and
Niniyur. Out of these, the Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur range from late
Lower to Upper Cretaceous in age while the Niniyur is of Palaeocene. All
these groups are highly fossiliferous and have yielded ammonoids, bivalves,
echinoids, foraminifers, sharks and reptiles. A detailed account on the
Mesozoic stratigraphy of the Kachchh, Jaisalmer and Cauvery basins are
presented in Unit 6 of Block 2 of this course.
 Narmada Basin: The Cretaceous marine rocks are dominantly composed of
fossiliferous limestones in the Narmada valley in the central part of India in
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat (Fig. 3.6) referred to as Bagh Beds. These
beds are richly fossiliferous and have yielded nautiloids, ammonoids,
bivalves, gastropods and echinoids. Overlying this is a freshwater formation
known as Lameta Formation. Sandstones and limestones are the main rock
types of the formation. This formation is characterised by the presence of
64
Unit 3 Physiography of India
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
diverse freshwater to terrestrial fauna consisting of fishes, frogs, dinosaurs
and crocodiles.

Fig. 3.6: Map showing major Mesozoic basins of India.

 Upper Gondwana Sequence: You have already read that the Upper
Gondwana Sequence is of Mesozoic age. The rocks of this sequence are
widely distributed in Central India notably in Pranhita–Godavari valley and
Jabalpur region. They are rich in plant fossils constituting Ptilophyllum flora.
 Rajmahal Volcanics: They comprise a series of volcanic lava flows and are
located in the eastern Jharkhand. They are composed dominantly of basalt
and occupy a surface area of about 4100 km2 attaining a maximum
thickness of 600 m. The sedimentary rocks interbedded with the Rajmahal
lava flows yield excellently preserved plant fossils, including flowers, seeds,
etc. They are of Lower Cretaceous age.
 Deccan Volcanics: Towards the end of Cretaceous, peninsular India was
engulfed in a major phase of volcanicity and the lava flows covered a vast
area including Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan (Fig. 3.6). The lavas range up to a
maximum thickness of 2500 m and comprise black or dark gray basalt. Beds
of volcanic ash associated with the lava flows are a very common feature.
There are thin sedimentary beds in between the lava flows which are known
65
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
as intertrappean beds. A detailed account on the stratigraphy of the
Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps is presented in Unit 7 of Block 2
of this course.
2. Mesozoic Rocks of Himalaya
Marine Mesozoic rocks are widely distributed in the Tethyan part of the
Himalayan region. Triassic rocks are well developed in the Himalayan region
and widely distributed stretching from Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir) in the
northwest through Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) to Kumaon (Uttarakhand) in the
south east (i.e. along the Himalayan belt). Triassic rocks are best developed in
the Spiti region and a detailed account on its stratigraphy is presented in Unit 6
of Block 2 of this course.
The Jurassic rocks of Himalaya are represented by highly fossiliferous black
shale named Spiti Shale or Spiti Formation in the Spiti area of Himachal
Pradesh, where it is well developed. This formation contains ammonoids and
bivalves in phosphatic nodules. The Cretaceous sediments are represented by
the Giumal and Chikkim formations, which are sparsely fossiliferous.
3.3.4 Cenozoic Stratigraphy
Marine Cenozoic sediments are exposed in continuation to the Mesozoic rocks
along coastal areas in peninsular India. Freshwater Upper Cenozoic rocks are
also exposed in some parts of the peninsular India. In the Himalayan region,
the lower part of Cenozoic received marine sedimentation, while the upper part
was replaced gradually by freshwater sedimentation. This is because, in the
Early Cenozoic, the Himalayan region was a sea (known as Tethys), but
eventually it got uplifted and finally became a mountain range. The Himalayan
uplift took place in several phases. Earlier, when it was a sea it was receiving
sediment, but when it got uplifted it started providing sediment to the rivers that
flowed from it and new freshwater basins were formed in front of it. Let us
discuss the Cenozoic marine sediments of peninsular India, freshwater and
estuarine sediments of south India and Cenozoic rocks of Himalaya.
1. Cenozoic Marine Sediments of Peninsular India
Lower Cenozoic rocks (Palaeogene and Lower Neogene) are widely distributed
as marginal deposits almost all around the Indian craton. These rocks are
deposited in Kachchh and other western basins including parts of Rajasthan
and mainland Gujarat. Cenozoic rocks in Kachchh display a marine sequence
from Palaeocene to Pliocene. In that respect, this is one of the few areas in
India where such a fossiliferous sequence is exposed.
The outcrops in Rajasthan are confined to three basins from north to south,
namely, Bikaner-Nagaur, Jaisalmer and Barmer. Of these maximum exposures
are present in the Jaisalmer basin. You have already read that in Tamil Nadu
and Puducherry, the Cretaceous marine sequence is unconformably overlain by
the Niniyur Group. It comprises fossiliferous limestone, shelly limestone and
argillaceous nodular limestone and fossils indicating a Palaeocene age.
2. Cenozoic Freshwater and Estuarine Sediments of South India
In Tamil Nadu, the Miocene is represented by rocks that may have originally
been deposited as a continuous cover over the older formations. But it has
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Unit 3 Physiography of India
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since been dissected by streams rendering them as isolated outcrops. Such
outcrops are known as Cuddalore Sandstone. They are widely distributed
from Pudducherry to Thanjavur and Sivaganga and comprising sandstones with
bands of conglomerates and clays, indicating deposition in fluviatile, lacustrine
and estuarine conditions.
3. Cenozoic Rocks of the Himalaya
The Cenozoic rocks in the Himalaya were deposited mainly in the Lesser and
Outer Himalayan regions. In addition, some deposits are also known in the
Tethys Himalaya in Ladakh. In the Lesser Himalaya, Paleocene and Eocene
are represented by marine fossiliferous rocks that extend from Jammu to
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. These rocks are named as the Subathu
Group. Overlying this is a thick sequence of estuarine and freshwater deposits
of Oligocene-Miocene age named Murree Group.
In Meghalaya and Assam, a thick sequence of marine rocks followed by
freshwater rocks was deposited in Cenozoic times. In Lower Assam, the Barail
Group is one of the thickest units that have a widespread distribution. This
group has an economic importance as it bears coal measures and together with
the overlying Tipam Sandstone is a repository of hydrocarbons.
The emergence of the Himalayan range following the Early Miocene phase of
uplift resulted in the formation of a foreland basin in front of the newly emerged
mountain chain. This basin became the site of extensive deposition of fluviatile
sediments derived from the uplifted regions of the mountain chain. The suite of
sedimentary rocks deposited in this basin has been named as the Siwalik
Group. The main lithology of the Siwalik Group is sandstone-mudstone
alternation while pebbly sandstone and conglomerate predominates towards
the upper part of the sequence. The Siwalik rocks bear a rich vertebrate fauna,
especially mammals and ranging from Middle Miocene to Pleistocene.
The Upper Pliocene to Lower Holocene fluvial, lacustrine, glacial and aeolian
deposits of the Kashmir valley are referred to as Karewa Group. The group
comprises semi-consolidated sand, gravel, silt and clay which bear occasional
lignite seams. A detailed account on the Cenozoic stratigraphy of Himalaya is
presented in Unit 8 Block 2 of this course.
Learners, you have learnt the Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic stratigraphy of India. Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise
to check your progress.

SAQ 3
a) Name three groups that are of Cretaceous age in marine coastal sequence
of Tamil Nadu.
b) In the Himalayan region the Middle and Upper Jurassic are represented by
a highly fossiliferous black shale named -----------------------------------------------
c) Name the freshwater formation of Miocene age exposed in Tamil Nadu that
bears lignite.
d) Which group of rocks of Cenozoic age extends from east to west in the
outer Himalaya?
67
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......

3.4 ACTIVITY
In the given outline map of India (Fig. 3.7), mark and label the following:
1. The physiographic divisions of India: the Himalaya, Indo-Gangetic plains,
desert region, peninsular plateau and coastal regions.
2. Mobile belts and Cratons.
3. Vindhyan, Cuddapah and Chhattisgarh Supergroups.

Fig. 3.7: Outline map of India.

3.5 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what you have learnt in this unit:
 Physiographically, India comprises three well marked divisions from south to
north, namely, Peninsular plateau, Indo-Gangetic plain and the Himalayan
mountain chain.
 Himalaya can be linearly divided into five parts from north to south. They are
Trans Himalaya, Tethyan domain, Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya and
Outer Himalaya.
 Peninsular plateau is bounded by Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and
Satpura mountain chain.
 Peninsular shield is composed of cratons such as Dharwar, Bastar,
Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and Aravalli and mobile belts like Eastern Ghat,
Pandyan, Aravalli and Satpura.
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Unit 3 Physiography of India
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
 Proterozoic sedimentary basins of Peninsula comprise 20% of the Indian
shield.
 Marine Palaeozoic rocks are restricted mainly to the Himalayan region.
 There are three major breaks in Palaeozoic sequence. They are Upper
Cambrian-Lower Ordovician, Devonian and Upper Carboniferous.
 Coastal facies of Mesozoic are best exposed in Kachchh, Western
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
 Towards the end of Mesozoic there was a major volcanic outburst in
peninsular India known as the Deccan Traps.
 In the peninsula India, Cenozoic rocks comprise coastal facies while the
Himalaya Palaeogene is marine and Neogene is of freshwater origin.

3.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the physiographic divisions of India.
2. Give an account on the Precambrian cratons and mobile belts of the
peninsular India.
3. Discuss the Proterozoic sedimentary basins of peninsular India.
4. Write an account of the Palaeozoic rocks of India.
5. Discuss the Mesozoic stratigraphy of India.
6. Describe in brief the Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Himalaya.

3.7 REFERENCES
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian plate (from Hadean
to Holocene – 4Ga to 4Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008), Geology of India Vol. 1 and
2, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Sharma, R.S. (2009) Cratons and Fold Belts of India, Lecture Notes in Earth
Sciences, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany.

3.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Krishnan, M.S. (1949) Geology of India and Burma, The Madras Law Journal
Press, Madras.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian plate (from Hadean
to Holocene – 4Ga to 4Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008) Geology of India Vol. 1 and
2, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Valdiya, V.S. (2016) The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Society of
Earth Scientists Series, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.
 Wadia, D.N. (1919) Geology of India, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company
Ltd., New Delhi.
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......

3.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) Trans Himalaya, Tethyan domain, Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya
and Outer Himalaya.
b) Syntaxial bends.
c) Aravalli Range.
d) Western Ghat, Bay of Bengal.
e) Rann of Kachchh and Sunderbans estuary.
2. a) Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand and Aravalli.
b) Krol and Blaini groups.
c) Panjal Traps of Permian age.
3. a) Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur.
b) Spiti Shale.
c) Cuddalore Sandstone.
d) Siwalik Group.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Section 3.2.
2. Refer to sub-section 3.3.1
3. Refer to sub-section 3.3.1
4. Refer to sub-section 3.3.2
5. Refer to sub-section 3.3.3
6. Refer to sub-section 3.3.4

70
 Glossary
Aeolian : Aeolian deposits are sediments, such as loess,
made up of windblown grains of sand and dust,
i.e., winds may transport and deposit materials.

Alluvial Deposits : Detrital material transported by a river and

deposited usually temporarily, at points along the
flood plain of a river. They are composed
commonly of sands and gravels. Many important
minerals occur locally concentrated in alluvial
deposits. They are also known as alluvium.

Apparent Dip : Apparent dip is the amount of dip in any direction

other than that of the true dip.
The value goes on reducing as we move away
from the direction of the true dip and it becomes
zero at right angles to the direction of the true dip.

Arenaceous : Refers to sedimentary rocks and deposits of sand

size particles.

Argillaceous : Refers to rock or sediment in which components

are fine grained and mostly are clay minerals.

Attitude : By attitude we mean how the beds are displayed in

an area. They can be horizontal as they were
originally deposited or they can be tilted and
dipping in a particular direction. The attitude
indicates the amount and direction of the dip, if
any.

Batholiths : A very large emplacement of igneous intrusive

rock that forms from cooled magma at great depth
inside the Earth. Batholiths usually contain a
complex of acid plutonic rocks and are always
related with orogenic belts.

Basin : It is a depressed area like sea, lake or river where

water flows and brings with it the sediment that
gets deposited there.

Beds : They are the smallest layers in a sedimentary

sequence that can be distinctly seen as separate
units. The thickness of a bed varies from one rock
unit to another. Thus, we have terms like thick-
bedded and thin-bedded denoting the nature of
beds in a rock.

71
Biostratigraphic : It is a body or layer of rock sequence characterised
Unit by its content of fossils. Range zone, interval zone,
assemblage zone and abundance zones are the
common biostratigraphic units.

Brunton Compass : It is also known as Brunton Pocket Transit, a type

of compass made by Brunton, Inc of Riverton,
Wyoming. The compass is used by geologists for
making various observations in the field including
recording attitudes of rocks and location of places.

Cambrian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic era

between 542 and 488 million years.

Catastrophic Event : Catastrophic event is a sudden, extensive, or

notable disaster that brings about some major
changes.

Chisels : It is a metal tool with a sharp beveled edge, used

to cut or shape rocks, stone, wood or metal.

Concordant : When the beds or rock units are corresponding in

Discordant direction with the underlying and overlying strata
they are referred to as concordant. Conversely,
when they cut across the strata.

Conglomerate : The cemented and rounded fragments of water

worn rock or pebbles which are bound by a
siliceous or argillaceous material. The size of
fragments can vary from large boulders to gravel
so fine that it is almost coarse sand.

Craton : The name is derived from a Greek word meaning

“strength”. It is used to distinguish those portions of
continental crust that are stabilised after a series of
cycles of orogeny (mountain building) and are
composed of crystalline rocks. The term craton is
used against mobile belts, which are still
unstable. The term shield is often used to denote
a region composed of cratons and associated
mobile belts.

Cretaceous : A division of geological time in the Mesozoic Era

between 145 and 65 million years ago.

Deccan Plateau : Deccan plateau is a large plateau in India, located

between the mountain ranges of the Western
Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.

72
Deposition : It is the laying down of material through natural
processes. The natural agencies may comprise
water, wind or glaciers. These agencies bring the
material in suspension or solution and deposit
them in a basin. When the material is brought in
suspension, it is known as sediment and the
process is called sedimentation.

Denudation : It is the sum total of the processes which cause the

wearing away of the land surface. It involves the
processes of weathering, transportation, and
erosion, etc.

Desertification : Refers to the process by which an area becomes a

desert, i.e., a type of land degradation in which a
dry land region becomes increasingly arid.

Dip : It is defined as the angle that a geological feature

(e.g., bed, fault) makes with a horizontal plane. It
means that the angle being measured in a
direction perpendicular to the strike of the plane.

Disposition : Refers to the process in which something is placed

or arranged in relation to other things.

Dolomite : Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral

composed of calcium magnesium carbonate
CaMg(CO3).

Dunes : In areas having loose, unconsolidated, surface

deposits, e.g., sandy deserts, a well-established
prevailing wind will be able to heap up the sand
into regular accumulations called dunes.

Dyke : A columnar body of igneous rock which cuts

across the bedding or structural planes of the host
rock. Dykes may be composite or multiple and may
be found in association with any larger igneous
body.

Fault : It is a fracture in a rock along which the adjacent

rock surfaces have been differentially displaced

Flora : The naturally occurring native plant life that occurs

in a particular region or time. The equivalent term
for animal life is fauna.

Genus : Genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological

classification of living and fossil organisms. Its
plural version is genera.

73
Ghats : The word Ghat means a step like mountain. The
English name of Sahyadri is Western Ghats

Gneiss : A variety of rocks having a banded or coarsely

foliated structure which is formed by regional
metamorphism; included under this are a number
of rock types which have different origins.

Granites : A coarse-grained crystalline plutonic rock having

granular texture. It consists essentially of quartz
(20-40%), alkali feldspar, and very commonly a
mica, biotite and/or muscovite. A number of
accessory minerals may be present. Granites
occur exclusively as intrusive bodies.

Hiatus : Refers to a break, a gap or interruption or

discontinuity in the age of strata.

Himalaya : The word Himalaya is derived from Sanskrit word

Him-alaya. Him means snow and alaya means
covered range, which refers to the snow covered
mountain range. Most western writers pluralise it
as “Himalayas”, which is incorrect because the
Sanskrit word itself is pluralised.

Jurassic : A division of geological time in the Mesozoic Era

between 200 and 145 million years ago.

Limestone : It is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of

calcium carbonate (CaCO3), deposited usually
under marine conditions, and composed of
chemically derived lime muds or fossilised shells,
or both.

Lithology : It denotes the physical characteristics of a rock,

like rock type, composition, colour, hardness, and
other distinguishing features.

Lithostratigraphic : They comprise bed, member, formation, group and

Units supergroup, and are classified on the basis of
lithology.

Magma : A naturally occurring molten or semi-molten rock

material which is formed within the crust or upper
mantle of the Earth and may consolidate to form
an igneous rock. It is a complex high temperature
fluid substance.

Mappable units : They constitute a rock type or a set of rock types

that are sufficiently thick and continuous so that
they can be recorded in a map to the scale.

74
Mesozoic : An Era, a division of geological time between 251
and 65 million years ago.

Microfossils : Microfossils are fossils commonly smaller than one

millimeter and not larger than four millimeter. The
study of microfossils requires the use of light or
electron microscopy.

Mishmi Hills : Mishmi hills are in the northeastern part of India in

Arunachal Pradesh and occur at the junction of
Northeastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma ranges.

Orogeny : Orogeny refers to mountain building processes,

i.e., forces and events leading to a large structural
deformation of the Earth’s crust due to the
movement of tectonic plates.

Paleosol : Refers to soils that formed long ago and are

preserved by burial underneath either by
sediments or volcanic deposits.

Permian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic Era

between 299 and 251 million years ago.

Physiography : It deals with the physical processes and patterns of

the Earth.

Pyroclastic : Pyroclastic rocks are clastic rocks that are

composed mainly of volcanic material.

Rann of Kachchh : Rann of Kachchh is a salt marsh located in the

Kachchh District of Gujarat, India. It covers a huge
area of around 10,000 square miles and the area
has desert on one side and the sea on the other
side making it an interesting region.

Sandstone : It is a sedimentary rock composed of sand sized

grains of minerals, rock or organic material. It also
contains a cementing material that binds the grains
together.

Sedimentary : It denotes the beds of different sedimentary rocks

Sequence lying one upon the other constituting a series. It is
customary to use the term for a set of rocks that
are available in continuation.

Sedimentary : They are produced during the process of

Structures deposition. They are a result of movement in the

75
 medium that brings the sediment. The common
types of sedimentary structures are ripple marks,
cross-bedding, etc.

Shale : It is a fine grained clastic sedimentary rock

composed of mud mixed with clay minerals along
with silt size particles and other minerals like
quartz and calcite.

Silt : Silt is a sedimentary rock composed of tiny

particles smaller than sand but larger than clay.
Siltstone is consolidated or compacted silt.

Strata : It is the plural of a Latin word Stratum meaning a

layer of rocks. Strata are used for a series of such
layers that are seen in a sequence one above the
other.

Stratified Rocks : These are those that are found in layers. The
name is derived from strata meaning layers. All
rocks produced by sedimentary processes are
usually stratified. In addition some volcanic rocks
can also be stratified.

Stratigraphic : These are major changes that took place in Earth’s

Events history. These changes happen suddenly and alter
the pattern of sedimentation. They also bring about
change in organisms that can be seen from the
fossil content.

Strike : The direction in which a horizontal line could be

drawn on a plane. A strike line is the line joining
points of equal height above or below a datum, on
a planar structure.

Time-rock Unit : It is formally known as a chronostratigraphic unit

consists of all rock strata in the world that were
deposited during a particular interval of time. A
time unit, formally known as a geochronologic unit
indicates an interval of time during which a time
rock unit formed.

Topographical Map : It is a map of an area is one that shows various

locations to the scale with contour lines to denote
the altitudes at different places giving a total
picture of the topography (position of hills and
valleys and other elevation details). Topographical
maps come in various scales. In India these maps
are prepared by the Survey of India and can be
obtained from their offices and sale centres.

True Dip : True dip is the angle of the dip with respect to the

76
 horizontal in the exact direction in which the beds
are dipping. It is always the highest value of the
angle of dip.

Ultrabasic Rocks : Igneous rocks which have essentially

ferromagnesian minerals to the virtual exclusion of
quartz, feldspar and feldspathoids. Originally it was
defined as rocks which have less than 45% silica.

Weathering : When rocks are exposed to action of water, air and

other natural agencies like frost action, they break-
up, decompose or dissolve producing small
fragments, soil, etc. This process is known as
weathering. But when this weathered material
gets transported through various agencies like
water, wind and glaciers and deposited
somewhere else, the process is called erosion.

Xenoliths : Refers to an inclusion in an igneous rock in which

it is embedded. It differs in origin, composition,
structure, etc, from the igneous rock enclosing it.

77
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University PALAEONTOLOGY
School of Sciences

Block

STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA
UNIT 4
Precambrian of India 85
UNIT 5
Palaeozoic of India 115
UNIT 6
Mesozoic of India 133
UNIT 7
Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps 149
UNIT 8
Cenozoic of Himalaya 167

GLOSSARY 181

79
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Roorkee, Uttarkhand Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Prof. L. S. Chamyal Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University Department of Geology Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP M.S.University of Baroda National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Vadodara, Gujarat Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Prof. H. B. Srivastava Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Centre of Advanced Study in School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Geology Banaras Hindu University
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Varanasi, UP
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Prof. Arun Kumar
Kurukshetra University Department of Earth Sciences Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Manipur University Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Imphal, Manipur
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das
Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Dr. Meenal Mishra (Unit 4) Prof. Sreepat Jain (Unit 6)
School of Sciences Department of Applied Geology
IGNOU, New Delhi Adama Science and Technology University
Adama, Ethiopia
Dr. Omkar Verma (Units 5 & 7)
School of Sciences Dr. Varun Parmar (Unit 8)
IGNOU, New Delhi Department of Geology
University of Jammu, Jammu
Content Editor
Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.)
Department of Geology
University of Jammu, Jammu

Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi

Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
December, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on
behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU. Printed by:

80
BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy

Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification

Unit 3 Physiography of India

Block 2 Stratigraphy of India

Unit 4 Precambrian of India

Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India

Unit 6 Mesozoic of India

Unit 7 Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps

Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya

Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology

Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation

Unit 10 Microfossils

Unit 11 Evolution of Horse

Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora

Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology

Unit 13 Brachiopods and Corals

Unit 14 Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods

Unit 15 Molluscs–Cephalopods

Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms

81
 BLOCK 2: STRATIGRAPHY OF INDIA
The surface of Earth is covered by various physical features like mountains, valleys, plateaus, deserts
etc. All these features are made up of rocks over millions of years. During their formation, many
geological processes such as weathering, erosion, sedimentation, volcanism, tectonism, marine
transgression and regression played an important role. India has a marked diversity in its physical
features as it contains the folded Himalayan mountain system, Peninsular plateau, Indo-Gangetic
plains, Thar desert, Eastern and Western Ghats as well as Islands of the west and east coasts.
Importantly, these regions are made up of rocks belonging to various geological ages, ranging from
Precambrian to Holocene (Present). In short, Indian rock record is rich and diverse and its different
regions contain rocks of various geological periods, extending from the Archaean.
Stratigraphy of India refers to the understanding of the sequential arrangement of its rock record from
Archaean to Holocene. Rock record constitutes all type of rocks including igneous, sedimentary and
metamoprhpic, occur in an area or in a country. However, the rock record of an area is never complete
or continuous as it is usually witnessed by non-depositional or erosional periods in the forms of
diastems, unconformities and disconformities. This is the reason that the Archaean and Proterozoic
rocks are well developed in Peninsular India, whereas Palaeozoic-Mesozoic rocks are almost fully
preserved in the Himalayan region.
In Stratigraphy, the rocks are classified into supergroups, groups, formations, members, beds, etc.
based on criteria mentioned in the stratigraphic classification, that you have studied in Block 1 of this
course. This block deals with stratigraphy of India and comprises five units. The block will acquaint you
with the main stratigraphic supergroups or groups of India belonging to different geologic time such as
Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which occur in various parts of the country.
Unit 4 deals with Precambrian stratigraphy of India particularly Archaean and Proterozoic successions
of Peninsular India. It discusses one Archaean aged craton, i.e., Dharwar and three Proterozoic
supergroups, namely, Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Delhi. This unit emphasizes on the stratigraphic
classification, lithology, age and fossil contents of these Precambrian successions.
During the Palaeozoic, major portion of the northern margin of India was under the Tethys Sea and
witnessed extensive cover of marine sedimentation, which led to the deposition of almost complete and
continuous successions of Palaeozoic rocks in the northwest Himalayas as compared to Peninsular
region.
Unit 5 covers Palaeozoic stratigraphy of India especially Palaeozoic successions of the Himalayan
region. In this unit, you will learn about stratigraphic classification, lithology, age, fossil contents and
environment of deposition of two well developed Palaeozoic successions one in Spiti (Himachal
Pradesh) and second in Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir) of the Himalaya.
Unit 6 deals with Mesozoic stratigraphy of India. The Mesozoic successions, ranging from Triassic to
Cretaceous are well developed in both Peninsular and Himalayan regions of India. In this unit, you will
learn about the distribution, stratigraphy, lithology, fossil content, age and environment of deposition of
the main Mesozoic successions of India, which are exposed in Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), Kachchh
(Gujarat), Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) and Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu).
Unit 7 covers Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps of Peninsular India. The Gondwana
Supergroup ranging from Upper Palaeozoic to Mesozoic (Upper Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous) in
age is well known for coal deposits and rich assemblages of plant and vertebrate fossils. The end of

82
Mesozoic era in India is marked by tremendous volcanic eruption of the Deccan Traps. In this unit, you
will learn about the classification, lithology, age, environment of deposition, duration and economic
importance of Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps.
Unit 8 deals with Cenozoic stratigraphy of India particularly the Cenozoic successions of the Himalayan
region. The Cenozoic era in the Himalayan region represents a distinct phase in the tectonic and
sedimentational history of India. The Himalayan region dominantly witnessed the marine sedimentation
during Upper Precambrian to Mesozoic time, however, a majority of freshwater sedimentation
commenced in this region during the Cenozoic. This unit will familiarise you with the classification,
lithology, distribution and age of various Palaeogene-Neogene successions such as Subathu, Murree,
Dharamsala, Siwalik, Jaintia, Barail, Surma and Tipam groups and Langpar Formation, exposed in the
northwest and northeast Himalayan regions of India.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
 describe the stratigraphy and economic importance of the major Precambrian supergroups of
Peninsular India;
 explain the stratigraphy of Palaeozoic successions of Spiti and Kashmir;
 discuss the stratigraphy of the Mesozoic successions of Spiti, Kachchh, Rajasthan and
Tiruchirapalli;
 elucidate the stratigraphic classification and economic importance of the Gondwana Supergroup
and the Deccan Traps; and
 outline Palaeogene–Neogene successions of the northwest and northeast Himalaya.
We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire basic knowledge of Precambrian, Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic successions of Peninsular and Himalayan regions of India.

Wishing you success in this endeavour!!

83
 UNIT 4

PRECAMBRIAN OF INDIA

Structure______________________________________________
4.1 Introduction 4.5 Delhi Supergroup

Expected Learning Outcomes 4.6 Activity

4.2 Dharwar Craton 4.7 Summary
Stratigraphic Classification 4.8 Terminal Questions
Western Dharwar Craton 4.9 References
Eastern Dharwar Craton 4.10 Further/Suggested Readings
4.3 Cuddapah Supergroup 4.11 Answers
Stratigraphic Classification

Lithology

4.4 Vindhyan Supergroup

Stratigraphic Classification

Lithology

4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read about Precambrian while discussing geological time scale in Unit 1 Fundamentals of
Stratigraphy. You have learnt that the history of the geological past of the Earth is written on rocks
and preserved as stratigraphic sequences. The Precambrian time covers almost 90% of entire
history of the Earth. It has been divided into three eons: the Hadean, the Archean and the
Proterozoic. The records of the Hadean eon of Earth are not yet found on the Indian subcontinent.
In this unit, we will discuss the stratigraphy with few examples of Archaean and Proterozoic eons
from Indian shield. In the following sections, we will discuss about stratigraphy of Dharwar
Supergroup of Archaean age and Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Delhi supergroups of Proterozoic age.
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 outline the major Precambrian successions of India;
 describe the stratigraphy of the main Precambrian supergroups of
Peninsular India such as Dharwar, Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Delhi; and
 discuss the lithology, life, environment and economic importance of major
groups/formations of Dharwar, Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Delhi
supergroups.

4.2 DHARWAR CRATON

The Dharwar craton of Archaean age is one of the classical and best-studied
terrains of Peninsular India covering an area of about 450,000 km2 (Figs. 4.1
and 4.2). It is bounded to the south by the Pandyan mobile belt (PMB), to the
north by the Deccan Traps, to the north-east by the Karimnagar granulite belt
(KGB), to the east by the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt (EMBG) and to the west by
the Arabian Sea. Dharwar craton is a dominant suite of tonalite-trondhjemite-
granodiorite (TTG) gneisses, which are collectively described as Peninsular
gneisses.

Fig. 4.1: Map of India showing major Precambrian cratons and mobile belts of
peninsular India, Map not to scale. (Source: simplified from Ramakrishnan
and Vaidyanadhan, 2008)
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Unit 4 Stratigraphy of India
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The second category of rocks in the Dharwar craton is greenstones or schist
belts with sedimentary associations. The greenstones comprise mainly
voluminous basalts with subordinate fine clastics and chemical sediments. In
certain areas greenstones comprise of basal conglomerate and shallow water
clastics and shelf sediments like limestones and dolomites. The greenstone
belts together with the intercalated metasediments are designated as Dharwar
Schist Belts. They have characteristic regional trend NNW-SSE and show a
gradual increase of metamorphic grade from N to S. These schists and
gneisses gradually give way to the granulites (charnockites and khondalites) in
the southern part of craton.
Do you know?
Ages yielded between 3.5 and 3.2 Giga annum/years (Ga) is considered as
the oldest rocks of the Indian plate. The zircons from the felsic lavas from the
upper part of the Holenarsipur greenstone belts (Dharwar craton) have been
dated at 3.4 Ga. Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) of Rajasthan has yielded
the age of 3.2 Ga. Similarly, Older Metamorphic Group of Singhbhum craton
yielded an age as old as 3.4 Ga. This appears that Indian subcontinent does
not have geological history older than 3.5-3.4 Ga.

4.2.1 Stratigraphic Classification

The term “Dharwar craton” was introduced in 1978 by the Geological Survey of
India, in order to accommodate the known Dharwar Supergroup (Dharwar
greenstone granite) and Sargur Schist complex (Sargur type high grade
terrain). Early studies on the Dharwar craton were controversial in regard to the
status of gneisses and schistose. This controversy continued for over three
decades until geochemical and geochronological data were generated. This
enhanced the clarity with respect to stratigraphic relationship of Dharwarian
rocks.
Let us briefly discuss the classifications earlier proposed for the Dharwar
craton.
W.F. Smeeth in 1915 -16 proposed a two-fold division of the Dharwar
succession: the lower Hornblendic Division and the Upper Chlorite division. B.
Ramarao in 1936 proposed three-fold divisions: the Lower Dharwar, the Middle
Dharwar and the Upper Dharwar. Radhakrishan in 1967 proposed five-fold
stratigraphic scheme. S.V.P. Iyergar in 1976 suggested a four-fold classification
based on lithostratigraphy. The classification and correlation of various
greenstone belts by Geological Survey of India brought major revolution in the
geology of Dharwar craton.
Swami Nath et al. (1976) divided the Dharwar craton into two tectonic blocks:
the Western Block and the Eastern Block on the basis of differences in the
character of schist belts, their inter-relationships with the surrounding Grey
gneisses, grades of metamorphism and temporal evolution (Fig. 4.2). Later
these blocks were designated as Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) and Eastern
Dharwar Craton (EDC). The Grey gneisses [2500 - 2700 Million annum (Ma)]
previously known as Peninsular gneisses cover the EDC (Fig. 4.3). Now, the
term Peninsular gneisses is restricted to gneisses older than 3000 Ma which

87
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
are restricted to WDC. The granitic terrain of EDC is also called the Dharwar
Batholith (> 2500 Ma). The WDC and EDC are separated by Chitradurga
Shear Zone situated on the eastern margin of Chitradurga schist belt close to
the margin of Closepet Granite. This contact is not sharp, and there is a
transition zone. The differences between WDC and EDC are summarised in
Table 4.1.

Fig. 4.2: Essential features of the Dharwar craton. Abbreviations: WDC- Western
Dharwar Craton; EDC-Eastern Dharwar Craton. (Source: simplified from
Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008)

Fig. 4.3: Peninsular Gneiss exposed at National Monument at Lalbagh, Bangalore.

(Source: http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529542&_dad=
portal&_schema=PORTAL)
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Unit 4 Stratigraphy of India
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Table 4.1: Distinguishing characteristics of the Western Block and the
Eastern Block of Dharwar Craton. (Source: simplified after Swami
Nath et al. 1976)

Western Block Eastern Block

1. Large schist belts of the Dharwar Narrow linear belts of the Dharwar
Supergroup with volcanics and Supergroup with dominant pillowed
subordinate sediments, e.g. basalts, e.g.
(i) Chitradurga (i) Kolar-Kadiri-Hutti
(ii) Shimoga-Bababudan (ii) Ramagiri-Penakacherla-Hungund
(iii) Veligalu-Raichur-Gadwa
2. Three lithostratigraphic associations: Three lithostratigraphic association
i. Quartz–arenite–metabasalt- unclassified belts:
Banded Iron Formation (BIF) i. Komatiite–tholeiite amphibolite,
ii. Polymict conglomerate BIF, metapelitic, quartzite
stromatolitic carbonate-arenite, ii. Submarine bimodal volcanics, BIF
metapelite-BIF pelite
iii. Greywacke–submarine volcanics iii. Immature clastic sediments, BIF
BIF association and felsic volcanics
3. Peninsular Gneiss (>3000 Ma) Dharwar Batholith (2500-2700 Ma)
basement cover relation best intrusive on all sides. Diapiric gneiss
preserved, with angular unconformity domes common
with the Dharwar marked by Quartz
Pebble Conglomerate (QPC).
Basement gneiss inliers within schist
belts
4. Intermediate pressure metamorphism Low pressure metamorphism
(kyanite-sillimanite) (andalusite-sillmanite)
5. Mainly 3000 Ma terrain consisting of Mainly 2500 Ma terrain consisting of
basement gneisses with narrow belts gneisses and younger granite with
and enclaves of 3300 Ma older remnants of schist belts ~ 2600 -
sequence (Sargur Group) 2700 Ma.

4.2.2 Western Dharwar Craton

Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) also called as Karnataka nucleus by
Radhakrishna and Naqvi (1986) and was grouped into two orogenic cycles
separated in time (Table 4.2) viz., the older Sargur Group (3100-3300 Ma) and
the younger Dharwar Supergroup (2600-2800 Ma). Dharwar Supergroup is
regionally correlatable and exhibits coherent stratigraphy. Whereas the Sargur
Group is represented by disarrayed enclaves of diverse rock-types exposed in
the same locality. WDC consists mainly of Peninsular Gneiss comprising TTG
gneisses, which forms the basement to Dharwar Supergroup and the contact is
marked by a profound regional unconformity signifying cessation of Sargur
orogeny. This unconformity is defined by the presence of locally uraniferous
quartz-pebble conglomerate (QPC). Numerous narrow linear belts and
enclaves of the Sargur Group (3100 - 3300 Ma) are seen within Peninsular
gneisses, mainly in the south.

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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
Western Dharwar craton is occupied by vast area of Peninsular Gneiss along
with two prominent superbelts belonging to the Dharwar Supergroup. They are:
 Bababudan - Western Ghats - Shimoga; and
 Chitradurga - Gadag.
The greenstone belts of the Western Block are characterised by supracrustal
rocks dominantly consisting of mature sediments with subordinate volcanism
and intermediate pressure (kyanite - sillimanite type) Barrovian metamorphism.
Let us discuss the regional stratigraphy of WDC represented by the various
lithological units mentioned in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Regional stratigraphic of the Western Dharwar craton. (Source:
Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981)

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Unit 4 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
 Gorur Gneiss:
It is the oldest gneiss (3300-3400 Ma) in WDC consisting of suite TTG
gneisses. The relationship of Gorur Gneiss with Sargur enclaves is uncertain.
 Sargur Group:
Numerous narrow linear belts, e.g. Holenarsipur, Nuggihalli and Nagamangla
occur as rafts within Gorur gneissic complex of Sargur Group (3100-3300 Ma)
in WDC, along a intrusive contact. The lithology consists of ultramafic-mafic
layered complexes, tholeiitic amphibolites, komatiites, BIF, quartzites, pelites,
marbles and calc-silicate rocks. They are comparable to true greenstones in
having rocks with high mafic–ultramafic component.
 Dharwar Supergroup:
Dharwar Supergroup has been divided into two groups (Table 4.2):
 Upper Chitradurga
 Lower Bababudan
The supergroup is exposed in two large schist belts that may be called
superbelts. They are:
1) Bababudan - Western Ghats - Shimoga; and
2) Chitradurga - Gadag.

Let us briefly discuss the lithology of these schist belts.

 Bababudan Group/Schist Belt: This is a squarish crescent shaped belt
occupying an area of about 2500 sq. km in Bababudan region of Karnataka
state. It has a normal contact in the south marked by basal QPC and resting
mainly on the basement consisting of TTG gneisses and Dharwar
Supergroup. The schist belt comprises mainly of basaltic volcanics and a
range of detrital and chemical sediments. The stratigraphy of Bababudan
Group in this belt consists of four formations arranged in stratigraphic order
as follows:
 Mulaingiri Formation
 Santaveri Formation
 Allampura Formation
 Kalsapura Formation
The lower three formations are dominated by amygdular and massive tholeiitic
metabasalts with local cross-bedded and rippled marked quartz arenites
(sandstones) and minor pelites. Mulaingiri Formation consists essentially of BIF
with phyllites and minor mafic–ultramafic rocks. Bababudan sediments and
volcanics suggest nearshore to shallow marine and subaerial to shallow marine
environment.
 Chitradurga Group/Schist Belt: Chitradurga Schist belt is probably one of
the longest (450 km) greenstone belts of Dharwar craton where volcano–
sedimentary sequences of large span of geological time are preserved. It
extends from Gadag in the north to Mysore in the south in N-S direction.

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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
The schist belt predominantly comprises bimodal (mafic-felsic) volcanics,
pillow basalt (Fig. 4.4b), greywacke, conglomerates, phyllites, BIF, quartzite
and chert. It is divided into three main formations separated by BIF
horizons:
 Hiriyur Formation
 Ingaldhal Formation
 Vanivilas Formation

Fig. 4.4: a) Bimodal (mafic-felsic) volcanics in Ingaldhal Formation exposed along

Chitradurga Schist Belt in Chitradurga; b) Pillow Lava in the metabasalts
hosted within Chitradurga schist belt, Dharwar Supergroup exposed at
Chitradurga District, Karnataka.

The Vanivilas Formation corresponds to Volcanic Formation consisting of

manganese and iron formations, stromatolitic carbonates, biogenic cherts,
pelites, quartzites and polymict conglomerates and metabasites. This is
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Unit 4 Stratigraphy of India
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followed by Ingaldhal Formation consisting of bimodal volcanics (Fig. 4.4a),
pyroclastics, cherts and phyllites. The overlying Hiriyur Formation constitutes
of greywacke-argillite suite with volcanics, pyroclastics, cherts, polymict
conglomerate. The sedimentary units exhibit sedimentary structures
characteristic of turbidites. The Chitradurga Subgroup is intruded by
Chitradurga granite with an age of 2600 Ma, which gives younger limit of
Dharwar sequence.

4.2.3 Eastern Dharwar Craton

The Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) is characterised by volcanic-dominated,

sediment poor and gold-rich greenstone belts, in contrast to WDC. These
greenstone belts are engulfed on all sides by younger granitoids. They are
preserved as linear arcuate belts with limited width dismembered and
punctuated by different types of granitoids of variable ages, but mostly 2.5 - 2.6
Ma. Neoarchaean rocks of EDC have three major lithological types:
 Greenstone Belts (GSB)
 Tonalite Trondhjemite Granodiorite (TTG)
 Granitoids
Unlike WDC, the basement-cover unconformities are not present in EDC. You
have read about the distinct stratigraphic divisions in WDC. But such divisions
in EDC are not evident. The linear arrays greenstone belts of EDC are called
superbelts. Yeshwantanagar Formation of Sandur belt has similarities with
Bababudan Group. Most of the greenstone belts of EDC are correlateable with
Chitradurga Group of WDC. These greenstone belts are auriferous. Kolar belt is
regarded as the type area and the rocks are called Kolar Group. It has been
considered as type area of the eastern greenstone belts and has been
correlated with the Chitradurga Group. The amphibolites of the Kolar schist belt
yields ~2700 Ma age likes metabasalts of Ramagiri schist belt (Fig. 4.5a). At the
eastern margin of belt occurs a prominent horizon of felsic volcanic and
volcaniclastic suite of “Champion Gneiss” (Fig. 4.5b).

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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………

Fig. 4.5: Field photographs showing: a) Metabasalt (amphibolite) from Ramagiri

greenstone belt, Ananthapur district; and b) Pyroclastics in Champion
gneiss hosted in Kolar Schist Belt at Kolar.

The generalised stratigraphy of the Eastern Dharwar Craton is given in Table

4.3.
Table 4.3: Composite stratigraphy of the Eastern Dharwar Craton.
(Source: Ramakrishnan and Vaidhyanadan, 2008)

The prominent greenstone superbelts in the Dharwar Supergroup in EDC are

mentioned below:
 Ramgiri - Penakacherla Belt - Hungund Superbelt
 Kolar - Kadiri - Hutti Superbelt
 Velligallu - Raichur - Gadwal Superbelt
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The generalised lithology of greenstone belts consists of pyroclastic rocks,
quartzites and local conglomerates, greywackes with BIF, limestones and
dolomites, bimodal volcanics and ultramafics.
A comparsion between WDC and EDC is summarised in Table 4.4.
“Closepet Granite” is marked by the granitic intrusion reflects the end of
Dharwar cycle. This belt of younger potassic granites marks a major geo-suture
or joint between two distinct crustal blocks, western block and eastern block.
 Life: The stromatolite Batiola indica has been reported from sediments of the
Chitradurga Group. Microbial trichomes are recorded from a black chert band
interlayered with the BIF belonging to the Sandur Schist Belt. Microbiotic
remains have been reported from the stromatolite structures of the
Bababudan Group.
Table 4.4: Simplified stratigraphy of Archaean Dharwar craton. (Source: Swami
Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981)

 Mineral Potential: The western block is characterised by the mineralisation

of copper, iron and manganese along with the minor occurrence of gold, i.e.
Gadag. Bababudan schist belt has important deposits of economic
importance particularly iron ores at Kudremukh besides minor occurrence of
gold, uranium and asbestos are also known. The important auriferous belts
are Kolar, Ramagiri - Penakacherla, Hutti, Maski in EDC. They are also
known for iron and manganese mineralisation.

4.3 CUDDAPAH SUPERGROUP

Proterozoic sedimentary basins in peninsular India also known as the Purana
Basins were formed between Late Palaeoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic
time. The Vindhyan, Chhattisgarh and Cuddapah basins (Fig. 4.6) are the three
most extensively developed Proterozoic basins on the Archaean cratons of
Bundelkhand, Bastar and Dharwar, respectively. We shall discuss the
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sedimentary sequences of Vindhyan and Cuddapah basins in the following
sections.
The Cuddapah basin is spectacular crescent shaped, easterly concave N-S
trending basin located in the south-central part of Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana covering an area of 44,500 sq. km2. The basin extends for a length
of about 450 km along the eastern margin of Indian peninsula (Figs. 4.6 and
4.7). It consists mainly of orthoquartzite - carbonate suite and basic to acid
volcanics and sills in the lower part and siliceous shales with quartzites in the
upper part, having estimated thickness varying from 6-12 km. The
lithostratigraphy of Cuddapah basin is formalised in terms of the Cuddapah
Supergroup and the Kurnool Group. The Cuddapah Supergroup is
predominantly arenaceous to argillaceous with subordinate calcareous to
dolomitic units. The Upper Proterozoic succession of the Cuddapah basin is
known as Kurnool Group, which rests unconformably over the rocks of the
Cuddapah Supergroup. The Kurnool Group mainly consists of carbonate
sediments with subordinate fine clastics.

Fig. 4.6: Map showing major Proterozoic basins of peninsular India. (Source:
simplified from Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008)

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Fig. 4.7: Cuddapah basin in the Eastern Dharwar craton. (Source: GSI, 1981b)

4.3.1 Stratigraphic Classification

A fourfold stratigraphic classification was proposed for the first time by King in
1872 remained unchallenged for over century. After King’s monumental work,
no detailed work was carried out by any agency for about 60 years.
Narayanaswami in 1976 proposed five-fold classification. Subsequently,
Nagaraja Rao et al. (1987) presented a revised three-fold classification in
accordance with the stratigraphic code. Cuddapah Supergroup has been
divided into three groups. They are:
 Papaghni;

 Chitravati; and

 Nallamalai.

Each group starts with quartzite and ends with a shale unit representing cycle
of quartzite – shale sequence reflecting successive transgressions in the basin.
The stratigraphy of Cuddapah Supergroup is presented in Table 4.5.
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4.3.2 Lithology
Now let us discuss the lithological units of Cuddapah Supergroup
stratigraphically starting from the lowermost.
1. Papaghni Group:
It is best exposed in the Papaghni river valley. The group has been further
subdivided into two formations:
 Vempalle Formation
 Gulcheru Quartzite
The Gulcheru Quartzite is the lowest formation of Cuddapah Supergroup. It
rests over the Archaean granitic basement with classic angular unconformity
known as Eparchaean unconformity over the greenstone belts of Eastern
Dharwar Craton. It is well exposed in the temple town Tirupati and has been
declared as National Geological Monument (Fig. 4.8). This formation consists
mainly of conglomerates, arkoses and quartzites. The pebbles of Gulcheru
conglomerate are derived from the Archaean basement (Fig. 4.9a).
Gulcheru Quartzite is conformably overlain by the Vempalle Formation. It is
mainly a calcareous unit consisting of stromatolitic dolomites (Fig. 4.9b),
dolomitic shales, sandstones, quartzites and cherts. It is associated with
phosphatic and uraniferous horizons in lower part. Kuppalapalle Volcanics
consist of tholeiitic basalt and basaltic andesite occurs at the top of Vempalle
Formation. The mafic igneous activity is dated at ~1800 Ma. The sedimentation
in the Papaghni subbasin begins with the deposition of fluvial quartzites and
conglomerates with minor intercalations of sandstone–shale of peritidal origin.

Fig. 4.8: Panoramic view of Eparchaean unconformity. Dharwar craton is

unconformably overlain by rocks of the Cuddapah basin, i.e. Gulcheru
Quartzite. (Photo credit: Dr. M. Prashanth)

2. Chitravati Group:
This group is well exposed in Chitravathi and Cheyiar river. The group is
divided into three formations:
 Gandikota Quartzite
 Tadpatri Formation
 Pulivendla Quartzite

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Table 4.5: Stratigraphic Succession in the Cuddapah Supergroup. (Source:
Nagaraja Rao et al. 1987)

Pulivendla Quartzite constituting of quartzites and conglomerates is thin and

persistent horizon exposed all along the western margin disconformably
overlying the Vempalle Formation of the Papaghni Group with a basal
conglomerate marking the hiatus.
Tadpatri Formation has a gradational contact with the underlying Pulivendla
Quartzite. It is mainly argillaceous unit with thin intercalations of quartzites,
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stromatolitic dolomites and volcanogenic sediments. Large thickness of felsic
pyroclastics is seen in Tadpatri Formation.
The conformably overlying Gandikota Quartzite is named after its type locality
Gandikota Fort that has a gradational contact with the Tadpatri Formation. It
consists of shales, quartzites (glauconite-bearing) and alternate sequence of
thick quartzites which is rippled-marked and cross laminated. The depositional
environment ranges from sub-tidal to shallow marine with overlap of carbonate
tidal flat.

Fig. 4.9: Field photographs showing: a) Well-bedded and low dipping Gulcheru
sandstone. The photograph in the inset shows the close up of the Basal
Gulcheru conglomerate at intervals, Tirupati; b) Chertified stromatolites
in plan and cross section within cherty dolomite of the Vempalle
Formation. [Photo credit: Prof. R.C. Hanumanthu (Retd.), Sri Venkateswara
University, Tirupati]
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3. Nallamalai Group:
The succession is best exposed in the Nallamalai hill range has been divided
into two formations:
 Cumbum Formation correlated with Pullampet Formation
 Bairenkonda Quartzite correlated with Nagari Quartzite
The lower formation known as Bairenkonda Quartzite is best exposed in the
hill and its type locality Bairavunikonda. It consists mainly of a quartzite-pelitic
cycle in the lower part and a thick mature quartz arenite in upper part. Nagari
Quartzite is a thick-bedded arenaceous unit with basal conglomerates.
Cumbum Formation, named after Kambhan village, is essentially shaly
sequence with intercalations of quartzites and dolomites. Pullampet Formation
consisting of purple and calcareous shales with interbeds of dolomite and
quartzite conformably overlies Nagari Quartzite. The deposition ranges from
shallow marine to shallow subtidal environment.
 Srisailam Quartzite:
The rocks of this formation are exposed along the Krishna river cutting a
deep gorge in the Nallamalai plateau. It is horizontally bedded comprises of
red quartzites, glauconite bearing ferruginous quartzites overlying Papaghni
and Nallamalai Groups with unconformity. The evidences suggest that the
deposition took place under shallow marine to tidal flat environment.
 Igneous activity: The major igneous activity associated with Vempalle and
Tadpatri Formations in the western part of the basin are dolerite, picrite and
gabbro sills, basaltic flows, ignimbrites and ash fall tuffs. Nagari Quartzite,
Pullampet and Cumbum Formation are traversed by dolerite sills. Kimberlite
dykes and syenite stocks are found in Cumbum rocks. Kimberlitic rock of
Chelima emplaced in Cumbum sediments have yielded an age of 1225 Ma.
 Life: Lower Cuddapah carbonate rocks are full of significant columnar
stromatolites. The stromatolite structures of the Vempalle and Tadpatri
formations have yield organic remains such as Conophyton, Kussiella,
Colomnella and algal mats of the Riphean age.
 Mineral Potential: Cuddapah basin is the repository of a number of mineral
deposits. The world-famous Koh-i-noor diamond comes from this basin.
Ancient mining activity is believed to extend as far as 5th century B.C. The
basin holds dominant position in terms of industrial minerals chrysotile
asbestos, baryte, base metals, diamond, phosphorite, uranium, steatite, clay
and ochre. It’s potential for other raw materials like high-grade limestones,
dolomite, flooring stones and slate. The dolomite from Cumbum Formation
hosts a marginal lead-zinc deposit at Agnigundala. Pullampet Formation at
Mangampeta hosts largest deposit of bedded baryte in the world. It has been
declared as a National Geological Monument. Lead and copper
mineralization has been reported from the rocks of Nallamalai Group.
Steatite is reported from Vempalle Formation (Fig. 4.10).

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Fig. 4.10: Steatite mine in Vempalle Formation near Rayalacheruvru. (Photo credit:
Prof. R.C. Hanumanthu)

Learners, you have learnt about the stratigraphic classification of Dharwar

Craton and Cuddapah Supergroup. Before discussing about the Vindhyan
Supergroup, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Mention the basis for division of Dharwar into two blocks.
b) What is the significance of quartz-pebble conglomerate (QPC)?
c) List two greenstone belts of WDC and EDC.
d) Write about the life reported in the Cuddapah Supergroup.
e) List formations of Cuddapah Supergroup with igneous activity.

4.4 VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP

The Vindhyan basin is the spectacular, sickle shaped largest single Proterozoic
basin in the Indian Peninsular shield situated on the Bundelkhand craton (Figs.
4.1 and 4.6). The ENE trending Vindhyan basin spreads over the parts of
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar extending from Sasaram
in Bihar to Chittaurgarh in Rajasthan (Fig. 4.11). Vindhyan sediments,
spreading over an area of 100,000 sq. km of which about 60,000 sq. km is
exposed for direct observation and rest is covered by Deccan Traps in the
south-west and Indo-Gangetic alluvium towards the north. The basin is
separated from Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt by westerly dipping Great Boundary
Fault Zone (GBFZ) in the west. The Vindhyan basin has been divided into three
sub-basins (from west to east) Rajasthan, Bundelkhand and Son valley sector
of which the latter two are larger (Fig. 4.11). The Vindhyan succession in the
Bundelkhand sector is dominated by carbonates while siliciclastics (sandstones
and shales) and carbonates are equally prevalent in the Son valley and
Rajasthan sectors. The first Director of Geological Survey of India, Thomas
Oldham in 1856 introduced the term ‘Vindhyan’ for this Supergroup. The name

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‘Vindhyan’ is derived from the great ‘Vindhyan Mountains’ of Central India. The
Vindhyan Supergroup consists of about 4500m thick sedimentary pile
comprising a sequence of sandstone and shale in almost equal proportion with
subordinate carbonates, in the lower part. Vindhyan rocks show the excellent
preservation of sedimentary structures.
4.4.1 Stratigraphic Classification
The studies on Vindhyan basin commenced from the work of D.H. Williams in
1848. Three-fold division of the supergroup: Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander was
proposed by T. Oldham in 1856. Lower Vindhyan was designated as Semri by
F.R. Mallet in 1869. Vindhyan Supergroup has been divided into four groups by
Auden in 1933 as follows in chronological order:
 Bhander Group
 Rewa Group
 Kaimur Group
 Semri Group
The common terms in usage are the Lower Vindhyan (for the Semri Group) and
the Upper Vindhyans (for Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander groups). The general
stratigraphic scheme of the Vindhyan Supergroup is summarised in Table 4.6.
The alternative names of the formations have been mentioned in the Table 4.6

Fig. 4.11: The regional geological map of Vindhyan Basin. (Source: Soni et. al.
1987)

4.4.2 Lithology
Let us discuss the lithology of the groups mentioned in Table 4.6.

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Table 4.6: Stratigraphic classification for the Vindhyan Supergroup.
(Source: Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008)

 Semri Group:
The name Semri comes from the Semri River, its type locality near Bijawar.
Semri Group rests with non-conformity on the Bundelkhand granite (Fig. 4.
12a), and on the Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) with angular unconformity.
The basal succession consists of conglomerates, ferruginous sandstones and
shales mainly exposed in Rajasthan (Khardeola Sandstone). In Bundelkhand
and Son valley, the basal unit consists of sandstones (Deoland or Pandwafall
Sandstone) overlain by shales (Arangi Shale). The overlying stromatolitic
limestones and dolomites (Kajrahat/Tirohan Limestone and Lohar Dolomite)
suggest a continental shelf setting. The basal succession is overlain by felsic

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pyroclastics and volcanics known as Chopan/ Deonar Porcellanite Formation.
The Porcellanite consists of tuffaceous beds (Fig. 4.13b), pumice tuffs,
agglomerates, breccia, bedded chert and volcanic bombs. Olive Shale also
known as Kheinjua Shale is olive green in colour with well developed pencil
fracture. It is overlain by stromatolite bearing Fawn coloured limestones or
Bargawan Limestone in which Collenia clappii and Conophyton garganicus are
profusely developed (Fig. 4.14). Fawn Limestone is overlain by the Glauconitic
Sandstone (also called Chorhat Sandstone). Rohtas Limestone of the Semri
Group (Lower Vindhyan) is conformably overlain by the Sasaram Sandstone of
the Kaimur Group (Upper Vindhyan) (Fig. 4.12b). The lithologies of Semri
Group suggest a composite environment of deposition varying from lagoonal to
subtidal.

Fig. 4.12: a) Unconformable contact between sandstone of Lower Vindhyan

deposited on Bundelkhand Granite, Chitrakoot, U.P.; and b) Field
photograph showing Sasaram sandstone of Upper Vindhyan
conformably resting over the Rohtas limestone of Lower Vindhyan in
Son valley, Sonbhadra district.

 Kaimur Group:
It is named after Kaimur scarp and exhibits conformable contact with the Semri
Group in the Son valley and Chittorgarh. Kaimur Group is essentially most
extensively developed argillo-arenaceous succession. Sasaram Sandstone is
the basal part of Kaimur Group which is overlain by the Markundi Sandstone.
They are intervened by the Ghurma Shale or Susnai Breccia. They have been
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interpreted to have deposited in barrier beach dune or tidal flat environment.
The overlying Bijaigarh pyritiferous shale with pyrite beds near Amjhore (40%
sulphur) suggests quiet lagoonal environment. Mangesar Formation and the
overlying Dhandraul Quartzite (Fig.4.13a) consisting of arkosic and arenitic
sandstones is interpreted as a braided ephemeral stream deposit or as sandy
intertidal flat or tidal channel deposit.

Fig. 4.13: a) Panoramic view of Kaimur Group rocks in Son valley, Sonbhadra
district, and b) Tuffaceous beds in Porcellanite Formation.

 Rewa Group:
This name is derived from the then Rewa State. The basal Panna Shale,
without any basal conglomerate, indicates continuity of deposition from the
Kaimur Group. Panna Shale and Asan Sandstone consisting of red shales,
limestones, barytes and glauconitic siltstones indicate a lagoonal environment.
This is overlain by the Jhiri Shale by a gradational contact and is separated
from the Asan Sandstone by a diamondiferous conglomerate at Panna. Red
shale, with glauconitic siltstones indicate lagoonal, lacustrine or offshore
environment. The overlying Drummondganj Sandstone is deposited in shore

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face environment. This is overlain by the Govindgarh Sandstone which is poorly
sorted and texturally immature, indicating either fluvial, deltaic or near shore
muddy tidal flat environment.
 Bhander Group:
It is named after Bhander Upland. The basal unit of Ganurgarh Shale is the
diamondiferous conglomerate in Panna area, but elsewhere has a gradational
contact with the Rewa Group. The Ganurgarh is chocolate coloured shale with
stromatolitic limestone and sandstone interbeds that contain intraformational
breccia and halite clasts. Lakheri Limestone with algal mats and stromatolites,
dessication structures, gypsum layers suggest an evaporitic environment. The
overlying Bundi Hill Sandstone is a fining upward sequence. The overlying
Sirbu Shale with halite casts indicates oxidising to arid conditions. The overlying
Maihar Sandstone is a blanket deposit with sedimentary structures and
intercalated stromatolitic limestone beds. Bhander Group lithology is indicative
of shoreline-lagoon-tidal flat environment.
 Age: Data from radiometric dating has fixed the initiation of Vindhyan
sedimentation around 1600-1720 Ma. Pb-Pb age has yielded 1720 Ma for
the Kajrahat Limestone. Felsic volcanics of the Chopan Porcellanite from the
Semri Group provide zircon U-Pb age of 1632 Ma. Rb-Sr ages from
Kimberlites of Panna suggest age of Kaimur Group to be about 1100-1150
Ma. The ages of Rewa and Bhander Groups have been estimated to be
1100-700 Ma. Many workers advocate the time span of over 1000 Ma
between 1700-600 Ma as a period of uninterrupted sedimentation of the
Vindhyan Supergoup.

Fig. 4.14: Stromatolites preserved in Fawn Limestone at Salkhan Fossil Park in

Sonbhadra district.

 Life: Direct (mega- and micro- fossils) or indirect (stromatolites, trace fossils,
algal mats) evidences indicate the presence of life during Vindhyan period.
The stromatolites Collenia clappii and Conophyton garganicus have been
reported from the Fawn limestone. Microfossils have been reported from
Semri and Bhander groups which include cyanobacterial, bacterial, algal,
fungal and acritarchal remains. Several instances of small shelly fauna,
primitive brachiopod, Ediacaran fauna as well as trace fossils have been
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reported from the Semri Group to suggest that Vindhyan extend to Lower
Cambrian period.
 Mineral Potential: The Vindhyan basin is well known for its resources of
diamond, limestones and dolomites, base metals, building stones, laterite,
ochre and glass sand. Occurrence of mineralisation and native sulphur are
noted at Semri in Bundelkhand.
In the previous sections you have studied about the Cuddapah Supergroup and
Vindhyan Supergroup. Now in the following section we will discuss about the
Delhi Supergroup.

4.5 DELHI SUPERGROUP

Delhi Supergroup is a part of the Aravalli craton. The Aravalli craton is exposed
in the NE-SW trending Aravalli Mountain Range and occupies the northwestern
part of the Indian shield. It is mainly exposed in the state of Rajasthan with
sporadic occurrences in Haryana, Delhi, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. It is
bounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Vindhyan basin and the Deccan
Traps in the east, the Cambay graben in the south-west and recent alluvium
lies to the west. It is well known for its rich base metal resources. Aravalli craton
is composed of three fundamental geological units namely Banded Gneissic
Complex (BGC), Aravalli Supergroup and Delhi Supergroup in ascending order.
Aravalli and Delhi supergroups are Palaeoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic in
age, respectively and occupied by the rocks of fold belts. Alternatively, the
Aravalli Supergroup is also termed as Aravalli Fold Belt and the Delhi
Supergroup as Delhi Fold Belt.
The Delhi Supergroup constitutes a major portion of the Aravalli Mountain
Range and extends over a strike distance of about 700 km in Gujarat in
southwest to Delhi in northeast, from where the supergroup derived its name.
The rocks of the supergroup prominently occur in southwestern, northeastern
and central Rajasthan in the form of a linear belt.
4.5.1 Stratigraphic Classification
Delhi Supergroup consists of about 3000 m thick upward-fining sequence of
conglomerates and sandstones. It lies above the rocks of Archaean BGC and
the Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli Supergroup and below the rocks of the
Neoproterozoic Marwar Supergroup. The supergroup has been divided into
three groups such as Raialo, Alwar and Ajabgarh in chronological order.
The stratigraphic succession of Delhi Supergroup has been summarised in
Table 4.7.
 Raialo Group:
It is the basal most group of the Delhi Supergroup, and constitutes of texturally
mature well-sorted Basal conglomerates which is an indicative of a beach
environment. The conglomerates and pebbly quartzites are overlain by basic
volcanics with sedimentary interbeds. Basic volcanics comprise explosive
phase consisting of agglomerates, volcanic breccia and welded tuffs. The group

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is made up of three formations such as Dogeta, Serrate and Tehla in the order
of superposition (Table 4.7).
Table 4.7: Stratigraphic sequence of the Delhi Supergroup of
northeastern Rajasthan. (Source: Roy and Jakhar, 2002)

 Alwar Group:
It overlies the Raialo Group. It is largely arenaceous and made up of
conglomerates, feldspathic quartzites, orthoquartzites and arkoses, along with
minor shales. The lithology of Alwar Group is indicative of braided stream,
subtidal and tidal flat depositional environments. It is made up of three
formations namely Rajgarh, Kankwarhi and Pratapgarh.
 Ajabgarh Group:
It is the youngest group of the Delhi Supergroup, which disconformably overlies
the Alwar Group. It is predominantly composed of carbonaceous shales,
phyllites and quartzites. It is further divisible into five formations comprising
Kushalgarh, Sariska, Thanagazi, Bhakrol and Arauli in ascending order. The
Arauli Formation is overlain by the basic and acid intrusives.

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 Life: Delhi Supergroup yields evidences of multicellular animal life in the
form of trace fossils, fusiform and spindle shaped structures. The
bioturbation signatures such as trails and tracks of organisms are also
found in quartzites exposed in Jaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts.
 Mineral Potential: Delhi Supergroup is an important storehouse for base
metals, other metallic and non-metallic minerals. About 50% of country’s
copper production comes from the Delhi Supergroup (i.e. Khetri copper belt
in Jhunjhunu district). Other mineral resources are asbestos, baryte, calcite,
china clay, fire clay, marble, mica, glass sand and flexible sandstone,
building stones and ornamental stones.
Learners, you have learnt the stratigraphic classification of Vindhyan and Delhi
Supergroup. Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your
progress.

SAQ 2
a) Mention the fundamental units of Aravalli craton.
b) List the groups of the Vindhyan Supergroup.
c) Name the three groups of Delhi Supergroup in ascending order.

4.6 ACTIVITY
Draw a map of India and mark the Precambrian cratons, Mobile belts and
Proterozoic basins of Peninsular India.

4.7 SUMMARY
Now let us summarise what we have learned in this unit:
 Dharwar Craton has been divided into two tectonic blocks—the Western
Block and the Eastern Block on the basis of differences in the character of
schist belts, their inter-relationships with the surrounding Gray gneisses,
grades of metamorphism and temporal evolution.
 Gray gneisses (2500-2700 Ma) cover the entire EDC. Peninsular gneisses
are restricted to gneisses older than 3000 Ma which are restricted to WDC.
 WDC hosts large schist belts of the Dharwar Supergroup with volcanics and
EDC hosts narrow linear belts of the Dharwar Supergroup.
 Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) has been grouped into two orogenic cycles
separated in time, viz. the older Sargur Group and the younger Dharwar
Supergroup.
 Proterozoic sedimentary basins are less disturbed and unmetamorphosed
thick pile of sedimentary sequences overlying the deformed and
metamorphosed Archaean basement.
 The Cuddapah basin hosts sedimentary successions ranging in age from the
Paleoproterozoic through the Neoproterozoic with internal unconformities,
i.e. Cuddapah Supergroup and Kurnool Group.

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 Cuddapah Supergroup has been divided into three groups: Papaghni,
Chitravati and Nallamalai. Each group represents a cycle of quartzite–shale
sequence reflecting successive transgressions in the basin.
 Vindhyan basin has been divided into three sub-basins: Rajasthan,
Bundelkhand and Son valley. Vindhyan Supergroup has been divided into
four groups: Semri, Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander.
 Aravalli craton constitutes of two major fundamental geological units: Banded
Gneissic Complex and two Proterozoic fold belts (Aravalli and Delhi).
 Delhi Supergroup is Mesoproterozoic in age and has been divided into
Raialo, Alwar and Ajabgarh groups.

4.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Elaborate the four differences between Western Dharwar Craton and
Eastern Dharwar Craton.
2. Describe the stratigraphic succession of the Dharwar Supergroup of Western
Dharwar craton.
3. Discuss in detail the stratigraphy of Cuddapah Supergroup. Add a note to the
igneous activity and mineral potential.
4. Elucidate the stratigraphic succession of Vindhyan Supergroup.
5. Give an account on the stratigraphy of the Delhi Supergroup.

4.9 REFERENCES
 GSI Map (1981b) Geological and Mineral Map of the Cuddapah basin. Scale
1:250,000 with Explanatory Brochure, 26p.
 Gupta, S.N., Arora, Y.K., Mathur, R.K., Iqbaluddin, Prasad, B., Sahai, T.N.
and Sharma, S.B. (1980) Lithostratigraphic map of the Aravalli region. Geol.
Surv. India, Calcutta.
 Nagaraja Rao, B.K., Rajurkar, Ramalingaswamy and Ravindra Babu, B.
(1987) Stratigraphy, Structure and Evolution of the Cuddapah Basin. Purana
Basins of Peninsular India. Memoir 6. Geological Society of India. Pp. 33-86.
 Naqvi S.M., Rogers J.J.W., (1996) Precambrian Geology of
India, Clarendon, New York.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan,R. (2008) Geology of India, v.1, 556p.
Geol. Soc. India, Bengaluru.
 Roy, A.B.and. Jakhar. S.R (2002) Geology of Rajasthan (Northwest India):
Precambrian to Recent. Published by Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur,
India.
 Soni, M.K., Chakraborty, S. and Jain, V. K. (1987) Vindhyan Supergroup-A
Review. In: (B.P. Radhakrishnan) Purana Basins of Peninsular India. Memoir
6, Geological Society of India. Pp. 87-138.
 Swaminath J., Ramakrishnan M. and Viswanathan M.N. (1976) Dharwar
stratigraphic model and Karnataka craton evolution, Rec. Geol. Surv.
Ind., 107, 149–179.

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 Swaminath J., Ramakrishnan, M., (1981) Early Precambrian supracrustals of
southern Karnataka, Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., 112, 350.

4.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Mazumdar, R. and Eriksson, P.G. (2015) Precambrian Basins of India:
Stratigraphic and Tectonic Context. Geological Society of London, Memoir
43, 352p.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005), Geology and Evolution of the Indian plate (from Hadean
to Holocene – 4Ga to 4Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008), Geology of India Vol. 1,
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Sharma, Ram (2010) Cratons and Fold Belts of India. Volume 127 of Lecture
Notes in Earth Sciences, Springer, 304p.

4.11 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Dharwar Craton has been divided into two tectonic blocks—the Western
Block and the Eastern Block on the basis of differences in the character
of schist belts, their inter-relationships with the surrounding Grey
gneisses, grades of metamorphism and temporal evolution.
b) WDC consists mainly of Peninsular Gneiss comprising TTG gneisses
which forms the basement to Dharwar Supergroup and the contact is
marked by a profound regional unconformity signifying cessation of
Sargur orogeny. This unconformity is defined by the presence of locally
uraniferous quartz-pebble conglomerate (QPC).
c) WDC: Bababudan-Western Ghats-Shimoga and Chitradurga-Gadag.
EDC: Ramgiri- Penakacherla belt-Hungund and Kolar-Kadiri-Hutti
Superbelt
d) Lower Cuddapah carbonate rocks are full of significant columnar
stromatolites. The Vempalle and Tadpatri are based on stromatolite
assemblage Lower Cuddapah is indicated to range from Early to Late
Riphean (1600 -900Ma). Algal mats are common in these dolomitic
rocks. Conophyton, Kussiella, Colomnella has been reported from
Vempalle and Tadpatri Formations.
e) The major igneous activity associated with Vempalle and Tadpatri
Formations. Nagari Quartzite, Pullampet and Cumbum Formation are
traversed by dolerite sills. Kimberlite dykes and syenite stocks are found
in Cumbum rocks. Kimberlitic rock of Chelima emplaced in Cumbum
sediments.
2 a) Aravalli craton constitutes of two major fundamental geological units:
Banded Gneissic Complex and Proterozoic fold belts, i.e. Aravalli Fold
Belt and Delhi Fold belt.
b) Bithur-Pisangan Line or Rajgarh-Pisangan Line.

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c) There are three main sedimentary subbasins from east to west, namely:
Bayana-Lalsot basin, Alwar basin and Khetri basin.
d) There are three main sedimentary subbasins; Eastern Bhim-Shyamgarh,
Western Sendra-Barotia and Raigarh-Ajmer Basin.
e) Phulad Ophiolite Suite constitutes of dismembered linear bodies of
epidiorite, amphibolite, pyroxene granulite, metagabbro and ultramafics.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Table 4.1.
2. Refer to subsection 4.2.2 and Table 4.2.
3. Refer to subsection 4.3.2 and Table 4.5.
4. Refer to subsection 4.4.2 and Table 4.6.
5. Refer to subsection 4.5.2 and Table 4.7.

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 UNIT 5

PALAEOZOIC OF INDIA

Structure_______________________________________________
5.1 Introduction 5.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 5.5 Summary
5.2 Palaeozoic Successions of Northwestern 5.6 Terminal Questions
Himalaya
5.7 References
Palaeozoic Succession of Spiti
5.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Palaeozoic Succession of Kashmir
5.9 Answers
5.3 Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of Spiti and Kashmir:
A Synoptic View

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Palaeozoic successions of India comprise those rock systems, which were deposited during the
Palaeozoic times ranging from Cambrian to Permian. During the Palaeozoic era, India mostly
witnessed marine deposition, which largely took place in the Himalayan region under the Tethys Sea.
The Palaeozoic marine successions are almost absent in the peninsular India expect a few
successions occur in Umaria and Jabalpur areas of Madhya Pradesh and in Bikaner-Nagaur area of
Rajasthan.
On the other hand, Palaeozoic successions are best developed in many places of the Himalayan
region such as Kashmir and Zanskar in Jammu and Kashmir, Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
and Arunachal Pradesh. However, the best exposures of the Palaeozoic rocks can be seen in Spiti
and Kashmir parts of the Himalaya. In contrast, the freshwater sediments of Upper Palaeozoic
(Carboniferous to Permian) age were deposited in peninsular India and constitute the Gondwana
Supergroup.
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
Palaeozoic successions lie above the Precambrian crystalline basement. In
Unit 4, you have studied the main Precambrian supergroups of peninsular
India. In this unit, we will discuss the two important Palaeozoic successions of
the Himalaya exposed at Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir in Jammu and
Kashmir.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the classification of Palaeozoic successions of Spiti and Kashmir;
and
 discuss lithology, age, biota and depositional environment of different
groups/formations of Palaeozoic successions of Spiti and Kashmir.

5.2 PALAEOZOIC SUCCESSIONS OF

NORTHWESTERN HIMALAYA
Himalayan range is one of the longest mountain chains in the world extending
from over 2500 km from Pamir in the west to Mishmi Hills in the east located in
the northern part of India. Its width ranges from 150 to 400 km. It may be noted
that from west to east, the two sectors of the Himalaya are named as
northwestern Himalaya and northeastern Himalaya. The northwestern Himalaya
refers to the western half of the Himalayan mountain range, extending from
northeastern Afghanistan through Kashmir to Nepal. Whereas the northeastern
Himalaya refers to the eastern part situated between the Kali Gandaki river in
the Central Nepal in the west and Myanmar in the east. The northeastern
Himalaya covers southeast Tibet, Sikkim, North Bengal, northeast India and
Bhutan.

Fig. 5.1: Map showing Palaeozoic successions. (Source: modified after Talent and
Bhargava, 2003)
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Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India
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Palaeozoic sucessions of northern India are well preserved in the Tethyan
Himalayan basin of the northwest Himalaya. These sucessions occur in
Kashmir basin, Spiti-Zanskar basin and Kinnaur-Uttarkhand (Kumaon) basin
(Fig. 5.1). In addition, Palaeozoic rocks are also present in Bhutan in the
northeastern Himalaya. The Lesser Himalayan part also contains some
sequences of Palaeozoic rocks, which are present in Himachal-Uttarkhand and
Nepal in the northwestern Himalaya and Darjeeling, Arunchal Pradesh and
Bhutan in the northeastern Himalaya. The Kashmir and Spiti basins contain, by
and large, most complete Palaeozoic sucessions of rocks. Therefore, we will
discuss briefely above these two basins in this unit.
Do you know?
The Himalaya is divided into five parallel tectonic belts from north to south:
Trans, Tethys, Greater, Lesser and Outer Himalaya. Each belt is bounded by
prominent tectonic features consisting of fault or thrust zones. The Indus
Tsangpo Suture Zone lies between Trans and Tethys Himalaya. The Tethyan
Thrust marks the tectonic contact between Tethyan and Greater Himalaya.The
Main Central Thrust represents the contact between Greater and Lesser
Himalaya. The Main Boundary Thrust lies between Lesser and Outer Himalaya.

5.2.1 PALAEOZOIC SUCCESSION OF SPITI

Spiti is a part of the Lahaul and Spiti District of Himachal Pradesh in the
northwestern Himalayan region. The Lahaul and Spiti District is bounded by two
northwest to southeast trending mountain ranges such as the PirPanjal and the
Greater Himalaya, which are separated by two major valleys namely Lahaul
and Spiti. The Lahaul valley is situated in the northwestern part and the Spiti
valley in the southeastern part of the district. The Spiti valley contains a
complete, well developed, folded, marine fossiliferous succession of Palaeozoic
to Mesozoic age (Fig. 5.2). This is an elongated succession exposed parallel to
the general trend of the Himalaya from northwest to southeast direction. It
represents well developed and best studied Palaeozoic to Mesozoic succession
of India, which is well known for its rich fossil assemblages. As a result, the
Spiti area is popularly known as “Museum of Indian Geology”while referring to
the Geology of India.

Fig. 5.2: Field photograph of Palaeozoicsucession of Spiti. (Photo credit: Prof.

Trilochan Singh)
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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
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 Lithostratigraphy
The richly fossiliferous marine Palaeozoic succession of Spiti lies above the
Precambrian crystalline basement and below the Lower Triassic Otoceras zone
of the Lilang Group. It has received attention of many geologists around the
globe from the middle of 19th century till date. The earlier remarkable work on
the stratigraphy of this succession was carried out by F. Stoliczka, C.L.
Griesbach, C. Dinner, H.H. Hayden and G. Fuchs and recently revised by S.V.
Srikantia, A Ranga Rao, U. K. Bassi and O. N. Bhargava. Among them, the
work carried out by Hayden in 1904 and Bhargava and Bassi in 1998 is more
relevant. Hayden (1904) first provided a detailed account on stratigraphy of
Spiti area, which was thoroughly updated by Bhargava and Bassi in 1998. A
genalised lithostratigraphic classification of the Palaeozoic succession of Spiti is
given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Lithostratigraphy of Palaeozoic rocks of Spiti. (Source: modified
after Bhargava and Bassi, 1998; Bhargava, 2008; Vaidyanadhan
and Ramakrishnan, 2010)
Age Group Formation Lithology

Lower Triassic Otoceras zone of the Lilang Group

Permian Kuling Gungri Black shales, silty shales, gray
siltstones with phosphate and
calcareous nodules with fossils of
brachiopods, cephalopods and
palynomorphs.
Gechang Sandstones, bands of shales and
conglomerates with fossils of
bivalves and corals.
Ganmachidam Polymictic conglomerates,
quartzites, siltstones and shales
with fossils of brachiopods,
bryozoans and bivalves
Carboniferous Kanawar Po Interbedded shales and quartzites
with siltstonesas well as some
brachiopods and plant fossils.
Lipak Fossiliferous limestones, shales,
sandstones and some pockets of
gypsum
Devonian ------ Muth Hard, white quartzites with few
bands of limestones, dolomites
and shales. Trace fossils and
stromatolites.
Silurain ------ Takche Limestones and marls.
Fossiliferous with remains of
brachiopods, trilobites, molluscs
etc.
Ordovician ------ Thango Conglomerates with intercalation
of red clays, interbedded
quartzites, shales and limestones.

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Cambrian Haimanta Kunzam La Slates, quartzites, calcareous
quartzites, shales, limestones,
dolomitic limestones, siltstones
and micaceous sandstones with
fossils of trilobites, brachiopods,
echinoderms and pteropods.
Batal Carbonaceous slates, phyllites,
quartzites and gritstones, devoid
of fossils.
Precambrian Salkhala Formation

Now, let us discuss the Palaeozoic succession of Spitiin detail.

 Haimanta Group:
The Cambrian rocks of Spiti are known as Haimanta Group, which lies above
the highly metamorphosed Precambrian Salkhala Formation. The group is
divided into two formations such as Batal and Kunzam La.
The Batal Formation is the basal most unit, consists of carbonaceous slates,
phyllites, quartzites and gritstones. The overlying Kunzam La Formation
comprises slates, quartzites, calcareous quartzites, shales, limestones,
dolomitic limestones, siltstones and micaceous sandstones. The Kunzam La is
also known as the Parahio Formation. The greenish colour and gentle slopes
of the Kunzam La Formation differentiate it from the underlying Batal
Formation. The group is poorly fossiliferous. The fossils are almost lacking in
the lower part (i.e. in the Batal Formation) of the group while the upper part has
yielded the fossils of trilobites, brachiopods, echinoderms and pteropods.
Although, the Haimata Group is considered of Cambrian age, the age of the
Batal Formation may extend to uppermost Precambrian.
Thango Formation: The Ordovician sequence of Spiti is designated as Thango
Formation. It lies above the Kunzam La Formation of the Haimanta Group at a
plane of angular unconformity. The formation can be easily recognised in the
field by the prominence of red colour and rugged slopes. It is dominantly
composed of thick conglomerates with intercalation of red clays, interbedded
quartzites, shales and limestones. This formation is also termed as Shian
Quartzite Formation. It may be noted that the formation is best developed in
Thango area than the Shian area. Hence, the term Thango Formation is
considered to be more appropriate. This formation, by and large, is
unfossiliferous. However, a very few beds of the formation hosts fossils of
Ordovician age. The Ordovician fauna includes elements of brachiopods,
bryozoans, trilobites and cephalopods. A marine environment of deposition has
been inferred to this formation.
Takche Formation: The Silurian rocks of Spiti are termed as Takche
Formation. It lies above the Thango Formation and consists dominantly of
limestones and marls. In addition, the formation alsocontains dolomites,
siltstones, shales and calcareous sandstones. Takche Formation rich in
brachiopods, trilobites yield is moderate and molluscs are rare. It also contains
fossils of corals, algae and conodonts. The Takche Formation is considered to
be of Silurian age, but its basal most part might have deposited during the
Upper Ordovician.
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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
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Muth Formation: The Devonian rocks of Spiti are designated as Muth
Formation. It has a sharp contact with the underlying Takche Formation. Muth
Formation comprises hard, white quartzites with limestones, dolomites and
shales in the upper part. The quartzite sequence is about 150 m thick and
hence, it was also termed as Muth Quartzites. The formation is largely
unfosiliferous and Devonian in age. However, some trace fossils and
stromatolites are known from the Muth Formation.
 Kanawar Group:
The Carboniferous sequence of Spiti is known as Kanawar Group. The group is
divided into two formations such as Lipak and Po in ascending order. The
Lipak Formation lies above the Muth Formation and are separated from each
other by a paraunconformity (Kumar, 1996). A succession of carbonate rocks is
developed above the Muth Quartzites that marked the beginning of the Lipak
Formation. Therefore, the commencement of carbonate bands is used to
demarcate the boundary between the Muth and the Lipak Formations
(Bhargava, 2008). Lithologically, the Lipak Formation consists of hard and black
fossiliferous limestones, shales, sandstones and gypsiferous limestones. It
contains well-preserved sedimentary structures such as ripple marks and cross-
bedding. This formation has yielded remains of conodonts (Icriodus), ostracods,
corals, trilobites, bivalves and brachiopods (Syringothyriscuspidata,
Linoproductus, Buxtonia) as well as trace fossils. The fossils show that the
formation is possibly of uppermost Devonian to Lower Carboniferous in age.
The conformably overlying Po Formation is made up of a thick sequence of
interbedded shales and quartzites with siltstones. The common sedimentary
structures present in the Po Formation are cross-bedding, parallel bedding and
ripple marks. The lower part of the formation contains plant fossils
(Sphenopteridiumfurcillatum and Racopteris ovata) of Lower Carboniferous age
whereas upper part contains brachiopods (Spirifer, Linoproductus), bryozoans
(Fenestella and Protoretepora) of Upper Carboniferous age. It has also yielded
a rich assemblage of trace fossils.
 Kuling Group:
The Permian rocks of Spiti are designated as Kuling Group. It is divided into
three formations such as Ganmachidam, Gechang and Gungri from bottom to
top. The Ganmachidam Formation is the basal unit of Permian strata and
overlies the Po Formation of Upper Carboniferous age. It dominantly consists of
polymictic conglomerates, quartzites, siltstones and shales. The formation is
poorly fossiliferous and yielded the remains of brachiopods, bryozoans and
bivalves. The stratigraphic contact between Po and Ganmachidam is
gradational. An uppermost Carboniferous to Lower Permian age has been
assigned to this formation.
The overlying Gechang Formation consists of sandstones with thin bands of
shales and conglomerates occur at the base. The contact between
Ganmachidam and Gechang formations is sharp. The formation is dated of
Lower Permian in age based on the occurrences, age, diagnostics species of
bivalves (Eurydesma) and corals (Waagenophyllum).

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Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India
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The topmost Gungri Formation of Kuling Group lies abruptly above the
Gechang Formation and below the Lilang Group of Lower Triassic age. It
consists of black shales, silty shales, gray siltstones with phosphate and
calcareous nodules. The top of formation is marked by the presence of a
ferruginous layer. The Gungri Formation can be easily identified in the field
based on its black colour, gentle slopes and ferruginous layer. Based on the
presence of brachiopods (Waagenoconcha), cephalopods (Cyclolobus and
Xenaspis) and palynomorphs, an Upper Permian age has been proposed for
this formation.
Learners, you have learnt about the Palaeozoic succession of Spiti. Before
discussing about the Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir, spend few minutes to
perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) Name the Palaeozoic successions of northwest Himalaya.
b) List the formations of the Palaeozoic succession of Spiti in ascending order.
c) Match the following:
a. Gungri Formation i. Kunzam La
b. Muth Formation ii. Precambrian
c. Haimanta Group iii. Devonian
d. Salkhala Formation iv. Upper Permian
d) Name few important fossils of the Kanawar Group.

5.2.2 PALAEOZOIC SUCCESSION OF KASHMIR

The beautiful Kashmir Valley of the Jammu and Kashmir state preserves an
excellent, well-developed and more or less continuous marine sedimentary
succession of the Palaeozoic age. The Kashmir Valley trends from northwest to
southeast and lies between the Zanskar Range or Greater Himalayan Range in
the northeast and Dhauladhar-PirPanjal Range in southwest. It is about 135 km
long and around 40 km wide. The Draba and Karnah mountain ranges of
Muzaffarabad lies on the western border. The Hundwara Tehsil covers the
northeastern part and Kishtwar and Chamba regions lie on the southeast
margin of the Kashmir Valley. The two subvalleys of the Kashmir Valley,
namely Lolab and Lidder display the best exposers of the Palaeozoic rocks in
Kashmir. The Lolab Valley is situated in the northwestern and Lidder Valley in
the southeastern corners of the Kashmir Valley.
The Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir largely consists of marine fossiliferous
rocks ranging from Cambrian to Permian periods. This succession is clearly
folded in the form of anticlines and synclines and exposed along the Greater
Himalayan and the PirPanjal ranges. However, some stratigraphic breaks in the
sequence are also recorded. These breaks constitute disconformities covering
Upper Cambrian-Lower Ordovician, Devonian and Upper Carboniferous times.
It may be noted that Cambrian rocks are best exposed in the Lolab valley,
notably in Handwara and Kupwara regions. Best outcrops of Ordovician and
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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
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Silurian are known in Liddar valley of Anantnag District. Devonian,
Carboniferous and Permian rocks are best exposed in Zewan area in Pulwama
District, Liddar Valley in Anantnag District and PirPanjal Range in the north of
Banihal.
 Lithostratigraphy
The Palaeozoic rocks of Kashmir are well developed and richly fossiliferous, as
a result many workers across the globe have worked on it. The earliest work on
the Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir goes back to 1866. In 1883, R.
Lydekker presented a detailed account on the Stratigraphy of Kashmir, which
was subsequently revised by C.S. Middlemiss in 1910. Following him, many
other workers, notably H.H. Hayden, D.N. Wadia, V.G. Fuchs, S.K. Shah, O.N.
Bhargava and S.V. Srikantia had continuously updated the Palaeozoic
stratigraphy of Kashmir. The Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir lies above the
Precambrian unfossiliferous Dogra Slates/ Salkhala Formation and below the
Triassic Sonamarg Group. A genalised lithostratigraphic classification of
Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir is given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: A genalised lithostratigraphic classification of Palaeozoic
succession of Kashmir. (Source: simplified after Srikantia and
Bhargava, 1983; Naqvi, 2005; Bhargava, 2008; Vaidyanadhan and
Ramakrishnan, 2010)
Age Group Formation Lithology
Triassic Sonamarg Group
Permian Zewan Limestones, shales, and calcareous
sandstones with remains of
brachiopods, bivalves, bryozoans,
corals, ammonoids, crinoids and
conodonts.
Panjal Massive and bedded basaltic
Volcanics andesite lava flows and ash bed.
Upper Agglomeratic Slates, sandstones, quartzites,
Carboniferous Slate conglomerates and a few bands of
limestones with remains of
brachiopods, bryozoans and
bivalves.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Lower Lidder Fenestella Alternating beds of shales and
Carboniferous Shale quartzites with rare bands of
carbonates. The shale beds are rich
in brachiopods, bryozoans, bivalves
and coral.
Syringothyris Gray to dark blue limestones with
Limestone bands of shales, quartzites and traps
with remains of brachiopods,
bivalves, algae, corals, bryozoans
and conodonts.
Devonian Muth White quartzites, siltstones, shales
and dolomitic limestones
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Silurain Rishkobal Gugaldhar Cross-bedded sandstones,
calcareous shales, calcareous
sandstones and bands of limestones
with corals, trilobites, brachiopods
and molluscs remains.
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Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India
…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………….
Ordovician Hallamulla Siltstones and shales with fossils of
crinoids and brachiopods.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Cambrian Hapatnar Rangamal Siltstones, shales, sandstones and
limestones with remains of trilobites,
bivalves, gastropods and algae.
Shumal Gray shales and siltstones with
trilobite fossils.
Lolab Siltstones, laminated shales and
sandstones with trilobite fossils.
Precambrian Dogra Slates/ Salkhala Formation

 Hapatnar Group:
The Cambrain sequence of Kashmir is known as Hapatnar Group. It rests over
either the crystalline rocks of the Salkhala Formation or the Dogra Slates. The
Salkhala Formation is named after a village Salkhala in the Kishanganga Valley
and the name Dogra Slates was given by Indian famous geologist, D. N. Wadia
for a thick sequence of argillaceous rocks occur in the southwest Kashmir and
Poonch regions of Jammu and Kashmir. These Precambrian rocks form the
basement for the deposition of the Tethyan sediments. The Cambrian Hapatnar
group is divided into three formations: Lolab, Shumal and Rangamal in
ascending order.
The Lolab Formation is the basal most formation of the Cambrian sequence,
rests over Salkhala Formation along a non-conformity. It is made up of
siltstones, laminated shales, and sandstones. Cross-bedding and ripple
bedding are common sedimentary structures present in this formation. The
Lolab Formation has yielded trilobites (Redlichiatakeooensis, Chittidilla plana
and Yuehsienszellaszechuanesis), which indicate a Lower Cambrian age.
The Shumal Formation is conformably lies abovethe Lolab Formation and
below by the Rangamal Formation. It consists of gray shales and siltstones.
Sedimentary structures like ripple marks and cross-bedding occur in the
siltstones. This formation is deposited under subtidal environment. It yields rich
assemblage of trilobites (Xingrenaspisdardapurensis, Tonkinellabreviceps,
Bailiellalantenoisi, Parachittidillakashmirensis, Shahaspishimalayensis etc.). A
Middle Cambrian age has been assigned to this formation.
The overlying Rangamal Formation is made up of siltstones, shales,
sandstones and limestones. It yields remains of trilobites (Damesellashergoldi,
Cyclolorenzellasp. etc), bivalves, gastropods and algae. An Upper Cambrian
age has been assigned to the Rangamal Formation. The Rangamal Formation
would have been deposited from the subtidal to supratidal environment. It may
be noted that both the Shumal and Rangamal formations of Kashmir are
equivalent to the Kunzam La Formation of the Spiti region.
 Rishkobal Group:
The Ordivician and Silurian rocks of Kashmir are designated as the Rishkobal
Group. This group is made up of two formations: Hallamulla and Gugaldhar.
The Hallamulla Formation lies abruptly above the Rangamal Formation. It
consists of gray to green siltstones andpurple green shales. It contains fossils

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of crinoids and brachiopods. A Lower Ordovician age has been assigned to this
formation.
The conformably overlying Gugaldhar Formation consists of cross-bedded
sandstones, calcareous shales and sandstones and bands of limestones. The
calcareous shales contains corals, trilobites, brachiopods and molluscs. This
formation appears to be deposited under subtidal to intertidal environment. An
Upper Ordovician to Lower Silurian age is suggested to this formation. The
Gugaldhar Formation is also considered nearly equivalent to the Takche
Formation of the Spiti basin.
 Lidder Group:
The Devonian to Lower Carboniferous sediments of Kashmir are termed as
Lidder Group. It comprises Muth Formation, Syringothyris Limestone and
Fenestella Shale in asending order.
The Muth Formation (widely known as Muth Quartzites) rests unconformably
over the Gugaldhar Formation. The stratigraphic contact between these two
formations is sharp. Lithologically, it is made up of white quartzites, siltstones,
shales and dolomitic limestones. The Muth Formation is lacking age diagnostic
fossils. The shale band of the formation is rich in fossils and yielded abundant
shells of brachiopods belonging to the genus Dalmanella. A Lower to Middle
Devonian age has been assigned to this formation based on its stratigraphic
position. Muth Formation of Kashmir is considered to be equivalent to the Muth
Formation of Spiti basin.
The Syringothyris Limestone (also named as Aishmuqam Formation)
conformably lies above the Muth Formation. It is a sequence of gray to dark
blue limestones with bands of shales, quartzites and traps. This formation has
yielded the remains of brachiopods (Syringothyriscuspidate, Linoproductus),
bivalves, algae, corals, bryozoans and conodonts. In addition, the basal part of
the formation contained some plant fossils such as Lepidodendropsis,
Lepidosigillaria, Archaeosigillaria, Rhacopteris etc. The limestone of the
formation is rich in brachiopods especially the genus, Syringothyris, after which
this formation was named. Devonian to Lower Carboniferous age has been
assigned to it. The Syringothyris Limestone of Kashmir basin is to be correlated
with the Lipak Formation of Spiti.
Fenestella Shale (also named as Ganeshpur Formation) rests over the
Syringothyris Limestone. It is composed of alternating beds of fosiliferous
shales and unfossiliferous quartzites with rare bands of carbonates. The shale
beds are richly fossiliferous and full of brachiopods, bryozoans, bivalves, coral
and a very few trilobites and crinoids. It may be noted that one genus of
bryozoans such as Fenestella is more dominant faunal element in this
formation. Hence, this formation is named as Fenestella Shale. Linoproductus,
Dielasma, Buxtonia and Spirifer are other dominant genera of brachiopods
known from this formation. The formation is dated as Lower Carboniferous in
age and correlated with the Po Formation of Spiti.
Agglomeratic Slate: The Upper Carboniferous rocks of Kashmir are termed as
Agglomeratic Slate. It conformably overlying the Fenestella Shale. It bears
pyroclastic and ash material together with sediments known as Agglomeratic
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Slate and contains angular fragments of various rocks and minerals. It consists
of slates, sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates, tilloids and a few bands of
limestones. Generally, Agglomeratic Slate is devoid of fossils, however, it
contains some fossiliferous beds, which yield remains of brachiopods
(Syringothyris, Linoproductus, Spirifer, Buxtoniaetc), bryozoans (Fenestella)
and bivalves (Eurydesma, Pinna, Lima). Agglomeratic Slate is also named as
Pindahol Formation and correlated to the Gechang Formation of Spiti. The
fluvio-glacial to deltaic environment is noted for its deposition. The age of the
Agglomeratic Slate is Upper Carboniferous.
Panjal Volcanics and Zewan Formation: The Permian rocks of Kashmir
include the Panjal Volcanics and the Zewan Formation. Permian rocks
commence with the volcanic lava flows that continued intermittently throughout
Permian and even in parts of Triassic though the main volcanic event occurred
in Lower and Middle Permian.
 The Panjal Volcanics conformably lies above the Agglomeratic Slate and
occurs along the central axis of the PirPanjal Range. The Panjal Volcanics
consist of a thick sequence of compact, massive and bedded basaltic
andesite lava flows and ash beds (Fig. 5.3a). The occurrences of dolerite
dykes and sills are known from the older rocks/formations such as
Syringothyris Limestone and Fenestella Shale. A Lower Permian age is
given to the Panjal Volcanics.
 Zewan Formation rests over the Panjal Volcanics and consists a thick
sequence of marine fossiliferous limestones, shales and calcareous
sandstones. This formation is named after the Zewan village in the Vihi area
of Kashmir province, where it is well exposed. It yielded the remains of
brachiopods (Linoproductus, Waagenoconcha, Neospirifer, Spiriferella,
Dielasma, Lamnimargushimalayensis ), bivalves, bryozoans (Protoretepora,
Fenestella), corals, ammonoids (cyclolobus, Xenaspis), crinoids and
conodonts. An Upper Permian age is assigned to the Zewan Formation. It is
overlain by the Triassic Sonamarg Group.

Fig. 5.3: Field photographs: a) Panjal Volcanics; and b) Gangamopteris Beds.

(Photo credit: Dr. Rakesh Chandra)

It is interesting to note that at several palces, there are fossiliferous beds that
occurred between upper part of the Panjal Volcanics and lower part of the
Zewan Formation. These beds are known to yield Gondwana plant fossils such
as Gangamopteris, Glossopteris, Vertebraria, Psygmophyllum etc. similar to
those forms known from the Lower Gondwana rocks of the Talchir and Damuda
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basins of Peninsular India. In addition, these beds also yielded some remains of
vertebrates (amphibians and fish) and insects. These beds are mainly
composed of cherts, siliceous, carbonaceous and tuffaceous shales,
sandstones and limestones (Fig. 5.3b). These beds represent northern most
occurrence of the Gondwana Supergroup in India and are popularly known as
Gangamopteris Beds and also named as Nishatbagh Formation.
Learners, you have learnt the Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir. Now, spend
few minutes to perform an exercise to check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) List the breaks in the Palaeozoic sucession of Kashmir.
b) Names the formations of the Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir in
ascending order.
c) Match the following:
a. Lolab Formation i. Vertebrates and fish
b. Panjal Volcanics ii. Hallamulla Formation
c. Rishkobal Group iii. Lower Cambrian
d. Gangamopteris Beds iv. Lower Permian

5.3 PALAEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF SPITI AND

KASHMIR: A SYNOPTIC VIEW
You may have noted while studying the Palaeozoic successions of Spit and
Kashmir that these two areas contain well developed and most complete
successions of Palaeozoic rocks. As a consequence, these are as remain the
focus of study to many geologists. In Spiti area, the earlier works on the
straigraphy were dated back to 1904, when H.H. Hayden gave a detailed
account on the stratigraphy of Spiti. After a long time, Bhargava and Bassi in
1998 presented a revised version on the stratigraphy of Spiti. In addition, many
other workers also worked on the stratigraphy of the Spiti area and created
many new formations/groups with new names.

On the other hand, Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir also has a same story.
In 1910, C.S. Middlemiss first presented a detailed account on the Stratigraphy
of Kashmir. While Srikantia and Bhargava in 1983 revised the Palaeozoic
stratigraphy of Kashmir. The Indian geologists such as O.N. Bhargava, S.V.
Srikantia and U.K. Bassi of the Geological Survey of India, while carrying out
geological mapping of Spiti and Kashmir noted that some of the names given to
the various geological formations for example, Fenestella Shale, Syringothyris
Limestone by Middlemiss did not meet the rules specified by the code of
stratigraphic nomenclature of India or they were not named as per the rules
specified in stratigraphic nomenclature. For example, Fenestella Shalere
presents a Formation. As per the code of stratigraphic nomenclature, a
formation should consist of a geographic name combined with formation, for
example Zewan Formation where Zewan is a geographic name. In case of

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Fenestella Shale, Fenestella is genus of bryozoans and Shale is a lithological
name, therefore it does not fulfil the code of stratigraphic nomenclature.
It should be noted that some of the names given at formations level in the
stratigraphy of Spiti and Kashmir are so deep rooted in the literature that their
complete removable in this unit is not justifiable. Thus, in order to avoid any
confusion and make the understanding of Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Spiti and
Kashmir, a comparison of old and new stratigraphy classifications of both areas
are shown in Tables 5.3a and 5.3b.
Table 5.3a: Old and revised Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Spiti.

After Hayden After Bhargava and Bassi

(1904) (1998)

Age Formation Age Formation

Permain Productus Shale Permain Gungri
Calc Sandstone Gechang
Permian Ganmachidam
Conglomerate
Carboniferous Po Carboniferous Po
Lipak Lipak
Devonian Muth Quartzites Devonian Muth
Silurian Silurian Silurian Takche

Ordovician Haimanta Ordovician Thango

Cambrian Cambrian Kunzam La

Batal

Table 5.3b: Old and revised Palaeozoic stratigraphy of Kashmir.

After Middlemiss (1910) After Srikantia and Bhargava
(1983) and Bhargava (2008)
Age Formation Age Formation
Permain Zewan Permain Zewan
Gangamopteris Nishatbagh
Beds
Panjal Volcanics Panjal
Volcanics
Carboniferous Agglomeratic Slate Carboniferous Pindahol
Fenestella Shale Ganeshpur
Syringothyrus Aishmuqam
Limestone
Devonian Muth Quartzites Devonian Muth
Silurian Upper Silurian Silurian Gugaldhar

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Ordovician Lower Silurian and
Cambrian (?) Cambrian Ordovician Hallamulla
Cambrian Rangamal
Shumal
Lolab

5.4 ACTIVITY
Table given below shows the Palaeozoic sucession of Spiti (Table 5.4). Try to
fill-up the group, formation and lithology in the missing rows.
Table 5.4: Palaeozoic sucession of Spiti
Age Group Formation Lithology
Lower Triassic Otoceras zone of the Lilang Group
Permian Gungri
Sandstones, bands of
shales and conglomerates
with fossils of bivalves and
corals.
Ganmachidam
Carboniferous Kanawar
Fossiliferous limestones,
shales, sandstones and
with some pockets of
gypsum.
Devonian ------ Muth
Silurain ------ Limestones and marls.
Fossiliferous with remains
of brachiopods, trilobites,
molluscs, etc.
Ordovician ------ Thango
Cambrian
Batal Carbonaceous slates,
phyllites, quartzites and
gritstones that are devoid of
fossils.
Precambrian Salkhala Formation

5.5 SUMMARY
Now let us summarise what we have learned in this unit:
 Palaeozoic successions are best developed in many places in the Himalayan
region such as Kashmir and Zanskar in Jammu and Kashmir, Spiti in
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh.
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 Palaeozoic successions are almost absent in the peninsular India expect a
very few successions occur in Umaria and Jabalpur areas of Madhya
Pradesh and in Bikaner-Nagaur area of Rajasthan.
 The Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh contains a complete, well developed,
folded, marine fossiliferous succession of Palaeozoic to Mesozoic age. It
represents a best studied Palaeozoic to Mesozoic succession of India with
rich fossil assemblages. Therefore, the Spiti valley is popularly known as
“Museum of Indian Geology” in Geology of India.
 The marine Palaeozoic succession of Spiti lies above the Precambrian
crystalline basement and below the Lower Triassic Otoceras zone of the
Lilang Group.
 The Batal, Kunzam La, Thango, Takche, Muth, Lipak, Po, Ganmachidam,
Gechang and Gungri are the main formations of Palaeozoic succession of
Spiti, ranging from Cambrian to Permian.
 Palaeozoic rocks of Spiti yield rich assemblages of invertebrates such as
trilobites, brachiopods, cephalopods, bryozoans, bivalves, pteropods etc.
and indicate that major portion of the succession was deposited under
marine conditions.
 Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir consists of marine fossiliferous rocks
ranging from Cambrian to Permian age and lies between the Zanskar Range
or Great Himalayan Range in the northeast and Dhauladhar-PirPanjal Range
in southwest in the Kashmir Valley.
 Palaeozoic succession of Kashmir lies either above the Precambrian
unfossiliferous Dogra Slates or crystalline rocks of Salkhala Formation and
below the Triassic Sonamarg Group.
 The Lolab, Shumal, Rangamal, Rishkobal, Muth, Syringothyris Limestone,
Fenestella Shale, Agglomeratic Slate, PanjalVolcanics and Zewan are the
main formations ranging from Cambrian to Permain known in the Kashmir
Valley.
 Although Palaeozoic rocks of Kashmir are rich in invertebrate fossils, the
Upper Palaeozoics specially Permo-Carboniferous yield some plant fossils of
Gondwana affinities and vertebrate remains.
 Panjal Volcanics are absent in the Spiti basin.

5.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the distribution of Palaeozoic rocks in India.
2. Describe the lithostratigraphic succession of Palaeozoic of Spiti
3. Give an account on the Palaeozoic Stratigraphy of Kashmir.

5.7 REFERENCES
 Bhargava, O.N. (2008) An updated introduction to the Spiti Geology. Journal
of the Palaeontological Society of India. 53(2): 113-129.
 Bhargava, O.N. and Bassi, U.K. (1998) Geology of Spiti-Kinnaur, Himachal
Himalaya. Memior of the Geological Survey of India, 124:1-210.

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 Hayden, H.H. (1904) The geology of Spiti with parts of Bashahr. Memior of
the Geological Survey of India, 36(1): 1-121.
 Kumar, R. (1996) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India, Fourth Reprint, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Middlemiss, C.S. (1910) A revision of the Silurian-Trias sequence in
Kashmir. Record of the Geological Survey of India, 40(3): 206-260.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian Plate (From Hadean
to Holocene – 4 Ga to 4 Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Srikantia, S.V. and Bhargava, O.N. (1983) Geology of the Palaeozoic
sequence of the Kashmir Tethys Himalayan basin in the Lidder valleys,
Jammu and Kashmir. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 24: 363-377.
 Talent, J.O. and Bhargava, O.N. (2003) Silurian of the Indian subcontinent
and adjacent regions. In: Silurian Land and Seas Paleogeography outside
Laurentia. The University of the State of New York. The State Education
Department, New York State Museum Bulletin 493: 221-239.
 Vaidyanadhan, R. and Ramakrishnan, M. (2010) Geology of India, Volume II,
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

5.8 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Krishnan, M.S. (1949) Geology of India and Burma. The Madras Law Journal
Office, Madras.
 Mukerjee, P. K. (1997) A Textbook of Geology, The world Press Pvt Ltd,
Calcutta.
 Shah, S.K. (2018) Historical Geology of India, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
 Wadia, D.N. (1966) Geology of India, McMillan Press, London.

5.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1a) The Palaeozoic successions of northwest Himalaya occur in the Kashmir
basin, Spiti-Zanskar basin and Kinnaur-Uttarkhand basin.
b) The Batal, Kunzam La, Thango, Takche, Muth, Lipak, Po,
Ganmachidam, Gechang and Gungri are the formations of Palaeozoic
succession of spiti, ranging from Cambrian to Permian.
c) a. – iv.
b. – iii.
c. – i.
d. – ii.
d) The Kanawar Group of Spiti is divided into two formations: Lipak and
Po. The Lipak Formation lies above the Muth Formation and consists of
hard and black fossiliferous limestones, shales, sandstones and
gypsiferous limestones. Important fossils of this formation are Icriodus

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(conodonts) and Syringothyriscuspidata, Linoproductus, Buxtonia
(brachiopods). The overlying Po Formationis made up of a thick
sequence of interbedded shales and quartzites with siltstones. The
Sphenopteridiumfurcillatum, Racopteris ovata (plant fossils), Spirifer,
Linoproductus (brachiopods) and Fenestella, Protoretepora (bryozoans)
are the characteristic fossil of the formation.
2a) At least three sedimentological breaks have been recorded in the
Palaeozoic sucession of Kashmir. These breaks occur at Upper
Cambrian-Lower Ordovician, Devonian and Upper Carboniferous times.
b) The Lolab, Shumal, Rangamal, Rishkobal, Muth, Syringothyris
Limestone, Fenestella Shale, Agglomeratic Slate, Panjal Volcanics and
Zewan are the main formations ranging from Cambrian to Permain in
Kashmir valley.
c) a. – iii.
b. – iv.
c. – ii.
d. – i.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 5.2.
2. Refer to sub-section 5.2.1.
3. Refer to sub-section 5.2.2.

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132
 UNIT 6

MESOZOIC OF INDIA

Structure________________________________________________
6.1 Introduction 6.3 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 6.4 Summary
6.2 Mesozoic Successions of India 6.5 Terminal Questions
Triassic of Spiti 6.6 References
Mesozoic of Kachchh 6.7 Further/Suggested Readings
Mesozoic of Rajasthan 6.8 Answers
Cretaceous of Tiruchirapalli

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Units 4 and 5, you have read the Precambrian and Palaeozoic rock systems of India. You must
have noted while studying these units, that the Precambrian successions are well-developed in the
peninsular India and the Palaeozoic successions in the Himalayan region. The Mesozoic
successions of India comprise those rock groups, that were deposited during the Triassic, Jurassic
and Cretaceous times, spanning from 252.2 to 66 million years/annuals (Ma) ago, a total duration of
186.2 Ma.
The Mesozoic era was marked by the break-up of Pangea, the supercontinent of the Palaeozoic era,
into Laurasian and Gondwana landmasses. India, once a part of Gondwanan landmasses, started to
separate and disperse from the Gondwana during the Middle Jurassic and collided with Asia during
Early Cenozoic.The Mesozoic witnessed considerably warmer temperatures and high sea levels due
to continental movements and tectonic activity. There were many marine transgressions events
recorded during the Mesozoic in different parts of India. These marine transgressions brought the

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deposition of marine sediments inside the continental areas. As a result,
Mesozoic successions are present in both the Himalayan and peninsular
regions of India.
The well-prerserved outcrops of the Mesozoic successions occur in different
parts of the country. In this unit, we will discuss the distribution, stratigraphy,
lithology, fossil content, age and environment of deposition of the main
Mesozoic successions of India, which are exposed in Spiti (Himachal Pradesh),
Kachchh (Gujarat), Rajasthan and Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu).

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 outline the Mesozoic successions of India;
 define and classify the main Mesozoic rock systems of India;
 discuss the lithology of important Mesozoic groups/ formations;
 describe the fossil content, age, palaeoenvironment and economic
significance of important Mesozoic groups/ formations; and
 explain the stratigraphy of the Mesozoic rocks of Spiti, Kachchh, Rajasthan
and Tiruchirapalli.

6.2 MESOZOIC SUCCESSIONS OF INDIA

The Mesozoic in India is marked by marine transgressions occupying the
Himalayan region and many parts of the peninsular India (Fig. 6.1). During the
Triassic and Jurassic, the marine sedimentation mostly took place in the
Himalayan region. However, peninsular region of India also witnessed a
considerable deposition of sediments in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. It is
noteworthy to mention that the Mesozoic sedimentation was not continuous
either in Himalyan region or in peninsular India. In India, the Mesozoic
sedimentation ceased with the volcanic eruption of the Deccan traps at the end
of Cretaceous.
The Triassic rocks are well developed and widely distributed in the Himalayan
region stretching from Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir) in the northwest through
Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) to Kumaon (Uttarakhand) in the south east (i.e. along
the Himalayan belt). It is important to note that the Triassic rocks are best
developed in the Spiti region. The rocks of Jurassic age are developed in the
Higher Himalaya, in the Kashmir-Zanskar-Spiti region and in Kachchh and
Rajasthan within the western sector of India. The Cretaceous rocks are
deposited in both Himalaya as well as in the peninsular regions of India. In
Himalaya, these rocks occur in Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir), Spiti, Kumaon
and Assam. Whereas, the Godavari, Krishna, Palar and Cauvery basins of
South India, the Cambay, Kachchh and Jaisalmer basins of Western India and
the Narmada basin of Central India contain outcrops of Cretaceous rocks within
peninsular India. In addition, sedimentary sequences associated with the
Rajmahal and the Deccan traps also yield rocks of Cretaceous age.

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Fig. 6.1: Map of India showing marine Mesozoic successions of India.

6.2.1 TRIASSIC OF SPITI

Spiti is a part of the Lahaul and Spiti District of Himachal Pradesh in the
northern Himalayan region. It contains a complete and well developed
succession of the Mesozoic rocks, which conformably lies between the
Productus Shale or Gungri Formation of Permain age and the Tagling
Limestone of Jurassic age. It is one of the most complete and best-preserved
successions consisting rocks of Triassic age and occur near the Lilang village
in Spiti. Therefore, the Triassic of Spiti is also termed as the Lilang Group. The
group dominantly consists of dark limestones and dolomites with subordinate
blue-coloured shales. The succession is entirely marine, fossiliferous and
deposited in a clear and deep-water environment without any significant
addition of terrigenous material. The sequence contains abundant remains of
ammonites, brachiopods, bivalves, belemnites, planktic foraminifers and rare
corals.
 Classification
The Triassic succession exposed in Spiti is divided into three parts such as
Lower, Middle and Upper Triassic (Table 6.1). As mentioned above, Triassic
rocks in Spiti lie between the Productus Shale or Gungri Formation of Permain
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age (below) and the Tagling limestone of Jurassic age (above). It should be
noted that limestones, dolomites and shales are main lithology of the group that
exhibits a striking uniformity in lithology with abundant ammonites.
Table 6.1: Triassic succession of Spiti.

Group Age Series Beds Lithology

Massive limestones and
Lilang Jurassic ---- Tagling limestone
dolomites
Megalodon
Massive limestones and
limestone (Para
dolomites
Stage)
White and brown quartzite
Quartzite series with grey limestones and
black shales
Sandy and shaly limestones
Monotis shales with brown weathering
shales and sandstones
Upper
Coral limestone Limestones
Triassic
Brown-weathering shales,
Juvavites beds
limestones and shales
Dolomite limestones, shales
Tropites beds and dark limestones with
ammonite beds
Gray shales and shaly
Gray beds limestone with pelecypod
bed and an ammonite bed
Halobia beds Dark splintery limestones
Lilang Triassic
Daonella
Hard dark limestones
limestone
Dark shales and grey
Daonella shales
limestones
Upper Concretionary limestones
Middle Muschelkalk with shale bands
Triassic Lower Dark shales and grey
Muschelkalk limestones
Nodular
limestone Hard nodular limestones
Basal
Muschelkalk Shaly limestones
Limestones, shaly
Hedenstroemia limestones and shales
beds alternating; thin-bedded
Lower limestones and shales
Triassic Thin-bedded limestones
Meekoceras zone
and shales
Ophiceras zone Grey limestones
Otoceras zone Brown limestones
Productus shale/
Permian Dark shales
Gungri Formation

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Now, let us discuss the three parts of the Triassic succession of Spiti in deltail.
 Lower Triassic of Spiti:
The Lower Triassic rocks lie conformably on the top of the Productus shale
(Gungri Formation) and predominantly consist of dark coloured limestones and
shales with abundant ammonite fauna. The lower part of succession is about
184 m thick. On the basis of ammonites, it is divided into four units: Otoceras
zone, Ophiceras zone, Meekoceras zone and Hedenstroemia beds. Each of
these units are characterised by the presence of zone fossils belonging to
cephalopod molluscs such as Otoceraswoodwardi, Ophicerassakuntala,
Meekocerasvaraha and Hedenstroemiamojsisovicsi in ascending order (Table
6.1).
 Middle Triassic of Spiti:
The Middle Triassic chiefly consists of concretionary and shaly limestone and
shales with a very rich Muschelkalk fauna, especially of ammonites. It is about
125 m thick and lies conformably over the Hedenstroemia beds of Lower
Triassic age and underlain by the Halobia beds of Upper Triassic age. The
Middle Triassic sucession of Spiti is divided into six units: Basal Muschelkalk,
Nodular limestone, Lower Muschelkalk, Upper Muschelkalk, Daonella
shales and Daonella limestone (Table 6.1). The succession is richly
fossiliferous and conatins the characteristic fossils of brachiopods
(Rhynchonella griesbachi, Spiriferinastracheyi), cephalopods (Sibiritesprahlada,
Keyserlingitesdieneri, Ptychitesrugifer) and bivalves (Daonella indica).
Do you know?
The Muschelkalk is a sedimentary sequence of Europe, primarily composed of
carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolostone and is of a Middle Triassic
age (247.2 to 237 Ma old).

 Upper Triassic of Spiti:

The Upper Triassic sucession of Spiti is very well-developed and is about
1600m thick. It is the thickest of all the Himalayan Triassic subdivisions.
Lithologically, the lower part of the sequence is composed of dark shales and
marls, but the upper part contains limestones and dolomites. The Upper
Triassic succession starts with the Carnian Halobia beds and end with the
Rhaetian Megalodon limestone and lies below the Lower Jurassic Tagling
limestone (Table 6.1). TheUpper Triassic succession is subdivided into eight
units: Halobia beds, Grey beds, Tropites beds, Juvavites beds, Coral
limestone, Monotis shales, Quartzite series and Megalodon limestone
(Para Stage) from the base to top (Table 6.1). The succession also contains
some fossiliferous beds, which yielded species of brachiopods, bivalves,
crinoids and corals. The part of the sucession consisting of Halobia, Grey and
Tropites beds is characterised by presence of cephalopods
(Joannitesthanamensis) and brachiopods (Spiriferinashalshalensis,
Dielasmajulicum). The upper part of the sucession consisting of Juvavites beds,
Coral limestone, Monotis shales, Quartzite series and Megalodon limestone,
often yields characteristic fossil species of cephalopods (Juvavites angulatus)
and brachiopods (Spiriferinagriesbachi).

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6.2.2 MESOZOIC OF KACHCHH
The Mesozoic successions of Kachchh comprise rocks ranging in age from
Middle Jurassic (Bathonian to Callovian) to the Lower Cretaceous (Albian-
Aptian). These rocks are situated between the Great Rann of Kachchh in the
north and the Kathiawar (Saurashtra) peninsula in the south in Gujarat, western
India. The Mesozoic rocks of Kachchh are more than 2000m thick and indicate
a phase of marine transgression along the western coast of India. These rocks
are exposed in six isolated regions namely: Kachchh Mainland, Wagad,
Pachcham, Khadir, Bela and Chorar in the Kachchh District of Gujarat. The
Jurassic rocks represent shallow marine sediments deposited in sublittoral to
infralittrol environment whereas the Cretaceous sediments were deposited in
the deltaic environment.
 Classification
The Mesozoic succession of Kachchh over lies the Precambrian crystalline
basement and underlain by the Deccan traps. The succession has been
intruded by various dykes and sills, as part of the Deccan traps igneous activity.
Lithostratigraphically, the Mesozoic succession is divided into four formations
such as Pachcham, Chari, Katrol and Umia in an ascending order, which
areranging in age fromthe Lower Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2: Lithostratigraphy of the Messozoic rocks of Kachchh, Kachchh
District, and Gujarat. (Source: simplified after, Vaidyanadhan and
Ramakrishnan, 2010)

Age Stage Formation Member Lithology

Deccan traps

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Bhuj beds White, pale-brown

Sandstones and shales and variegated
Upper Jurassic to Lower

sandstones with
Ukra beds
subordinate
Cretaceous

Umia beds ferruginous, hard,

Barren sandstones and black or brown grit
Tithonian to Albian

Umia
shales and a few thin
bands of shale
Trigonia beds
with remains of
Barren sandstones cephalopods,
Umia ammonite bed brachiopods and
plants

Upper Katrol shales

Sandstones and
Middle Jurassic

Gajansar beds
shales with
Kimmeridgianto

Upper Katrol sandstones abundant remains

Katrol
Middle Katrol sandstones of cephalopods
Tithonian

and some plant

Lower Katrol shales
fossils
Kanthkot sandstones

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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Dhosa oolite Sandy limestones,

Callovian to ?Middle Athleta beds marls, calcareous,
Oxfordian gypseous and
Anceps beds
sandy shales and
Chari Rehmanni beds oolitic limestones
Macrocephalus beds and contains
fossils of molluscs
and brachiopods

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Pachcham coral bed Limestones with

Pachcham shelly some sandstones
and shales and
Middle Jurassic

limestones
richly fossiliferous
Bathonian to

Pachcham Pachcham basal bed

(bivalves,
Callovian

(Kuar Bet beds) cephalopods,

corals are
common)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Precambrian basement (not exposed)

Pachcham Formation: It is the basal most formation named after the

Pachcham Island in the Rann of Kachchh, where formation is best exposed and
has yielded a rich fossil assemblage of Middle Jurassicage and marks the
commencement of the Mesozoic sedimentation within the Kachchh basin. The
formation is about 300 m thick and principally composed of limestones with
some sandstones and shales. The upper part of the formation has yielded a
rich assemblage of bivalves (Corbula) cephalopods (Macrocephalites,
Sivajiceras) brachiopods and corals of Middle Bathonian age.The formation is
divided into three members: Pachcham basal bed, Pachcham shelly
limestones and Pachcham coral bed (Table 6.2).
Chari Formation: Overlying unconformably the Pachcham Formation is the
Chari Formation. It is about 360 m thick and consists of sandy limestones,
calcareous, gypseous and sandy shales, marls and oolitic limestones. The
formation is best developed in a village near Jumara. However, the name of the
Formation is derived from rocks exopsed at the Chari village, near Habo Dome.
The Chari Formation is divided into five members such as Macrocephalus
beds, Rehmanni beds, Anceps beds, Athleta beds and Dhosa oolite from
base to top (Table 6.2). This formation is richly fossiliferous and has yielded
characteristic fauna of the Callovian to ?Middle Oxfordian age on the basis of
fossils belonging to cephalopods (Macrocephalites, Kamptocephalites,
Indocephalites, Perisphinctes, Hubertoceras, Mayaites) with some brachiopods,
bivalves, gastropods, etc. It should be noted that the Pachcham and Chari
formations have yielded some index cephalopod ammonite fossils that are well-
correlated with the European standard zones. The lithology and fauna of the
formation suggests its deposition in deeper water condition during a
transgressive phase.
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Katrol Formation: It lies above the Chari Formation. It is around 300 m thick
and is chiefly composed of shales although in the upper part, sandstones
predominate and contain abundant remains of cephalopods and pelecypods.
The formation is divided into six members such as Kanthkot sandstones,
Lower Katrol shales, Middle Katrol sandstones, Upper Katrol sandstones,
Gajansar beds and Upper Katrol shales in ascending order (Table 6.2). The
formation has yielded abundant remains of cephalopods (Ataxioceras,
Prograyiceras, Hybonticeras, Aspidocears, Taramellicears and
Aulacosphinctoides) and some plant fossils. A Kimmeridgian to Tithonian age
has been assigned to the formation.
Umia Formation: It is the youngest formation of the Mesozoic succession in
Kachchh. It is about 1000 m thick and mainly composed of white, pale-brown,
sometimes variegated sandstones with subordinate ferruginous, hard, black or
brown grit and a few thin bands of shale. Lithologicaly, these beds are similar to
the Gondwana rocks of peninsular India. Ammonites are rare, hence other
groups and Trigonia and other pelecypods have become stratigraphically
important. The Umia Formation is divided into eight members: Umia ammonite
bed, Barren sandstones, Trigonia beds, Barren sandstones and shales,
Umia beds, Ukra beds, Sandstones and shales and Bhuj beds (Table 6.2).
The formation begins with the Umia ammonite bed and ends with the Bhuj
beds. A large part of the formation is fossiliferous and yielded the remains of
cephalopods (Hemilytoceras, Micracanthoceras, Cleoniceras, Colombicerasand
Australiceras) and brachiopods. The topmost member, Bhuj beds, of the
formation is considered to be depositied under continential condition and has
yielded the plant fossils of the Gondwanan affinities (Palmoxylonand
Ptilophyllum). A Lower Cretaceous age has been assigned to this formation.
Learners, you have learnt about the Mesozoic succession of Spiti and
Kachchh. Before discussing about the Mesozoic succession of Rajasthan, and
Cretaceous of Tiruchirapalli spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check
your progress.

SAQ1
a) What is main lithology of Triassic succession of Spiti?
b) List the names of the formations of the Mesozoic succession of Kachchh in
the ascending order.
c) Match the following: -
a. Productus shale i. Bathonian to Callovian
b. Umia Formation ii. Triassic of Spiti
c. Tropites beds iii. Permain
d. Pachcham Formation iv. Trigoniabeds

6.2.3 MESOZOIC OF RAJASTHAN

The Mesozoic successions of Rajasthan are exposed in the isolated outcrops in
the western part of state covering the areas of Jaisalmer and Barmer. The
Mesozoic successions of Rajasthan are located in the close proximity of the
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Mesozoic successions of Kachchh (Gujarat) and it has been proposed that the
sea, which flooded (marine transgression) Kachchh region during the Early
Jurassic, also covered large parts of the western Rajasthan lying about 300 km
to the north led to the deposition of the Mesozoic rocks in Rajasthan. Due to the
proximity, the Mesozoic successions of the Kachchh and Rajasthan share great
similarities in both lithological and faunal contents. The Mesozoic successions
of Rajasthan that range in age from the Jurassic to Cretaceous are well-
developed in the Jaisalmer areaas compared to other areas. However, the
succession is poorly exposed due to the vast cover of sand and alluvium.
 Classification
The base of the Jurassic-Cretaceous sucession is nowhere exposed in
Rajasthan, but the succession lies unconformably above the Precambrian
basement probably over the Malani igneous suite. The entire Mesozoic
succession in Rajasthan especially in Jaisalmer area, has been divided into six
formations, ranging in age from Jurassic to Cretaceous as shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Stratigraphy of the Mesozoic sucession of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
(Source: simplified after Kumar, 1996; Naqvi, 2005; Vaidyanadhan
and Ramakrishnan, 2010)
Age Stage Formation Lithology
Variegated sandstones and
Palaeocene ~~~~ Sanu Formation ~~~~
shales
Lower to middle Fossiliferous limestones, very
Cretaceous Habur coarse grained sandstones
(Aptian) and conglomerates
Cretaceous
Lower
Sanstones, silty shales,
Cretaceous Pariwar
ferruginous oolites
(Neocomian)
Fossiliferous grits,
Upper Jurassic
Bhadesar sandstones, shales, black
(Tithonian)
clays and lignite
Sandstones, siltstones, shales
Upper Jurassic
Baisakhi and conglomerates with
(Kimmeridgian)
Jurassic fossils
Middle Jurassic
Fossiliferous limestones,
(Bathonian to Jaisalmer
sandstones, shales and marls
Upper Oxfordian)
Mainly sandstones with fossil
Lower Jurassic Lathi
wood

Precambrian ~~~~~~~~~~~ Malani igneous suite ~~~~~~~~~~~

Lathi Formation: The Mesozoic succession in Rajasthan commences with the

laying down of the Lathi Formation. It is about 360 m thick sequence of plant-
bearing cross-bedded sandstones of freshwater origin that gradually grading
into limestones towards the top, indicating shallow marine depositional

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conditions for the upper part of the formation. The higher horizons contain some
hard to buff limestone and black to brown clayey layers with a gradational
contact with the overlying Jaisalmer Formation. It overlies the Precambrian
basement. The lower part of formation yield abundant remains of plants
(gymnosperms), gastropods and fish teeth. The Lathi Formation is of Lower
Jurassic age.
Jaisalmer Formation: It is over 400 m thick sequence, conformably lies above
the Lathi Formation and is composed of dull, compact, oolitic and shelly
limestones with layers of calcareous sandstones, shales and marls deposited in
a shallow, rather unstable, marine environment near the shoreline. The
formation is richly fossilerous and includes the remains of brachiopods,
cephalopods, bryozoans, corals and foraminifers. The age of this formation is
Middle Jurassic from Bathonian to Upper Oxfordian.
Baisakhi Formation: It is about 350 m thick and gradationally lies above the
Jaisalmer Formation. It consists of calcareous sandstones, siltstones, grey to
black gypseous and silty shales, sandy limestones and conglomerates. The
basal part of the formation is fossiliferous and has yielded the remains of
cephalopods, belemnites and microfossils, where as fossils are absent in its
upper part. An Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) age has been assigned to the
formation.
Bhadesar Formation: It is about 50 m thick sequence, consisting of calcareous
grits, hard ferruginous sandstones with layers of shales, black clays and lignite.
It rests over the Baisakhi Formation and represents a sequence deposited
during the regressive phase of the sea. The lower part of formation contains
fossils belonging to cephalopods, belemnites, corals that are indicative of
marine origin. Its upper part yields fossil wood and suggests a near shore
marine environment of deposition. An Upper Jurassic (UpperTithonian) to
Lower Cretaceous (Albian) age has been proposed to this formation.
Pariwar Formation: The Cretaceous sediments conformably overlie the
Bhadasar Formation are represented by the Pariwar Formation.This formation
is about 350 m thick and consists of thick, unfossiliferous, grit, gritty sandstones
and quartzose sandstones. The sandstone bodies of the Pariwar Formation
contain plant fossils such as Pterophyllum, Anomozamites, Elatocladus,
Cladophlebes etc. The formation was deposited during the beginning of a
phase of marine transgression. The Pariwar Formation is of Lower Cretaceous
(Neocomian) age.
Habur Formation: It rests over the Pariwar Formation. It is about 150 m thick
and composed of fossiliferous, buff limestones, gritty sandstones and shales.
The lower part of the formation was deposited in an open marine shelf condition
while the upper part was accumulated during the regressive phase. The Habur
limestone contains a rich assemblage of fossils including ammonites,
brachiopods, etc. A Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) age has been assigned to this
formation. The Habur Formation marks the end of Mesosoic sedimentation in
the Jaisalmer.
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6.2.4 CRETACEOUS OF TIRUCHIRAPALLI
The Cretaceous rocks of South India crop out in five main sectors, viz.,
Tiruchirapalli, Sivaganga, Vriddhachalam and Thanjavur in the Tamil Nadu and
in the Union Territory of Pondicherry. All these outcrops are the parts of the
Cretaceous successions of the Cauvery basin, South India. The Cauvery basin
is a large basin with an approximate aerial extent of about 25,000 km2 and
consisting of well preserved shallow marine Cretaceous sedimentary
sequences of the Albian to Maastrichtian age, deposited along the eastern
coast of the Tamil Nadu. Among these outcrops, the Cretaceous rocks are best
developed in the Ariyalur area near the Tiruchirapalli sector. Here, the
sequence represents one of the finest developments of the marine fossiliferous
Cretaceous sequence in the world. The basin has yielded the rich and
diversified assemblages of molluscs, brachiopods, cephalopods, echinoderms,
corals, bryozoans, foraminifers, ostracods, algae and nanoplanktons, which
have been extensively used to infer the age and depositional environment of
the basin. Upper part of basin has yielded the fossils of freshwater and land
vertebrates such as fish, dinosaurs, crocodiles, frogs and mammals. It may be
noted that the marine transgressions invaded a large tract of the Coromandel
Coast during the Cretaceous, which resulted the almost continuous shallow
marine sedimentation from the Albian to Maastrichtian in the basin that
continued upwards into the Lower Cenozoic, as well. However, some
freshwater environment also prevailed during the sedimentation of the Upper
Maastrichtian rocks in the basin.
 Classification
The Ariyalur outcrop contains extensive, almost complete and well exposed
Cretaceous to Palaeocene succession of the Cauvery basin as compared to
other outcrops. Based on lithology and fossils, the sequence has been divided
into Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalurgroups in ascending order (Table 6.4).
The Cretaceous sequence rests unconformably over the Archaean basement
(crystalline gneiss and charnokites) and Upper Gondwana plant beds and
underlains by the rocks of the Niniyur Group of Palaeocene age.
Uttattur Group: The Uttattur Group unconformably overlies upon the Archaean
crystalline rocks. It attains a thickness of about 820 m and is subdivided into
four formations namely, Terani, Arogyapurum, Dalmiapuram and Karai in
chronological order (Table 6.4). The group as a whole is composed of fine silts,
fossiliferous limestones, calcareous shales and sandy clays with phosphatic
nodules, calcareous concretions and gypsum. At several places pale to pure
and compact coral limestone is present at the base of the Uttattur sequence.
The lower part of group yielded plant fossils of Gondwanan affinities and
deposited in the fluvial to deltaic environmental conditions.The upper part of the
group is arenaceous, exhibits current bedding and yields abundant fossils
comprising brachiopods, belemnites, bryozoans, corals, algae, bivalves,
cephalopods (Eucalyoceras, Mammites and Lewesiceras), gastropods,
foraminifers, calcareous sponges, sharks and marine reptiles and is considered
to be deposited under shallow marine conditions. The Albian to Turonian age
has been assigned to the group based on fossils.
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Table 6.4: Lithostratigraphy of the Cretaceous rocks of Tiruchirapalli,
Tamil Nadu.

Age Stage Group Formation Lithology

Palaeocene ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Niniyur Group ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Ariyalur Kallamedu Ferruginous arkosic
sandstones, white to gray
Campanian to
Kallankurichchi

Maastrichtian
cross-bedded sandstones,
Sillakkudi calcareous sandstone,
variegated clays, grit and
fossiliferous limestones
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Trichin- Anaipadi Sandstones, limestones,
Coniacian
Turonian
Cretaceous

opoly siltstones and concretions of

Kulakkalnattam
to

arenaceous limestones

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Uttattur Karai Gypsiferous clays,
Albian to Turonian

sandstones, coral algal

Dalmiapuram
limestones, white, pink and
Arogyapuram yellow silty clay, kaolinitic
Terani clays, pebble conglomerates,
phosphatic nodules and
ferruginous sand interbeds
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Precambrian crystalline basement ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Trichinopoly Group: It unconformably overlies the Uttattur Group and is

divided into two formations: Anaipadi and Kulakkalnattam (Table 6.4). It is
composed of calcareous grit, sandstone and some shale and sandy clay with
bands of shelly limestone, with gastropods and pelecypods, near the base.
Granite pebbles commonly occur in the gravels and conglomerates. The beds
contain abundant fossil wood, including huge tree trunks, false bedding and
other features suggesting accumulation in shallow to coastal waters. A large
number of invertebrates, especially pelecypods and gastropods with some
cephalopods (Placenticeras andKossmaticeras), brachiopods, corals, marine
reptiles, etc., occur within the Trichinopoly Group, but the assemblage is not as
rich as that of the underlying Uttattur Group. The age of the group is from
Turonian to Coniacian. The sediments of the group were deposited under a
regressive shallow marine environmental condition.
Ariyalur Group: It is a poorly exposed and widely distributed group, lies
unconformable above the Trichinopoly Group. It is subdivided into three
formations: Sillakkudi, Kallankurichchi and Kallamedu in ascending order

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(Table 6.4). The group consists of sandstones with some marly clays,
calcareous shales and limestones that display uniform bedding and very low
dips. The lower part of the group has yielded well preserved remains of
cephalopods (Karapaditesand Hauriceras), echinoderms, brachiopods,
bryozoans, foraminifers, ostracods, etc. indicating a shallow, rather calm,
marine environment of deposition of sediments. However, towards the upper
part, it mainly yielded abundant remains of the terrestrialand freshwater
vertebrates such as frogs, turtles, crocodiles and dinosaurs, suggesting a
lacustrine environment of deposition.The Ariyalur Group is of Campanian to
Maastrichtian age and unconformably overlains by the Niniyur Group of
Paleocene age.
Learners, you have learnt the Mesozoic succession of Rajasthan and
Cretaceous of Tiruchirapalli. Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to
check your progress.

SAQ 2
a) List the name of the formations of the Mesozoic succession of Rajasthan in
ascending order.
b) List the name of three groups of Cretaceous succession of Tiruchirapalli in
ascending order.
c) Match the following:
a. Ariyalur Group i. Lower Cretaceous
b. Lathi Formation ii. Kallamedu Formation
c. Habur Formation iii. Lower Jurassic

6.3 ACIVITY
Table below is showing the Triassic lithostratigrapic of Spiti (Table 6.5). Fill-up
the series, beds and lithology in the blank spaces of rows.
Table 6.5: Triassic sucession of Spiti.
Group Age Series Beds Lithology
Lilang Jurassic ---- Tagling limestone Massive limestones and
dolomites
Megalodon Massive limestones and
limestone (Para dolomites
Stage)

Lilang Triassic
Tropites beds Dolomite limestones, shales
and dark limestones with
ammonite beds
Gray beds Gray shales and shaly
limestone with pelecypod
bed and an ammonite bed
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Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
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Lower Dark shales and gray

Muschelkalk limestones
Nodular Hard nodular limestones
limestone

Meekoceras Thin-bedded limestones and

Lower
zone shales
Triassic

Permian Productus shale Dark shales

6.4 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the following:
 Mesozoic era in India is marked by extensive marine transgressions; which
brought the marine sedimentation inside the continental areas. As a
consequence, the Mesozoic successions are present both in peninsular and
the Himalayan regions of India.
 Triassic of Spiti, Mesozoic of Kachchh and Rajasthan and Cretaceous of
Tiruchirapalli contain some of the best developed Mesozoic successions in
India.
 Triassic succession of Spiti lies above the Productus shale of Permian age
and below the Tagling limestone of Lower Jurassic age. Limestones,
dolomites and shales are main lithology of the succession and it is divided
into the Lower, Middle and Upper Triassic.
 The Mesozoic rocks of Kachchh contain a sequence of more than 2000m
thick, ranging in age from the Middle Jurassic to the Lower Cretaceous. The
sequence is divided into four formations: Pachcham, Chari, Katrol and Umia
in an ascending order.
 Mesozoic succession of Rajasthan is well developed in the Jaisalmer region.
It ranges in age from the Lower Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous and is divided
into six formations: Lathi, Jaisalmer, Baisakhi, Bhadesar, Pariwar and Habur.
 The Cretaceous succession of Tiruchirapalli is well developed in the Ariyalur
area of the Cauvery basin. The age of sequence is Albian to Maastrichtian
and is divided into three groups: Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur in
ascending order.
 Invertebrate assemblages known from the Mesozoic rocks of Spiti, Kachchh,
Jaisalmer and Ariyalur are found to be very useful in dating of these rocks
successions.
 The Mesozoic sedimentation was, however, terminated by the Upper
Cretaceous, ending in the Deccan traps volcanic activity.

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6.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the Triassic of Spiti.
2. Write a brief note on the Mesozoic stratigraphy of Kachchh.
3. Discuss the Mesozoic stratigraphy of Rajasthan.
4. Describe the Cretaceous succession of Tiruchirapalli.

6.6 REFERENCES
 Kumar, R. (1996) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India. Fourth Reprint, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian Plate (From Hadean
to Holocene – 4 Ga to 4 Ka). Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Vaidyanadhan, R. and Ramakrishnan, M. (2010) Geology of India. Volume II,
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

6.7 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Krishnan, M.S. (1949) Geology of India and Burma. The Madras Law Journal
Office, Madras.
 Kumar, R. (1996) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India. Fourth Reprint, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Mukerjee, P. K. (1997) A Textbook of Geology, The world Press Pvt Ltd,
Calcutta.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian Plate (From Hadean
to Holocene – 4 Ga to 4 Ka), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Wadia D.N. (1966) Geology of India, McMillan Press, London.

6.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Limestones, dolomites and shales are main lithology of the Triassic
succession of Spiti.
c) The name of various formations of the Mesozoic succession of Kachchh
is Pachcham, Chari, Katrol and Umia in an ascending order.
d) Match the following: -
a. iii.
b. iv.
c. ii.
d. i.
2 a) The Mesozoic succession of Rajasthan ranges from the Jurassic to
Cretaceous in age and is divided into six formations namely, Lathi,
Jaisalmer, Baisakhi, Bhadesar, Pariwar and Habur.

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b) The Ariyalur area of Tiruchirapalli contains extensive, almost complete
and well exposed Cretaceous to Palaeocene succession of the Cauvery
basin. Based on lithology and fossils, the succession is divided in
ascending order into three groups: Uttattur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur.
c) Match the following:
a. ii.
b. iii.
c. i.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to sub-section 6.2.1.
2. Refer to sub-section 6.2.2.
3. Refer to sub-section 6.2.3.
4. Refer to sub-section 6.2.4.

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 UNIT 7

GONDWANA SUPERGROUP AND

DECCAN TRAPS

Structure_______________________________________________
7.1 Introduction 7.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 7.5 Summary
7.2 Gondwana Supergroup 7.6 Terminal Questions
Distribution 7.7 References
Classification 7.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Description of Formations 7.9 Answers
Economic Significance

7.3 Deccan Traps

Distribution

Classification

Age and Duration

Economic Significance

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The Precambrian (Archaean and Proterozoic) rocks are well developed in the peninsular India. You
have already studied some of the rock supergroups that belong to Precambrian age such as
Dharwar, Cuddaphah, Vindhyan and Delhi in Unit 4. In peninsular India, Lower to Middle Palaeozoic
rocks record is almost absent. However, Palaeozoic rocks are well developed in the extra-peninsular
or Himalayan region which you have read in Unit 5. From the Upper Carboniferous to Lower
Cretaceous, peninsular India witnessed the huge deposition of freshwater sediments in numerous
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
interconnected inland basins, which are collectively known as Gondwana
Supergroup. This supergroup is famous for its coal deposits and plant fossils
wealth. At the end of Cretaceous, western part of the peninsular India
underwent numerous volcanic eruptions that resulted in the formation of the
Deccan Traps. It has been proposed that these volcanic eruptions might have
been responsible for the mass extinction at the Cretaceous/Palaeogene
boundary.
In this unit, we will discuss the geographic distribution, classification, climate
and lithology of the Gondwana Supergroup. We will also discuss the Deccan
traps and associated sediments.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define and classify Gondwana Supergroup;
 discuss the lithology of various formations of the supergroup;
 outline the economic significance of the supergroup;
 describe the distribution and classification of the Deccan traps; and
 explain the age and duration of the Deccan traps.

7.2 GONDWANA SUPERGROUP

Gondwana Supergroup comprises a thick sequence of fluviatile and lacustrine
sediments having a cumulative thickness of about 6 to 7 km with glacial
sediments at the base. It covers a vast tract of India, particularly prominent in
peninsular region, occupying about 50,000 km2 areas. The deposition of the
sequence began in the Upper Carboniferous and continued up to the Lower
Cretaceous. It may be noted that the lower and upper boundaries of the
supergroup are determined by marine fossil records and do not coincide with
standard chronostratigraphic system. The Gondwana sequence is largely
considered as a continental sedimentary sequence with occasional marine
incursions and deposited either in the river valley grabensor in the down-faulted
grabens (Kumar, 1988; Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2010). It is
dominantly composed of sandstones and shales with rich coal seams as well as
fossil remains of plants and animals.
The name“Gondwana” was given by H. B. Medlicott in 1872. It is derived from
the Gond Kingdom of the Narmada river, Madhya Pradesh, where the
supergroup was first studied by him. Later, investigations carried out in other
parts of the world such as in South America, South Africa, Australia, Antarctica
and Madagascar, which shows that these rocks are also present in these
southern continents. The Gondwanan rocks of these areas bear spectacular
similarities in terms of lithology and fossil contents. Keeping these facts in view,
Edward Suess in 1885 coined the term “Gondwanaland” to referall these
southern continents into a supercontinent, which was separated from its
northern counterpart known as “Laurasia” by then present equatorial sea called
“Tethys”.
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7.2.1 Distribution
The rocks of the Gondwana Supergroup in peninsular India mainly occur in the
four isolated patches represented by linear tracts. These tracts are Koel-
Damodar basin of West Bengal and Jharkhand, Son-Mahanadi basin of
Chhatisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Satpura basin of Madhya Pradesh and
Pranhita-Godavari basin of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 7.1). In
addition, a few Gondwana outcrops also present in the eastern coastal area of
India such as Athgarh basin of Odisha, Krishna trough of Andhra Pradesh and
Palar-Cauvery troughs of Tamil Nadu. In the Himalayan region, a linear belt of
the Lower Gondwana rocks occurs along the Himalayan foot-hills Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh and also in Kashmir valley.

Fig. 7.1: Map of India showing the distribution of the Gondwana basins. (Source:
simplified after Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2010)

7.2.2 Classification
Classification of the Gondwana Supergroup is always a topic of debate in
Geology of India. On the basis of lithology and plant fossils, two schemes of
classification have been proposed for the rocks of the supergroup. These
schemes are:
 Two-fold classification
 Three-fold classification
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 Two-fold Classification
Two-fold classification was proposed by W. T. Blanford. He divided the
Gondwana sequence into two subdivisions namely, Lower Gondwana
Sequence and Upper Gondwana Sequence. These two sequences are
separated by a slight unconformity, which lies at the top surface of the Panchet
Formation of the Lower Triassic age. Lower Gondwana Sequence is
characterised by the dominance of Glossopteris flora whereas the Upper
Gondwana Sequence is characterised by appearance of Ptilophyllumflora. The
two-fold classification was strongly supported by C. S. Fox, R. D. Oldham, G.
Cotter, M. S. Krishnan and other workers.
 Three-fold Classification
Three-fold classification was proposed by O. Feistmantal and further it was
supported by E. Vredenburg and D. N. Wadia. This classification is primarily
based on plant fossils and the prevailing characteristic climatic conditions of the
Gondwana Supergroup. According to this classification, Gondwana Supergroup
is divided into three sequences such as Lower, Middle and Upper Gondwana,
corresponding roughly to the Permo-Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic, rock
systems of Europe, respectively. The Lower Gondwana Sequence is
characterised by presence of Glossopteris flora, a warm and humid climate with
numerous coal seams. The Middle Gondwana Sequence is characterised by
appearance of Dicroidium flora, a warm and dry climate and by the presence of
amphibian and repltilian fossils. The Upper Gondwana Sequence is marked by
the appearance of Ptilophyllumflora as well as a warm and humid climate
(Fig.7.2).

Fig. 7.2: Three-fold classification of the Gondwana Supergroup based on floral

relationships.
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Over the centuries, most of the workers have been following two-fold
classification of the Gondwana Supergroup and hence, the same has been
discussed here. A generalised stratigraphic classification of the Gondwana
Supergroup is given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Generalised stratigraphic classification of the Gondwana
Supergroup.

Super Sequence Group Formation Age

group

Jabalpur Lower
Jabalpur Formation
Group Cretaceous

Rajmahal Lower
Rajmahal Formation
Upper Group Cretaceous
Gondwana
Kota Formation Middle Jurassic
Sequence
Mahadeva Maleri Formation Upper Triassic
Group
Pachmarhi
Gondwana Supergroup

Lower Triassic
Formation

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Panchet
Panchet Formation Lower Triassic
Group

Raniganj Formation Upper Permian

Lower Barren Measures

Damuda Middle Permian
Gondwana Formation
Group
Sequence Barakar Formation Lower Permian

Karharbari Formation Lower Permian

Talchir Upper
Talchir Formation
Group Carboniferous

7.2.3 Description of Formations

The Permo-Carboniferous sedimentary successions of the Gondwana
Supergroup is largely known as Lower Gondwana Sequence and the Mesozoic
Gondwana succession forms the Upper Gondwana Sequence (Fig. 7.3).
However, the Panchet Formation of the Lower Triassic age comes under the
Lower Gondwana Sequence. The Lower Gondwana groups are characterised
by the presence of Gangomopteris-Glossopteris flora and the Mesozoic Upper
Gondwana groups by containing Dicroidium-Lepidopteris flora. It has been
inferred that the Upper Carboniferous sediments of the Lower Gondwana
sequence are deposited under a glacial/cold climate, whereas coal-bearing
Permian sediments were deposited under warm and humid climate.

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Fig. 7.3: Distribution of Lower and Upper Gondwana sequences in the major
Gondwana basins of India.

During the beginning of the Upper Gondwana Sequence, sudden changes in

climate took place in the Triassic. As a result, warm and humid climate of the
Permian was replaced by warm and dry climatic conditions during the Triassic.
This warm and dry climate was considered responsible for the disappearance
of the Glossopteris flora of the Lower Gondwana. The warm and humid climatic
conditions again appeared during the Late Triassic and most of the Jurassic,
which resulted in the appearance of Ptilophyllum flora.
A generalised stratigraphic classification of the Gondwana Supergroup of India
is presented in Table 7.1. All formations mentioned in the table may not occur in
any single Gondwana basin of India. For example, Karharbari, Barakar, Barren
Measures and Raniganj formations are well developed in the Damodar valley,
where as Pachmarhi, Maleri and Kota formations are best developed in the
Mahadev Hills. In addition, it may be noted that the equivalent formation of one
group may be designated or present in other group/s. Therefore, do not get
confused while studying the various formations of the supergroup. Now lets us
discuss the various formations of the Lower and Upper Gondwana sequences.
 Lower Gondwana Sequence
The sediments of the Lower Gondwana sequences largely lie above the
Precambrian basement and well developed in the Talchir, Damuda and
Panchet groups. Now let us discuss the various formations of the Lower
Gondwana Sequence.
Talchir Formation: Talchir Formation named after the Talchir District of
Odisha. It is the lowermost formation of the Gondwana Supergroup, which
unconformably overlies the Precambrian basement. It consists of boulder beds,
khaki green shales and light green sandstones. Boulder beds form the basal
most part of the formation, which is succeeded by shales and sandstones. The

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boulder beds comprise unsorted and unstratified mixture of boulders, pebbles,
coarse sands and clays. The presence of facetted and striated boulders and
pebbles in the boulder beds are indicative of their glacial origin. Hence, boulder
beds of Talchir Formation are also known as Talchir Tillites. The sandstones
contain mineral grains of undecomposed feldspar representing very cold
climatic conditions at the time of deposition. The uppermost part of the
formation, which dominantly contains sandstones and with some shaly beds
yield some plant fossils indicating a warm climate. Carboniferous to Permian,
Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian ages have been assigned to the
formation.
Karharbari Formation: The Talchir Formation overlain by the Damuda Group
is well exposed in the Damodar valley situated in Jharkhand and West Bengal.
The Damuda Group is divided into four formations, namely, Karharbari,
Barakar, Barren Measures and Raniganj.
Karharbari Formation is the basal part of the Damuda Group, which is well
developed in the Giridih coalfields. It consists of conglomerates, pebbly grit,
sandstones, siltstones, shales and a few bands of coal. It is about 200 m thick
and has gradational contact to the Talchir Formation. The formation is
characterised by the development of two characteristic floral elements like
Gondwanidiumvalidium and Buriadiasewardi. Gangamopteris and Glossopteris
are the dominant flora of the formation. A Lower Permian age has been
assigned to the formation.
Barakar Formation: This formation is named after the Barakar river. It is about
250 m thick, conformably overlies the Karharbari Formation and well developed
in the Jharia coalfields. It is the main store house of coal deposits in the Lower
Gondwana Sequence. Lithologically, it consists of sandstones, shales, china
clays and coal seams. In addition, at some places it is also composed of grit
and conglomerate horizons. Importantly, Barakar Formation shows a fining
upward cyclic arrangement of the lithofacies such as conglomerates, grits,
sandstones, shales and coal seams. This cyclic arrangement of lithofacies has
frequently occurred repeatedly in the formation. The china clay deposits of the
formation are found to be of economic significance. It may be noted that lower
and middle units of the formation are the main sources of coal. Interestingly,
almost one ninth of the total thickness of the formation is constituted by coal
deposits. The formation is rich in plant fossils and is characterised by the
dominance of Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Sphenopteris, Taeniopteris,
Barakaria, Phyllotheca, Schizoneura and Sphenophyllum plant fossils. Barakar
Formation is of Lower Permian age.
Barren Measures Formation: The name of the formation indicates that it lacks
coal seams. The formation conformably overlies the Barakar Formation. It
consists of alternating units of cross-bedded sandstones and carbonaceous
shales with clay-ironstone nodules. In the Raniganj basin of the Damodar
valley, the Barren Measures Formation is known as Ironstone Shale
Formation. Here, the formation once composed of workable deposit of iron ore
particularly siderite iron. In other coalfields of the Damodar valley, it is known as
Barren Measures Formation. The formation is generally devoid of plant fossils,
but a very few plant fossils such as Cyclodendron, Glossopteris,

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Gangamopteris etc. are known from it. A Middle Permian age has been
assigned to this formation.
Raniganj Formation: This formation is well developed in the Raniganj coalfield
in the Damodar valley, where it attains a thickness of about 800 m. It consists of
sandstones, shales and coal seams. The sandstones of the Raniganj Formation
being fine-grained as compared to those of the older and underlying Barakar
Formation. Valuable coal seams are a part of the Raniganj Formation, which
mainly occur in the Raniganj coal field. The coal seams of the formation contain
high content of volatiles, but some of them have coal of superior quality.The
Raniganj Formation shows the peak zone of Glossopteris flora. The
characteristic flora of the formation includes Glossopteris, Gangamopteris,
Pecopteris, Vertebraria, Sphenopteris, Taeniopteris, Schizoneura, Phyllotheca,
etc. An Upper Permian age has been assigned to the formation.
Panchet Formation: The Panchet Formation overlies the Raniganj Formation
and contact between them is marked by a slight unconformity. The formation is
named after the Panchet Hill in Manbhum of the Raniganj basin, where the
formation is well developed and attained thickness from 500 to 600 m. The
Panchet Formation is devoid of coal seams and presents a sharp contrast in
lithology as compared to the underlying Raniganj Formation. The lower part of
the Panchet Formation consists of greenish sandstones to khaki green
siltstones and green clays. The upperpart of the formation is characterised by a
rhythmic alternation of green clays and chocolate coloured shales and clays.
The Panchet Formation is very rich in fossils and yielded the fossils of plants
and animals including both vertebrates and freshwater invertebrates. The plant
fossils are dominated by Glossopteris, Cyclopteris, Dicroidium, Schizoneura
and a few other plant fossils. The formation also yielded crustacea of the
Phylum Arthropoda (invertebrates) as well as vertebrates such as amphibians
(labyrinthodonts) and reptiles (Dicynodon and Epicampodon). The occurrences
of above-mentioned fauna and flora indicate a climate, which somewhat
resembling the present-day monsoonal climate probably having heavier and
longer spells of rainfall. The Panchet Formation is the topmost formation of the
Lower Gondwana Sequence and is of Lower Triassic age.
 Upper Gondwana Sequence
In peninsular India, the rocks of Lower and Upper Gondwana sequences are
separated by a distinct unconformity. The Lower Gondwana sequences are well
developed in the Talchir, Damuda and Panchet regions. On the other hand, the
Upper Gondwana sequences are well developed in the Mahadeva, Rajmahal
and Jabalpur areas. Now let us discuss the various formations of the Upper
Gondwana Sequence.
Pachmarhi Formation: The Pachmarhi Formation represents the basal most
part of theUpper Gondwana Sequence. It is well developed in the Pachmarhi
hills of the Satpura basin. The formation is about 750 m thick and consists of
buff and red sandstones with red clays and some associated patches of
haematitic clay and ferruginous materials. It is important to note that the
Pachmarhi Formation is completely devoid of carbonaceous matter, but the
layers of clay sometimes contain the leaf impressions are also present. The
sandstones of the formation are coarse-grained, good quality and tinted with
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various shades of red (Krishnan, 1949; Mukherjee, 1997). Hence, it is
extensively used as a building material. A Lower Triassic age has been inferred
for the formation.
Maleri Formation: The Maleri Formation overlying the Pachmarhi Formation is
about 330 m thick. The formation is named after the village of Marweli in the
Tandur as it is well developed in the Tandur coalfield of the Pranhita-Godavari
basin in Asifabad area of Telangana. Lithologically, it consists of red clayey
beds, siltstones, argillaceous sandstones and lime-pellet rocks. The rocks of
this formation are known to contain abundant remains of fishes and reptiles as
well as coprolites (fossil dung/animal dropping). In addition, some fresh water
unionids (gastropods) and large tree trunks were also known. This formation is
considered to be deposited during the Upper Triassic.
Kota Formation: It lies above the Maleri Formation in the Pranhita-Godavari
basin. It is about 600 m thick and dominantly composed of large-scale cross-
bedded sandstones, grits with red clay bands and some bands of limestone. It
also contains carbonaceous clays and a few thin seams of coal. The formation
yielded remains of plants, for example, Ptilophyllumflora, fishes, dinosaurs and
mammals. The Kota Formation is considered to be of Middle Jurassic age.
Rajmahal Formation: The Rajmahal Formation is well developed in the
Rajmahal Hills, which is located in the northeastern Jharkhand. The formation is
about 600 m thick, primarily made up of the Rajmahal volcanics (basaltic lava
flows) with intercalated sedimentary beds known as intertrappean beds.
Lithologically, intertrappean beds are made up of sandstones, siltstones,
arenaceous clays, white and grey colour baked shales, carbonaceous shales,
tuffite and chert beds and yield well preserved remains of plants. These
intertrappean beds were deposited in freshwater conditions probably in the
locally formed isolated lakes. The Rajmahal Formation lies above the Dubrajpur
Formation in the Rajmahal basin. The Dubrajpur Formation is more or less
equivalent to the Maleri formation of the Pranhita-Godavari basin. The
Rajmahal Formation is considered to be of Lower Cretaceous age. The plant
fossil-yielding intertrappean beds of the formation are informally known as
Rajmahal plant beds. These plant beds have yielded one of the richest floral
assemblages of the world. Numerous plant fossils belonging to the ferns,
cycads and conifers are known from the formation. Among them Ptilophyllum,
Pterophyllum, Dictyozamites, Taeniopteris, Williamsonia, Brachyllum,
Thinnfeldia and Cladophlebis are the most common genera of plant fossils.
Jabalpur Formation: The Jabalpur Formation is well developed in the Jabalpur
area of Madhya Pradesh. It unconformably lies above the Mahadeva Group of
Central India. It consists of massive sandstones, jasper-yielding sandy
conglomerates, white and light-coloured soft clays and carbonaceous shales
and with a few coal seams. The formation is considered to be of Lower
Cretaceous age. It yields Ptilophyllum, Pagiophyllum, Brachyphyllum,
Taeniopteris, Nilssonia, Dictyozamites, Otozamites and other plant fossils.
7.2.4 Economic Significance
Significantly, the Gondwana Supergroupis a major repository of coal deposits in
India. It is accounting for more than 98% of country’s coal resources, whereas

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remaining 2% of coal is coming from the Tertiary basins of the country. The
Lower Gondwana sequences are the main coal producing sequences of the
Gondwana Supergroup. The Karharbari, Barakar and Raniganj formations of
the Lower Gondwana sequences are main coal producing formations. Among
them, the Barakar Formation alone hosts a vast majority of coal resources of
the country. Apart from this, Gondwana sandstones are used for building and
construction purposes whereas clays are used in refractory industries. Some
iron-ore deposits occur in the Barren Measure Formation. Finally, it should be
understood that coal deposits of the Gondwana Supergroup reflect main
economic importance of the supergroup.
Learners, you have learnt about the distribution, classification, description of
formations and economic significance of Gondwana Supergroup. Before
discussing about the Deccan Traps, spend few minutes to perform an exercise
to check your progress.

SAQ 1
a) The Gondwana sediments are of ---------------------- origin.
b) Name the two classification schemes of the Gondwana Supergroup.
c) What is the age range of the Gondwana Supergroup?
d) List the main lithology of the Gondwana Supergroup.
e) Where does the sediments of the Lower Gondwana Sequence are
well developed?
f) Match the following:
a. Lower Gondwana Sequence i. Iron ore
b. Upper Gondwana Sequence ii. Damuda basin
c. Raniganj Formation iii. Ptilophyllumflora
d. Barren Measures Formation iv. Glossopteris flora

7.3 DECCAN TRAPS

At the close of the Cretaceous period, the peninsular India was witnessed by
the major phase of volcanic activity. It was a remarkable event in the geology of
India, where numerous lava flows were poured out mainly through fissure-type
of volcanic eruption and covered a vast area of the Deccan Plateau in the
western and central India. These lava flows formed as one of the Large Igneous
Provinces in the world, which are known as the Deccan Traps or Deccan
Volcanic Province. The term “Deccan Traps” was given by W. H. Sykes in
1833. The word “Deccan” is derived from a Sanskrit word “Dakshin” referring
south or southern whereas the word “Traps” derived from a Scandinavian word
“Traps/Trappa” referring a step-like appearance. Hence, Deccan Traps refers to
the step-like appearance of the basaltic terrain of the Deccan Plateau.
Moreover, the lava flows of the Deccan Traps formed the flat-topped plateau-
like topography of the terrain with step-like terraces. The lava flows are
dominantly basaltic in composition. Hence, these flows are generally, called

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traps rocks. The basalts of the Deccan Traps are also known as Flood Basalts,
because they cover a large area of the country.
The enormous lava flows of the Deccan Traps were erupted on the surface at
parts of peninsular India formed by the rocks of the Precambrian to Mesozoic
age. These rocks belong to the Dharwar, Aravalli, Bastar and Bundelkhand
groups of the Precambrian age and the Bagh Beds, Lameta Formation and
Dharangadhara Group of the Upper Cretaceous age. The Deccan Traps are
made up of several lava flows with the thickness of individual flow varying from
a few meters to as much as 40 m. A total of 48 lava flows have been identified
within the Deccan Traps. Among them, majority of lava flows occur in the form
of horizontal sheets with an individual lava flow covering an area of about 1000
km2. The Deccan Traps have a maximum thickness of about 2.5 km in the
western side of the plateau (near Mumbai, Western Ghats) and thinnest on the
eastern side.
7.3.1 Distribution
Deccan Traps, that hosts one of the large igneous provinces of the globe,
occupy an area of about 500,000 km2 mainly in the western and central India. It
covers parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Goa and Daman and Diu in
peninsular India (Fig. 7.4).

Fig. 7.4: Map of India showing spatial distribution of the Deccan Traps.
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7.3.2 Classification
Lithologically, the Deccan Traps are made up of fine to medium grained, black
to dark grey coloured basaltic rocks. The tholeiitic basalts are the main
constituents of the traps. However, other types of igneous rocks such as alkali-
olivine basalts, rhyolites, trachytes, nepheline syenites, nephelinites,
carbonatites, lamprophyres and picrites are also present. The lava flows of the
traps are separated by the intervening thin sedimentary and volcanic ash beds.
It is interesting to know that beds of volcanic ash associated with the lava flows
are a very common feature of the traps. The sedimentary beds sandwiched
between two successive lava flows are known as intertrappean beds whereas
the sedimentary beds that lie just below the first or oldest lava flows are called
infratrappean or Lameta beds. The infratrappean and intertrappean beds
contain abundant remains of plants and animals.The Deccan Traps are
classified into three stratigraphic units based on intertrappean beds and their
fossil content as shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Stratigraphy of the Deccan Traps.
Traps Distribution Lithology
Nummulitics of Surat and Broach; Eocene of Kutch; laterite
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Upper Traps Bombay and Lava flows with numerous volcanic
Saurashtra ash-beds and sedimentary
(450 m thick)
intertrappean beds. Intertrappean
beds contain numerous remains of
vertebrates and molluscan shells
Middle Traps Malwa and Lava flows and ash-beds forming the
Central India thickest part of the traps. Numerous
(1200 m thick)
ash-beds occur in the upper part of
the traps, but intertrappean beds are
rare.
Lower Traps Madhya Lava flows with few ash-bedsand
Pradesh numerous fossiliferous intertrappean
(150 m thick)
beds
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Slight unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Lameta or Infratrappean beds, Bagh beds and older rocks

The Deccan Traps are divided into following sub-provinces:

 Western Deccan Volcanic Province:
It represents the Main Deccan Volcanic Province and lies south of the Narmada
river comprising western, central and south eastern parts of the Deccan Traps.
It largely occurs in Maharashtra. Its western part consists of Western Ghats,
ranging from Mumbai to Ratnagiri, where the traps are well exposed and have
maximum thickness. The central part includes area around Aurangabad and
south eastern part covers area around Gulbarga and Nanded (Vaidyanadhan

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and Ramakrishnan, 2010). It covers larger area of the country, as a result, it is
also known as Main Deccan Plateau.
 Malwa Plateau:
It lies north of the Narmada river and covers the areas around Indore, Bhopal
and Sagar in Madhya Pradesh. The Satpura hills separate the Western Deccan
Volcanic Province from the Malwa Plateau.
 Eastern Deccan Volcanic Province:
It is an isolated lava pile, located on the eastern part of the Main Deccan
Volcanic Province in the Central India. It covers areas around Chhindwara,
Seoni and Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. This lava pile occursas an outlier near
Mandla and hence, commonly known as Mandla lobe.
 Saurashtra Plateau:
It represents the square shaped trap, located between the Khambhat graben in
the east and Son-Narmada fault in the south of Gujarat.
It may be noted that the Deccan Traps are best studied in the Western/Main
Deccan Volcanic Province. Based on the nature of lava flows, the Western
Deccan Volcanic Province is classified into a number of subgroups and
formations as shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Lithostratigraphy of the Western Deccan Volcanic Province of
the Deccan Traps. (Source: simplified after Vaidyanadhan and
Ramakrishnan, 2010)

Group Subgroup Formation Characteristic feature

Western ----- Mahabaleshwar Simple and aa phyric flows

Deccan
Wai Purandhargad Simple and aa type flows
Volcanic
Province Diveghat Aphyric aa type flows

Lonavala Karla Compound pahoehoe flows

Indrayani Simple flows of columnar

jointed and aphyric types

Ratangad Compound flows of phyric

type

Kalsubai Salher Simple pahoehoe flows of

phyric type

7.3.3 Age and Duration

The lava flows of the Deccan Traps were erupted near the Cretaceous-
Palaeogene (K-Pg) boundary [66 million years (Ma) ago]. The K-Pg boundary
represents an important time frame in geological history of the Earth because
this time interval is marked by a massive mass extinction, when all dinosaurs
became extinct on the surface of the Earth. Therefore, this mass extinction is
termed as K-Pg mass extinction as it was held at K-Pg boundary. It has been

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proposed that K-Pg mass extinction is linked with voluminous eruptions of the
Deccan Traps. As a result, the age and duration of the Deccan Traps have
received global attention during last two decades.The age and duration of the
Deccan Traps is mainly determined based on the fossils present in the
intertrappean and infratrappean beds as well as by the radiometric dating of the
trap rocks.
It has been proposed that lava flows of the Deccan Traps were erupted in three
phases. The first phase is marked by the beginning of eruption of lava flows of
the Deccan Traps at 67.5 Ma ago, which followed by a quieter period of 2
million years. At the close of K-Pg boundary, the second phase of volcanic
eruption took place. It is considered as the main event of lava flows because
80% of the total lava flows of the Deccan Traps were erupted during this phase.
The last and third phase began after the K-Pg boundary around 64 Ma ago and
about 14% of lava flows of the total Deccan Traps were erupted. A total
duration of about 4 million years, from 68 to 64 Ma ago, for volcanic eruptions
has been estimated for the Deccan Traps. Out of which, a major portion of the
Deccan Traps was formed with duration of less than 1 million years during the
second phase of volcanic eruptionat K-Pg boundary and this phase is
considered to be linked with K-Pg mass extinction. In addition, based on the
fossils especially foraminifers, ostracods and plants discovered from the
infratrappean and intertrappean beds associated with the Deccan Traps, a
Maastrictian to Danian (Upper Cretaceous to Lower Palaeocene) age has also
been proposed for the Deccan Traps.
The Lameta Formation (Infratrappean beds) underlies the Deccan traps, having
an aerial extent of more than 10,000 km2 and occurs as detached outcrops in
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Lithologically, it consists of red and
green clays, green sandstone, limestone, gray marls and yellow laminated
clays interbedded with marlites and mottled nodular bed and is well known for
its dinosaur fauna. Important dinosaurian fauna of the formation is consisted of
titanosaurids (Jainosaurusseptentrionalis, Isisauruscolberti) and theropods
(Indosuchusraptorius, Indosuchusmatleyi, Laevisuchusindicusi, Lametasaurus
indicus, Rajasaurusnarmadensis, Rahiolisaurusgujaratensis).
7.3.4 Economic Significance
The rocks of the Deccan Traps are hard, dense and durable, hence, they are
extensively used as road metals and building material. The monumental site
“Gateway of India” which is located in Mumbai is built by using these rocks. The
weathering of the Deccan Traps formed many workable deposits of high-grade
bauxite, which is an ore of aluminium ore. These deposits occur in Jabalpur,
Katni, Mandla, Belgaum, Kolhapur and Gujarat. The rocks of traps also yield
many semi-precious stones such as agate, chalcedony, amethyst and others.
Black soil, also known as regur, formed due to the weathering of the traps, is
highly suitable for the cultivation of cotton.
Learners, you have learnt the distribution, classification, age and duration and
economic significance of Deccan Traps. Now, spend few minutes to perform an
exercise to check your progress.
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SAQ 2
a) The Deccan Traps are of ---------------------- origin.
b) What are intertrappean and infratrappean beds?
c) Name the rocks that form the Deccan Traps.
d) Describe the geographical distribution of the Deccan Traps.

7.4 ACTIVITY
Study Table 7.4 carefully and write the lithology and age of various formations
of the Gondwana Supergroup at their respective places.
Table 7.4: Stratigraphic classification of the Gondwana Supergroup.
Super Formation Lithology Age
group
Jabalpur Formation
Rajmahal Formation
Kota Formation
Maleri Formation
Gondwana Supergroup

Pachmarhi Formation
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Panchet Formation
Raniganj Formation
Barren Measures
Formation
Barakar Formation
Karharbari Formation
Talchir Formation

7.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the following:
 Gondwana Supergroup comprises a thick sequence of fluviatile and
lacustrine sediments having a cumulative thickness of about 6 to 7 km.
 The deposition of the sequence began in the Upper Carboniferous and
continued up to the Lower Cretaceous.
 The rocks of the Gondwana Supergroup in peninsular India mainly occur in
the four isolated patches: Koel-Damodar, Son-Mahanadi, Satpura and
Pranhita-Godavari basins. Small outcrops are also present in the Himalayan
region.
 Two-fold classification scheme divided the supergroup into two subdivisions:
Lower Gondwana Sequence and Upper Gondwana Sequence. The Lower
Gondwana Sequence is characterised by the dominance of Glossopteris

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flora whereas the Upper Gondwana Sequence is characterised by
appearance of Ptilophyllum flora.
 Three-fold classification divided the supergroup into three sequences such
as Lower, Middle and Upper Gondwana, corresponding roughly to the
Permo-Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic, respectively, rock systems of
Europe.
 Two-fold classification scheme is generally followed by most of the workers.
Talchir, Karharbari, Barakar, Barren Measures, Raniganj and Panchet are
the main formations of the Lower Gondwana Sequence, whereas
Pachmarhi, Maleri, Kota, Rajmahal and Jabalpur are the major formations of
the Upper Gondwana Sequence.
 Coal-deposits of the Gondwana Supergroup are the main source of coal for
the country.
 The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province of volcanic origin in the
world.
 It is Upper Cretaceous to Lower Palaeocene in age and occurs in
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Goa and Daman and Diu in Peninsular India.
 The Deccan Traps are mainly composed of tholeiitic basalts. It also consists
of intratrappean and intertrappean beds of sedimentary origin.
 The Deccan Traps have a maximum thickness of about 2.5 km in its western
side and total 48 lava flows have been identified.
 The Western Deccan volcanic province, Malwa plateau, eastern Deccan
volcanic province and Saurashtra plateau are the main sub-provinces of the
Deccan Traps.
 The lava flows of the Deccan Traps were erupted near the Cretaceous-
Palaeogene (K-Pg) boundary (66 Ma ago) with a total duration of about 4
million years, from 68 to 64 Ma ago.
 The rocks of the traps are used as building material and road metal. The
black soil derived from weathering of the traps is most suitable for growing
cotton. Trap rocks also yield semi-precious gemstones.

7.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Give an account of the classification of the Gondwana Supergroup of
peninsular India.
2. List the economic importance of the Gondwana Supergroup.
3. What are Deccan Traps? Discuss the stratigraphy of the Deccan Traps.
4. List the economic importance of the Deccan Traps.

7.7 REFERENCES
 Krishnan, M.S. (1949) Geology of India and Burma. The Madras Law Journal
Office, Madras.
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India. New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Mukerjee, P. K. (1997) A Textbook of Geology. The world Press Pvt Ltd,
Calcutta.
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 Vaidyanadhan, R. and Ramakrishnan, M. (2010) Geology of India.
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

7.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian Plate (From Hadean
to Holocene – 4 Ga to 4 Ka). Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Shah, S.K. (2018) Historical Geology of India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
 Wadia D.N. (1966) Geology of India. McMillan Press, London.

7.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Fluviatile and lacustrine.
b) The two schemes of the Gondwana Supergroup classification are two-
fold and three-fold. The two-fold scheme classifies the Gondwana
sequences into two sequences such as Lower and Upper Gondwana
sequences. The three-fold scheme classifies it into three sequences
namely Lower, Middle and Upper Gondwana sequences.
c) Upper Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous.
d) The Gondwana Supergroup is dominantly composed of sandstones,
shales and clays with rich coal seams as well as fossil remains of plants
and animals.
e) The sediments of the Lower Gondwana Sequence are well developed in
the Damuda basin.
f) Match the following: -
a. - iv
b. - iii.
c. - ii.
d. - i.
2a) Volcanic origin.
b) The intertrappean beds are those which are sandwiched between two
successive volcanic lava flows of traps. The infratrappean beds include
those sedimentary beds which lie just below the first or oldest lava flow of
the traps.
c) The Deccan Traps are dominantly composed of fine to medium grained,
black to dark grey coloured basaltic rocks. The tholeiitic basalts are the
main constituents of the traps. However, other types of igneous rocks
such as alkali-olivine basalts, rhyolites, trachytes, nepheline syenites,
nephelinites, carbonatites, lamprophyres and picrites are present within
the traps.
d) Geographically, the Deccan Traps occur in peninsular India covering the
parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Goa and Daman and Diu.
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Terminal Questions
1. Refer to subsection 7.2.2.
2. Refer to subsection 7.2.4.
3. Refer to introductory part of section 7.3 for general description of the Deccan
Traps and subsection 7.3.2 for its classification.
4. Refer to subsection 7.3.4.

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 UNIT 8

CENOZOIC OF HIMALAYA

Structure_______________________________________________
8.1 Introduction 8.4 Activity
Expected Learning Outcome 8.5 Summary
8.2 Palaeogene–Neogene Sequences of 8.6 Terminal Questions
Northwest Himalaya
8.7 References
Palaeogene–Neogene Sequences of ITSZ
8.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Palaeogene Sequences of the Sub-Himalaya
8.9 Answers
Neogene Sequences of the Sub-Himalaya

8.3 Palaeogene–Neogene Sequences of Assam

Palaeogene Sequences of Assam

Neogene Sequences of Assam

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 7, you have studied about the Gondwana Supergroup and the Deccan Traps, which are well
developed in Peninsular India. The Gondwana Supergroup, ranging in age from the Upper
Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous, contains huge coal deposits and fossils. The Upper Cretaceous
to Lower Palaeocene aged Deccan Traps, on the other hand, is marked by the end of the Mesozoic
sedimentation in Peninsular India. The beginning of the Cenozoic era in the Himalayan region
represents a distinct phase in the tectonic and sedimentation history of India. From the Precambrian
to Mesozoic time, the Himalayan region dominantly witnessed the marine sedimentation whereas
freshwater sedimentation in this region largely commenced during the Cenozoic era.

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During the Cenozoic, the Himalayan region witnessed two major geological
events; first, India-Asia collision and second, Himalayan orogeny. In Unit 6, you
have studied that India separated from

Gondwanan landmasses during the Middle Jurassic and subsequently, it started

drifting north towards Asia. The India-Asia collision, which took place in the
Early Cenozoic, formed 2500 km long northwest to southeast trending
Himalayan ranges in the form of an arc. The convex side of the Himalayan arc
lies towards India. The southernmost range of this arc, known as Outer or Sub-
Himalaya, comprises Cenozoic successions of the Himalaya. These
successions occur both in the northwest and northeast parts of the Himalayan
region of India. In addition, some Palaeogene–Neogene sediments also occur
within the northernmost boundary of the Indian plate, marked by the Indus
Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ). This Palaeogene–Neogene succession is well
exposed in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.

In this unit, we will discuss the lithology, classification, age and distribution of
various Palaeogene-Neogene successions exposed in the northwest and
northeast Himalayan regions of India.

Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

 outline the various Palaeogene–Neogene successions of the northwest and

northeast Himalaya;

 define and classify the main Palaeogene–Neogene successions of the

Himalayan region;

 discuss the lithology of important Palaeogene–Neogene groups/formations;

and

 enlighten the stratigraphy of Palaeogene–Neogene successions of the

northwest Himalaya and Assam.

8.2 PALAEOGENE–NEOGENE SEQUENCES OF

NORTHWEST HIMALAYA
Himalaya comprises a chain of parallel mountain ranges. Topographically, the
Himalaya can be linearly divided into five parallel ranges from north to south
such as Trans Himalaya, Tethys Himalaya, Greater or Higher Himalaya, Lesser
or Lower Himalaya and Outer or Sub-Himalaya (Fig. 8.1). These divisions are
separated by distinctive fault or thrust zones. For example, Indus Tsangpo
Suture Zone (ITSZ), which represents the northern boundary of the Indian plate
and zone of collision between India and Asia, lies between Trans and Tethys
Himalaya. The necessity to highlight these divisions and ITSZ is that the Outer
or Sub-Himalaya as well as ITSZ contain well preserved successions of the
Palaeogene–Neogene age.
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Fig. 8.1: Geologic map of Himalaya showing different tectonic units. (Source:
simplified after Kumar, 1988).

8.2.1 Palaeogene–Neogene Sequences of ITSZ

Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) is well exposed in the Ladakh area of
Jammu and Kashmir state. The Cenozoic rocks of ITSZ have been termed as
Indus Basin Sedimentary Rocks (IBSR) that have been divided into two groups,
namely the Tar Group of Middle Cretaceous to Lower Eocene age and the
Indus Group of Middle Eocene to Miocene age. The Tar Group deposited under
marine conditions, comprises three formations such as Jurutze, Sumda and
Chogdo in ascending order and mostly consists of black shales, siltstones,
nummulitic limestone, etc. The Indus Group represents predominantly a
continental sedimentary succession that comprises four formations such as
Nurla, Choksti, Lower Nimu and Upper Nimu in ascending order. Lithologically,
the group is made up of mudstones, sandstones, shales, siltstones and
conglomerates.
8.2.2 Palaeogene Sequences of the Sub-Himalaya
The Outer or Sub-Himalaya is the main zone of the Cenozoic sedimentation.
The Palaeogene–Neogene sequences of the Sub-Himalaya occur in the
northern states of India comprising Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand. It is important to note that Subathu, Murree and
Dharamsala are the main Palaeogene groups of rocks whereas Siwalik is a
major Neogene group of Cenozoic sequences of the Sub-Himalaya. Let us
discuss the Palaeogene groups of the Northwest Himalaya.
 Subathu Group
The Subathu Group gets its name from the town of Subathu in the Solan
District of Himachal Pradesh where it is well exposed. The Subathu Group
consists of a thick succession of conformable strata comprising of dark green
and red shales interbedded with nummulitic limestones, carbonaceous shales
and bands of sandstones. The group occurs in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab,
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Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and overlies the Precambrian-Cambrian
slates and limestones. The rocks of the Subathu Group are richly fossiliferous,
yielding remains of larger foraminifers such as Nummulites, Ranikothalia, etc.
ostracods, molluscs and fish remains, indicating a marine environment of
deposition for the group. It is divided into two formations: Kakara and Subathu
in ascending order (Table 8.1). An Upper Palaeocene to Eocene age is
proposed for this group.
Table 8.1: Palaeogene successions of the northwest Himalaya

Group Formation Lithology Age

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Neogene Siwalik Group ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Murree Upper Murree Red, maroon and purple Upper/Middle

(= Dharamsala) (= Kasauli) sandstones, mudstones Eocene to
and shales. Lower
Lower Murree
Conglomerates at the Miocene
(= Dagshai) base.

Subathu Subathu Dark green and red Upper

shales interbedded with Palaeocene
Kakara
nummulitic limestones, to Eocene
carbonaceous shales
and bands of sandstones

~~~~~~~~~~ Precambrian and Cambrian slates and limestones ~~~~~~~~~

 Murree Group
The Subathu Group is followed by Murree and Dharamsala groups. These two
groups have almost the same age range, but occur at two different areas and
thus named differently. The Murree Group occurs in Jammu and Kashmir and
its coeval Dharamsala Group in Himachal Pradesh (Table 8.1). Firstly, let us
discuss the Murree Group. Type locality of the Murree Group occurs in the
Murree township of Pakistan. The rocks of the Murree Group consist of red,
maroon and purple sandstones, mudstones and shales. The base of the group,
which is well exposed in Kohat-Potwar area of Pakistan, consists of
conglomerates, which indicate the end of marine sedimentation and beginning
of freshwater deposition in the Himalayan region (Naqvi, 2005). The Murree
Group is divided into two formations namely the Lower Murree Formation and
the Upper Murree Formation based on lithological changes (Table 8.1). A
Middle Eocene to Lower Miocene age is generally assigned to the Murree
Group.
 Dharamsala Group
The Dharamsala Group of Himachal Pradesh, coeval of the Murree Group of
Jammu and Kashmir is divided into the lower Dagshai Formation and the upper
Kasauli Formation (Table 8.1). The Dagshai Formation equivalent to the
Lower Murree Formation of Jammu and Kashmir overlies the Subathu
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Formation. It is named after the Dagshai town that lies close to Subathu in
Himachal Pradesh. The formation comprises alternating sequence of red, grey
and purple clays with hard, green-grey coloured sandstones and red
mudstones. The formation was deposited under shallow marine to terrestrial
environment (Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishanan, 2010). The gradationally
overlying Kasauli Formation consists of brownish yellow and greyish green
medium to coarse grained sandstones with subordinate yellowish green,
greyish green and purple shales. The formation is named after Kasauli town of
Himachal Pradesh that lies close to Dagshai. The floral elements of the Kasauli
Formation indicate moist to dry tropical environment. An Upper Eocene to
Lower Miocene age has been assigned to the Dharamsala Group (Kumar,
1998; Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishanan, 2010).
8.2.3 Neogene Sequences of the Sub-Himalaya
In Himalaya, the Neogene successions are developed in two geographically
separated areas: Sub-Himalaya and Lesser Himalaya. The Neogene rocks of
the Sub-Himalaya are termed as the Siwalik Group. In the Lesser Himalaya, the
Neogene sediments are known as Karewa Formation that occurs in the
Kashmir valley, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. The Siwalik Group is one of the
dominant groups of the Neogene rocks in the northwest Himalaya and hence, it
is described in a greater detail.
 Siwalik Group

The Neogene Siwalik Group is exposed throughout a linear belt along the
Himalayan foothills between the river Indus in the west and the Brahmaputra
gorge in the east except for a small break near Sikkim where the Lesser
Himalaya comes in direct contact with the Indo-Gangetic plain. The group is
well developed in Haritalyanagar area of Himachal Pradesh and Tawi valley in
Jammu province of Jammu and Kashmir. Generally, the group consists of
alternate beds of muddy and maroon sandstones, shales, silts, clays with
occasional pebbly conglomerate layers coarsening upward. The sediments of
the Siwalik Group are thought to be derived from the ranges of the Himalaya
located towards the north of the group and rivers flowing across these ranges
brought the sediments down into the Siwalik basin that gave rise to the Siwalik
Group.
 Classification
The Siwalik Group is a rich store house of fossils. Among them the vertebrates
are more dominant than invertebrates and plant fossils. The whole succession
of the group shows a frequent repetition in the lithology, as consequence, the
characteristics of rocks are not useful to classify the group. The Siwalik Group,
which ranges from the Lower Miocene to Lower Pleistocene in age, is made up
of three subgroups: Lower Siwalik, Middle Siwalik and Upper Siwalik in the
order of ascendance (Table 8.2). Each subgroup is further divisible into two or
three formations (Table 8.2). Let us discuss these subgroups and formations of
the group in detail in ascending order.

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Table 8.2: Stratigraphy of the Siwalik Group.
Group Subgroup Formation Lithology Age
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Older alluvium ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Boulder Conglomerates,
conglomerate sandstones, siltstones
and clays

Upper Pinjor Sandstones,

Pliocene -
siltstones,
Pleistocene
conglomerates and
clays
Tatrot Conglomerates, soft
sandstones and clays
Dhok Pathan Sandstones, shales,
claystones,
Siwalik conglomerates.
Middle Miocene -
Nagri Massive sandstones, Pliocene
with subordinate red
clays, shales and
conglomerates
Chinji Sandstones,
claystones and red
shales.
Lower Kamlial Hard and soft
sandstones, clays, Miocene
purple shales and
pseudo-
conglomerates.
~~~~~Middle Eocene to Lower Miocene Murree/Dharamsalagroups~~~~~

Lower Siwalik Subgroup comprises dominantly of sandstone and claystone

units that were deposited under the fluvio-lacustrine environment. It is divided
into Kamlial and Chinji formations.
 Kamlial Formation represents lowermost unit of the group and is named
after the village Kamlial in Potwar Plateau, Pakistan. This unit lies above the
Murree Group and comprises fine to medium grained grey to greenish grey
coloured hard sandstones with occasional well indurated to soft brown
sandstones, purple shales and pseudo-conglomerates. It has yielded
numerous mammalian remains. A Lower to Middle Miocene age has been
proposed to this formation.
 The overlying Chinji Formation also derives its name from a village in
Potwar Plateau named Chinji. The Chinji Formationis relatively more clayey,
comprising brown and yellow claystones, subordinate grey and brown
sandstones and red shales. This formation contains a wealth of fossils. It has
yielded remains of mammals, reptiles and bivalves. The Chinji Formation has
been assigned a Middle Miocene to Upper Miocene age.

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Middle Siwalik Subgroup is dominated by multistoried sandstones with
occasional claystones, which were deposited in flood plain environment. It
comprises the Nagri and Dhok Pathan formations.
 The Nagri Formation is named after Nagri village in Potwar Plateau. It
overlies Chinji Formation of the Lower Siwalik subgroup. It consists of
massive sandstones with subordinate red clays, shales and conglomerates.
This formation is poor in fossils as compared with the underlying Chinji
Formation. It has yielded remains of horse, cattle, primates, etc. This
formation is dated as Upper Miocene.
 The overlying Dhok Pathan Formation gets its name from a village of the
same name in the Potwar Plateau. The formation is relatively dominant in
shales. In addition, it also contains sandstones, claystones with occasional
conglomerates. The Dhok Pathan Formation is an important fossil-yielding
unit of the Siwalik Group. It has yielded diverse mammalian assemblages.
An Upper Miocene to Lower Pliocene age has been assigned to this
formation.
Upper Siwalik Subgroup largely consists of sandstone, clay and conglomerate
horizons deposited under fluviatile environment. This group is divided into three
formations viz. Tatrot, Pinjor and Boulder Conglomerate.
 The Tatrot Formationis named after the village Tatrot in the Potwar Plateau.
It is the basal most unit of the Upper Siwalik that lies above the Dhok Pathan
Formation and consists of conglomerates, soft sandstones and orange and
brown clays. The conglomerate bed is found at the base of the formation and
indicates a physical break in sedimentation after the deposition of the Middle
Siwalik (Krishnan, 1949). The formation has yielded remains of elephant,
horse, cattle, etc. A Pliocene age has been assigned to the formation.
 The overlying Pinjor Formation derives its name from Pinjor town in
Haryana, in the Indian Siwalik. It consists of light grey to white coarse
sandstones and light pink siltstones, conglomerates and clays. It contains a
rich assemblage of mammals, which are regarded as probable ancestors of
many of the modern mammals. The formation is dated from Pliocene to
Lowermost Pleistocene in age.
 The topmost Boulder Conglomerate Formation lies above the Pinjor
Formation and is the youngest unit of the Siwalik Group. It dominantly
consists of conglomerates, but sandstones, siltstones and clays are also
present. The sediments of this formation are coarse in nature, deposited
under glacial regime and almost unfossiliferous. It ranges from Middle to
Upper Pleistocene in age.
Siwaliks are unique in the world of geology, as they present an almost
continuous depositional record of a Neogene terrestrial sequence with only
minor hiatuses and many fossiliferous levels, although the quality of fossil
record varies. For the last 150 years, Siwalik is well known for its rich repository
of vertebrate fauna along with significant invertebrate and plant fossils. Over the
years focused research work by several workers in India have brought to light
important fossil localities, in the Siwaliks of India viz. the Lower Siwaliks of
Ramnagar (Jammu and Kashmir), the Middle Siwaliks of Haritalyanagar and
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Nurpur (Himachal Pradesh), the Upper Siwaliks north and east of Chandigarh,
and Markanda valley (Himachal Pradesh) and the Middle - Upper Siwaliks of
Haridwar (Uttarakhand). Other than fossil remains of elephant, horse, giraffe
etc., remains of apes have also been discovered from the Siwalik Group.
Learners, you have learnt about the Palaeogene-Neogene sequences of
northwest Himalaya. Before discussing about the Palaeogene-Neogene
sequences of Assam, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your
progress.

SAQ 1
a) What are main groups of Palaeogene–Neogene rocks in the northwest
Himalaya?
b) List the name of the formations of the Siwalik Group in ascending order.
c) Match the following:
a. Subathu Group i. Chinji Formation
b. Lower Siwalik Subgroup ii. Pinjor Formation
c. Indus Group iii. Kakara Formation
d. Upper Siwalik Subgroup iv. ITSZ

8.3 PALAEOGENE–NEOGENE SEQUENCES OF

ASSAM
Assam is a northeastern state of India. The Palaeogene–Neogene sequences
of rocks are well developed in Assam and adjoining areas like Meghalaya,
Naga Hills, Shillong Hills, Chittagong Hills, Surma Valley etc. in the
northeastern Himalaya. These sequences were deposited under a range of
environments from marine to terrestrial or freshwater.
8.3.1 Palaeogene Sequences of Assam
The Palaeogene succession of Assam is made up of the Langpar Formation,
and Jaintia and Barail groups as shown in Table 8.3. Let us discuss the
Langpar Formation, which is the oldest formation of the Palaeogene Sequences
of Assam.
 Langpar Formation
The Langpar Formation has been considered to be the base of the Cenozoic
succession in Assam and Meghalaya. The Langpar Formation overlies the
Upper Cretaceous Mahadeo Formation, which is well exposed in the Shillong
Plateau, Meghalaya. The Langpur Formation consists of shale with bands of
limestone and argillaceous sandstone, yellowish brown impure limestone and
sandstone, and sandy shale with sandy limestone in the ascending sequence. It
is considered to be of a Lower Palaeocene age.
 Jaintia Group
The Jaintia Group conformably overlies Langpar Formation and is divisible into
three formations namely, Tura sandstone, Sylhet limestone and Kopili in

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ascending order (Table 8.3). An Upper Palaeocene to Upper Eocene age has
been assigned to the group.
Table 8.3: Stratigraphy of Palaeogene Sequences of Assam.
Group Formation Lithology Age
Miocene Surma Group
Renji Sandstones with some shales
Jenam Carbonaceous shales, shales and
Barail Oligocene
sandstones
Laisong Sandstones with some shales
Kopili Alternating beds shales and
sandstones
Upper
Sylhet Limestones with alternating bands
Palaeocene
Jaintia limestone of sugary sandstones
to Upper
Therria/Tura Coarse to medium grained, current Eocene
sandstone bedded sandstones and clays with
limestones, shales and coal.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
--- Langpar Limestones, sandstones, sandy Lower
shales with sandy limestones Palaeocene
Upper Cretaceous Mahadeo Formation

The basal Tura Sandstone Formation of the group is composed of coarse to

medium grained, current bedded, non-feldspathic, coal-bearing sandstones and
clays with limestones, grayish-white shales, carbonaceous shales and coal.
Three coal seams occur in the Tura Sandstone of which, the middle one is
workable. Some invertebrate fossils have been recovered from the upper strata
of the Tura Formation and a near-shore shallow marine environment with
continental influence has been proposed to the formation.
The overlying Sylhet Limestone Formation consists of limestones with
alternating bands of sugary sandstones and coal seams. The limestone beds
have yielded characteristic remains of foraminifers such as Nummulites,
Discocyclina, Miscellanea, Orbitolites etc. The microfaunal assemblages
suggest a shallow marine environment of deposition to the formation.
The topmost Kopili Formation of the group lies above the Sylhet Limestone
Formation. It comprises mainly of alternating beds shales and sandstones with
streaks of limestones, phosphatic nodules, marls and coals with leaf
impression. A variety of environments of deposition from shallow and open
marine, warm water to near shore coastal environment have been inferred to
this formation. The formation grades upward into the Barail Group.
 Barail Group
The Jaintia Group conformably underlies a thick succession of arenaceous
sedimentary rocks that mainly consists of alternating band of hard sandstones
and shales with coal-seams termed as Barail Group. The group is well
175
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………
developed in both Upper and Lower Assam. The Barail Group contains
workable coal seams and many productive petroliferous beds in Upper Assam.
The thickness of the group increases from northwest to southwest. In Lower
Assam, the Barail Group is divided into three formations namely, Laisong,
Jenam and Renji in ascending order (Table 8.3).
The Laisong Formation is basal most unit of the group that lies above the
Kopili Formation of the Jaintia Group. This formation occurs in Central and
Lower Assam and is dominantly composed of sandstones with some shales.
The overlying Jenam Formation consists of carbonaceous shales, shales and
sandstones. The Renji Formation is youngest formation of the group and lies
above the Jenam Formation and below the Surma Group. It is mainly made up
of sandstones with a few horizons of shale.
It may be noted that Barail Group in Upper Assam is also divided into three
formations such as Naogaon, Baragoloi and Tikak Parat. The group has yielded
only a few fossils and is considered to be of Oligocene age. The sediments of
the Barail Group were deposited under swampy and marshy environmental
conditions.
8.3.2 Neogene Sequences of Assam
The Neogene sequences consist of the Surma and Tipam groups of rocks. In
Assam and its vicinity, the Neogene sequence occurs in Shillong-Mikir Hills,
Dhansiri, Upper Assam valley, Manipur and Kohima. The Surma and the Tipam
groups made up of different lithologies vary in their thickness spatially. The
Neogene sequence of Assam is bounded by two regional unconformities, one
lies at its base between the top of Barail and bottom of Surma groups and other
at top between the boundaries of Tipam and post Tipam sediments (Table 8.4).
Table 8.4: Stratigraphy of Neogene sequences of Assam.
Group Formation Lithology Age
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Tipam Girujan Clays Variegated clays with patchy variable Miocene to
sand content or occasional thin Pliocene
bands of sandstone and lignite
Tipam Massive ferruginous sandstones with
Sandstones some thin bands of shales, clays,
conglomerates and lignite
Surma Bokabil Silty shales, shales with siltstones Middle to
and sandstones Upper
Bhuban Sandstones, mudstones, Miocene
conglomerates and shales
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Oligocene Barail Group

 Surma Group
The Surma Group is a thick sequence of Middle-Upper Miocene clastic
sediments consisting of alternation of sandstones, shales and siltstones. It

176
Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya
…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………..
overlies the Oligocene aged Barail Group with a distinct unconformity and
underlies the sandstones dominating Tipam Group of Miocene to Pliocene age.
The Surma Group contains marine and brackish water microfauna reflecting
basinal deposition under deltaic to estuarine condition. The lower part of the
group is well developed in the Surma Valley, especially in the Bhuban Hills and
upper part at the Bokabil near Masimpur. The Surma Group is divided into a
lower, Bhuban Formation and an upper, Bokabil Formation (Table 8.4). Let us
discuss about these formations.
Bhuban Formation is the basal unit of the group that lies above the Renji
Formation of the Barail Group. The Formation is made up of an alternating
sequence of bedded sandstones, mudstones, conglomerates and shales and
has yielded fragmentary remains of shells.
The Bokabil Formation conformably overlies the Bhuban Formation and is
overlain by the Tipam Sandstone Formation of the Tipam Group. It is primarily
an argillaceous sequence. It chiefly consists of silty shales, shales with
siltstones and sandstones. It has yielded remains of molluscs especially
bivalves and gastropods.
 Tipam Group
The Tipam Group that overlies the Surma Group consists dominantly of
massive sandstones with subordinate clay and shales. The Tipam Group is
considered to be of Miocene to Pliocene age and is well developed along the
Tipam river in Assam. It is divided in to two formations, namely the Tipam
Sandstone and Girujan Clay (Table 8.4).
The lowermost Tipam Sandstone Formation overlies the Bokabil Formation
and underlies the Girujan Clay. It comprises massive ferruginous sandstones
with some thin bands of shales, clays, conglomerates and lignite. The
sandstones are rich in heavy minerals like enstatite, kyanite, sillimanite,
andalusite, hornblende and epidote. The formation contains a few oil-bearing
beds and fossil wood.
The Girujan Clay Formation lies above the Tipam Sandstone Formation and
comprises soft variegated clays with patchy variable sand content or occasional
thin bands of sandstone and thin streaks of lignite. The formation also contains
bluish-grey mottled clay. The Girujan Clay has yielded some plant fossils.
Learners, you have learnt about the Palaeogene-Neogene sequences of
Assam. Now, spend few minutes to perform an exercise to check your
progress.

SAQ 2
a) What are the main groups of Palaeogene rocks in the northeast Himalaya?
b) List the name of the formations of the Tipam Group in ascending order.
c) Match the following:
a. Surma Group i. Renji Formation
b. Barail Group ii. Upper Palaeocene to Upper Eocene
c. Jaintia Group iii. Lower Palaeocene
d. Langpar Formation iv. Boka Bil Formation

177
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………
8.4 ACTIVITY
Figure 8.2 is showing the outline of different divisions of the Himalaya. Find and
demarcate the ITSZ and Sub-Himalaya. List the name of groups that occur in
these areas.

Fig. 8.2: Map showing the outline of various divisions of the Himalaya.

8.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the following:
 Cenozoic successions are well developed in the northwest and northeast
parts of the Himalayan region of India. In northwest Himalaya, these occur in
ITSZ, Lesser Himalaya and Sub-Himalaya comprising the states of Jammu
and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Whereas in
northeastern part, the Cenozoic successions are present in Assam and
adjoining areas.
 Tar Group, ranging in age from Middle Cretaceous to Lower Eocene and the
Indus Group ranging in age from Middle Eocene to Miocene represent the
Palaeogene-Neogene successions of ITSZ.
 The Subathu, Murree and Dharamsala are the main Palaeogene groups of
Sub-Himalayan region of the northwest Himalaya. The Subathu consists of
dark green and red shales interbedded with nummulitic limestones,
carbonaceous shales and bands of sandstones. The group is an Upper
Palaeocene to Eocene in age.
 The Murree Group consists of red, maroon and purple sandstones,
mudstones and shales and is Middle Eocene to Lower Miocene in age.
 The coeval of the Murree Group of Jammu and Kashmir in Himachal
Himalaya is the Dharamsala Group, which is divided into Dagshai Formation
and Kasauli Formation.
178
Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya
…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………..
 The Siwalik Group is a Neogene group of rocks in the northwest Sub-
Himalaya. It is divided into three subgroups: Lower, Middle and Upper. The
Siwalik Group is made up of alternate beds of muddy and maroon
sandstones, shales, silts, clays with occasional pebbly conglomerate layers
coarsening upward. It ranges from Lower Miocene to Pleistocene in age and
has yielded diverse mammalian assemblages.
 The Palaeogene–Neogene rock sequences of the northeastern Himalaya are
well developed in Assam and adjoining areas like Meghalaya, Naga hills,
Shillong hills, Chittagong hills, Surma valley etc.
 The Palaeogene succession of Assam is made up of the Langpar Formation,
and Jaintia and Barail groups. The Surma and Tipam are the main groups of
the Neogene sequences of Assam and adjoining areas in the northeast
Himalaya.

8.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the Palaeogene stratigraphy of northwest Himalaya.
2. Describe the Siwalik Group.
3. Explain the Palaeogene groups of Assam.
4. Discuss the stratigraphy and age of the Surma and Tipam groups.

8.7 REFERENCES
 Krishnan, M.S. (1949) Geology of India and Burma. The Madras Law Journal
Office, Madras.
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India. Fourth Reprint, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Naqvi, S.M. (2005) Geology and Evolution of the Indian Plate (From Hadean
to Holocene – 4 Ga to 4 Ka). Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.
 Vaidyanadhan, R. and Ramakrishnan, M. (2010) Geology of India. Volume II,
Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

8.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Mukerjee, P. K. (1997) A Textbook of Geology. The world Press Pvt Ltd,
Calcutta.
 Shah, S.K. (2018) Historical Geology of India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

8.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Palaeogene–Neogene rocks in the northwest Himalaya occur in three
different parts such as at ITSZ, Lesser and Sub-Himalaya. The Tar
Group of the Middle Cretaceous to Lower Eocene age and the Indus
Group of the Middle Eocene to Miocene age are main successions of
ITSZ. The Subathu, Murree, Dharamsala and Siwalik groups are the
main Palaeogene–Neogene successions of the Sub-Himalaya. Whereas,
179
Block 2 Stratigraphy of India
…………………………………………………………………….………………………………………
the Karewa Formation constitutes a Neogene succession of the Lesser
Himalaya.
b) The Neogene Siwalik Group is divided into three subgroups and seven
formations. These are the Lower, Middle and Upper Siwalik Subgroups in
ascending order. The Lower Siwalik includes two formations such as
Kamlial and Chinji, the Middle Siwalik also comprises two formations
namely Nagri and Dhok Pathan and the Upper Siwalik is made up of
three formations, which are Tatrot, Pinjor and Boulder Conglomerate.
c) Match the following: -
a. iii.
b. i.
c. iv.
d. ii
2 a) The Langpar Formation, and Jaintia and Barail groups are the main
Palaeogene successions of Assam and adjoining areas in northeast
Himalaya. The Jaintia Group conformably overlies the Langpar
Formation and is divided into three formations: Tura sandstone, Sylhet
limestone and Kopili in ascending order. The overlying Barail Group is
divided into three formations such as Laisong, Jenam and Renji in
ascending order.
b) The Tipam Group that overlies the Surma Group consists dominantly of
massive sandstones with subordinate clay and shales. The Tipam Group
is considered to be of Miocene to Pliocene age and well developed along
the Tipam river in Assam. It is divided in to two formations such as the
Tipam Sandstone and Girujan Clay.
c) Match the following: -
a. iv.
b. i.
c. ii.
d. iii.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to subsection 8.2.2.
2. Refer to subsection 8.2.3.
3. Refer to subsection 8.3.1.
4. Refer to subsection 8.3.2.

180
 Glossary
Archaean : Eon defined as the time between 4 billion years ago to 2.5
billion years ago. Most of the oldest rocks on Earth, including
large portions of the continents, formed at this time.

Batholith : A large intrusion of igneous rock, usually granite, formed

deep beneath the surface of Earth so the rock cooled very
slowly.

Beach : An accumulation of sediment found along the landward

margin of the ocean or a lake.

Bedding Plane: : Individual layer of a sedimentary rock is called bed. Each bed
is separated from the adjacent bed by a plane called bedding
plane

Biostratigraphic : It is a body or layer of rock sequence characterised by its

Unit content of fossils. Range zone, interval zone, assemblage
zone and abundance zones are the common biostratigraphic
units.

Cambrian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic era between

542 and 488 million years.

Carboniferous : A division of geologic period and system that spans 60

million years from the end of the Devonian Period 358 Mya to
the beginning of the Permian Period, 298 Mya.

Conglomerate : A sedimentary rock with rounded, larger (≥2 mm) clasts.

Craton : The name is derived from a Greek word meaning “strength”.

It is used to distinguish those portions of continental crust
that are stabilised after a series of cycles of orogeny
(mountain building) and are composed of crystalline rocks.
The term craton is used against mobile belts, which are still
unstable. The term shield is often used to denote a region
composed of cratons and associated mobile belts.

Cretaceous : A division of geological time in the Mesozoic Era between

145 and 65 million years ago.

Deccan Plateau : Deccan plateau is a large plateau in India, located between

the mountain ranges of the Western Ghats and the Eastern
Ghats.

Deformation : It is a general term that encompasses change in shape, size

or both in a body. In geological studies deformation in the
rocks is generally observed in the form of folding, faulting,
and shearing.

181
 Disconformity : A type of unconformity. It is the surface of a division between
parallel rock strata, indicating interruption of sedimentation.

Fossil : A fossil is the remains of a plant or organism which are

preserved in rocks either fully or in parts through some
process.

Himalaya : The word Himalaya is derived from Sanskrit word Him-alaya.

Him means snow and alaya means covered range, which
refers to the snow-covered mountain range. Most western
writers pluralise it as “Himalayas”, which is incorrect because
the Sanskrit word itself is pluralised.

Inliers : Inlier refers ‘to older bed inside’. In the field or on a

geological map when the older rock is completely surrounded
by younger rocks it is known as inlier. Inliers may be
produced by erosion, folding, faulting or combination of more
than one of these phenomena.

Incrop : When a portion of the rocks which are not exposed at the
surface are referred to as incrop.

Joints : Joints are quite common and important structures found in

the rocks. Joint is in fact, a kind of fracture without any
observable movement along it.

Jurassic : A division of geological time in the Mesozoic Era between

200 and 145 million years ago.

Limestone : It is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium

carbonate (CaCO3), deposited usually under marine
conditions, and composed of chemically derived lime muds
or fossilised shells, or both.

Lithostratigraphic : They comprise bed, member, formation, group and

Units: supergroup, and are classified on the basis of lithology.

Lithospheric : Earth is constituted of many different segments of lithosphere

Plates: known as lithospheric plates. These lithospheric plates are
also known as tectonic plates or simply plates.

Mesozoic : An Era, a division of geological time between 251 and 65

million years ago.

Mountain Range : Mountain range exists in a linear system of mountains and

hills having several ridges, peaks, summits and valleys.

Offlap : Offlap shows reverse relation of older and younger beds.

Here the successively younger beds of the younger series

182
 get deposited short of the older sequence of beds. In case of
offlap the lowest bed of an upper series extends further over
the older series than the younger one of the same series.
This phenomenon occurs because of marine regression (i.e.
receding of sea).

Ophiolites : They are pieces of oceanic plate that have been thrusted
(obducted) onto the edge of continental plates. They are an
assemblage of mafic to ultramafic lavas and hypabyssal
rocks found in association with sedimentary rocks like
greywackes (hard compact sandstone with high quartz and
feldspar and) radiolarian cherts.

Outlier : Outlier refers to ‘older bed outside’ The terms indicate special
relation between older and younger rocks. In the field or on a
geological map when a limited area of younger rock is
completely surrounded by older rocks, the structure is called
as outlier. Outlier may be produced by erosion, folding,
faulting or combination of more than one of these
phenomena.

Outcrop : The term outcrop means ‘what emerges out’. Thus, an

outcrop denotes the area on Earth’s surface over which rock
mass crops out and is visible on the surface, which provides
the basic source of information for a geologist.

Overlap : The term overlap is used to describe the relationship of beds

in an unconformity where progressively younger member of
an upper series rests upon an older series by overlapping it
and extends beyond the previous one just below. This occurs
because of marine transgression.

Permian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic Era between

299 and 251 million years ago.

Physiography : It deals with the physical processes and patterns of the

Earth.

Precambrian : Precambrian orogeny (before 550 million years ago)

Orogeny comprising several orogenic periods dating from 3800 to 550
million years ago for example, Rodinian orogeny at 1100 ma;

Pyroclastic : Rocks or rock textures that are formed from explosive

volcanism.

Sandstone : It is a sedimentary rock composed of sand sized grains of

minerals, rock or organic material. It also contains a
cementing material that binds the grains together.

183
 Shale : It is a fine grained clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud
mixed with clay minerals along with silt size particles and
other minerals like quartz and calcite.

Suture zone : A linear belt of strong deformation, where distinct terranes, or

tectonic units with different plate tectonic, metamorphic, and
paleogeographic histories join together.

Terrigenous : Sediments derived from the erosion of rocks on land.

Unconformity : Unconformity is defined as a plane of non-deposition in the

rock sequence. It marks the hiatus or break in deposition.

Weathering : The disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near the

surface of the Earth.

184
NOTES

185
 NOTES

186
NOTES

187
 NOTES

188
Dear Learner,
While studying the theory course BGYCT-137 (Stratigraphy and Palaeontology), you may have found
certain portions of the text difficult to comprehend. We wish to know your difficulties and suggestions,
in order to improve the course. Therefore, we request you to please fill out and send us the following
questionnaire, which pertains to this course (i.e., BGYCT-137). If you find the space provided is
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Questionnaire

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Course BGYCT-137: Stratigraphy and Palaeontology

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 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
PALAEONTOLOGY

Palaeontology Volume 2
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
PALAEONTOLOGY

Volume

2
PALAEONTOLOGY
BLOCK 3
INTRODUCTION TO PALAEONTOLOGY 6

BLOCK 4
INVERTEBRATE PALAEONTOLOGY 87

1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Volume Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Dr. Meera Tiwari (Unit 9) Dr. Omkar Verma (Units 9, 10, 13, Dr. Varun Parmar (Unit 11 & 12)
Wadia Institute of Himalayan 14, 15 & 16) Department of Geology
Geology, Dehra Dun School of Sciences University of Jammu, Jammu
IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editors
Language Editor
Prof. S. K. Shah (Retd.) Prof. G.V.R. Prasad (Units 11 & 12) Dr. Kishor Kumar
(Units 9, 10, 13, 14, 15 &16) Department of Geology Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
Department of Geology University of Delhi, Delhi Dehra Dun
University of Jammu, Jammu
Transformation: Dr. Omkar Verma
Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only
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Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar,
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2
BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy

Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification

Unit 3 Physiography of India

Block 2 Stratigraphy of India

Unit 4 Precambrian of India

Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India

Unit 6 Mesozoic of India

Unit 7 Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps

Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya

Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology

Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation

Unit 10 Microfossils

Unit 11 Evolution of Horse

Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora

Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology

Unit 13 Brachiopods and Corals

Unit 14 Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods

Unit 15 Molluscs - Cephalopods

Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms

List of audio/video materials related to this course
1. Evolution of Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVGZKqrjVZY
2. Himalaya – an overview
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vK5Cglisa1Y
3. Fossils in Himalaya
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLUqzsz1E80
4. Application of Palaeontology
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbDXz8dZDWY
5. Science of Palaeontology (Fossils and Fossilization)
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEN6q5CCJCU
6. Deccan Volcanism and Mass Extinction at K/T Boundary
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxifXuAnSPE
7. Age and duration of Deccan Volcanism
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rodlNJOA-r8
8. Deccan volcanism: an inside story
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1a3glcg0oGs

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

pertaining to the course you may visit YouTube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at
http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575

4
 VOLUME 2: PALAEONTOLOGY
The course BGYCT-137: Stratigraphy and Palaeontology consists of four blocks, which have
been packaged in two volumes. The Volume 1 deals with stratigraphy and consists of two
blocks namely, fundamentals of stratigraphy and stratigraphy of India. The Volume 2 covers
palaeontology and comprises two blocks namely introduction to palaeontology and
invertebrate palaeontology.
The first block of this volume, Block 3: Introduction to Palaeontology, will introduce you about
fossils, fossilisation, microfossils, evolution of horse, plant fossils and uses of fossils in
geology.
The second block of this volume, Block 4: Invertebrate Palaeontology, will introduce you
about morphology and geological history of various invertebrate fossil groups such as
brachiopods, corals, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, trilobites and echinoderms.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this volume, you should be able to:
 define fossil and describe the process of fossilisation;
 discuss the major evolutionary trends, phylogeny and origin of horse;
 discuss microfossils and plant fossils; and
 describe systematic, morphology and geological distribution of invertebrate fossil
groups such as corals, brachiopods, molluscs, trilobites and echinoderms.
After studying this volume, you will be equipped with the basic knowledge of palaeontology.
We wish you all success in this endeavour!
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University PALAEONTOLOGY
School of Sciences

Block

3
INTRODUCTION TO PALAEONTOLOGY
UNIT 9
Fossils and Fossilisation 11
UNIT 10
Microfossils 33
UNIT 11
Evolution of Horse 53
UNIT 12
Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora 65

Glossary 83

6
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu (Retd.)
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Dr. Meera Tiwari (Unit 9) Dr. Omkar Verma (Units 9 and 10) Dr. Varun Parmar (Units 11 & 12)
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology School of Sciences Department of Geology
Dehra Dun IGNOU University of Jammu, Jammu
Content Editors Language Editor
Prof. S. K. Shah (Retd.) Prof. G.V.R. Prasad (Units 11 & 12) Dr. Kishor Kumar
(Units 9 & 10) Department of Geology Wadia Institute of Himalayan
Department of Geology University of Delhi, Delhi Geology
University of Jammu, Jammu Dehra Dun
Transformation: Dr. Omkar Verma
Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this module are being used for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, SOS, IGNOU.
Printed at Vijayalakshmi Printing Works Pvt. Ltd., B-117, Sector-5, Noida-201301

7
 BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy

Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification

Unit 3 Physiography of India

Block 2 Stratigraphy of India

Unit 4 Precambrian of India

Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India

Unit 6 Mesozoic of India

Unit 7 Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps

Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya

Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology

Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation

Unit 10 Microfossils

Unit 11 Evolution of Horse

Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora

Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology

Unit 13 Brachiopods and Corals

Unit 14 Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods

Unit 15 Molluscs - Cephalopods

Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms

8
 BLOCK 3: INTRODUCTION TO PALAEONTOLOGY
In Block 1 and 2, you have been introduced to the fundamentals of stratigraphy and
stratigraphy of India, respectively. Stratigraphy is the study of layered rocks in time and
space. In fact, it is stratigraphy that helps us to reconstruct the history of the Earth and its
evolution through geological time. In order to realise the fascination of fossils, you should be
familiar with layered (sedimentary) rocks because fossils are always present in the layered
rocks. We continue the story in this block where the special focus is on fossils.
The planet Earth is perhaps the only planet that supports life. Fossils, the remains of
organisms that lived long ago, present in the rocks tell us that life on the Earth originated
about 3.8 billion years ago. The study of fossils, called palaeontology, documents the history
of life. Previously, palaeontology was used mainly for the dating of rocks. But, during the last
two decades many new dimensions have been added to it. Now, palaeontology is being
used to illustrate origin and evolution of life, to explain the impact of climate change on the
past life and how it would alter the life of present and future as well. Fossils also provide
insights into the mechanism of organic evolution that shaped the present life mainly through
various processes like natural selection, mutation and other means involving a genetic
change. In addition, the type of organisms varies on land and in sea and their study through
fossils is crucial for reconstructing the palaeogeography and biological distribution at
different points of time.
The collection and study of fossils hold many surprises and fascinations. It brings you close
to the idea of how old life was and how it evolved and diversified with the passage of time.
To outline the significance of fossils, you need to recognise and identify them accurately in
the field as well as in the laboratory. This may be your first exposure to palaeontology.
Therefore, this block is pitched at introductory level and so that it gives you a basic
understanding of fossils. In this block, we have included good number of diagrams,
illustrations and photographs so that it is easier for you to visualise them and also to
stimulate your interest in it.
This block deals with various aspects of study of fossil. In this block, you will be introduced to
the basic principles of the study of fossil and their significance, which are covered in four
units.
Unit 9 deals with fossils and fossilisation in which you will learn about fossils, their types and
process of fossilisation. Besides knowing the significance of fossils, you will also learn about
their taxonomic hierarchy, codes of biological nomenclature and geological time scale.
Microfossils are very important in palaeontology because they can be abundantly found in
small samples. There are special techniques for their study. In Unit 10, you will learn about
major groups of microfossils, their collection and techniques of study.
Unit 11 deals with one important group of mammals, namely, horse. It explains the
systematic position, major evolutionary trends, phylogeny, probable time and place of origin
of horse. It also describes the role of climate in the evolution of horse.
Plant fossils and the Gondwana flora are covered in Unit 12. It discusses the classification,
modes of preservation and significance of plant fossils. It also describes the Gondwana flora
of India and morphological characters of some important plant fossils known from India.

9
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
 define fossils;
 describe process of fossilisation;
 codes of biological nomenclature;
 outline the methods of studying microfossils
 discuss the major evolutionary trends, phylogeny and origin of horse;
 explain the classification, mode of preservation and significance of plant fossils; and
 describe characteristics of important Gondwana flora of India.
In order to evaluate your learning while reading the self-learning material of this block, we
have provided self-assessment exercises under the caption “Self Assessment Questions” at
a few places in all units of the block, which invariably end with possible answers to the
questions set in these exercises. You should attempt the exercises yourself and not be
tempted to look up the answers given under the caption “Possible Answers” beforehand. In
any case, the possible answers are not necessarily the best answers. We hope that we have
provided you enough space to work on the exercises/questions to check your progress. It
should be noted that the check your progresses are not meant to be submitted to your
academic counsellor for evaluation, instead, are provided as study tools to help you keep on
the right track as you read the units.
We advise that as you read the units, jot down important points in the space provided in the
margins of each page. In fact, broad margins in the booklet are provided for you to write your
notes on. Make your notes as you work through the self-learning materials. This will help you
prepare for the term end examination and also in assimilating the content.
Please note that we have provided a questionnaire at the end of the block. After studying the
material in the block, complete the questionnaire and mail it to the address given below:
The Course Coordinator BGYCT-137
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068 (India)
Your feedback pertaining to this block will help us undertake maintenance and timely
revision of the block. Do make use of the questionnaire and send it to us.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self learning material.

10
 UNIT 9

FOSSILS AND FOSSILISATION

Structure____________________________________________________
9.1 Introduction 9.7 Importance of Fossils
Expected Learning Outcomes Evolution of life
9.2 Palaeontology Prehistoric life
9.3 Fossils Dating of rocks
What are Fossils? Palaeogeography
Types of Fossils Palaeoclimate
9.4 Fossilisation Palaeoenvironment
Conditions for Fossilisation Discovering oil and coal deposits
Processes of Fossilisation 9.8 Activity
9.5 Taxonomic Hierarchy 9.9 Summary
9.6 Codes of Biological Nomenclature 9.10 Terminal Questions
9.11 References
9.12 Further/Suggested Readings
9.13 Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Earth is a unique planet of the solar system and the existence of life on it differentiates it from other
planets. You might be hearing the news on radio and television or reading in the newspapers or on
the internet that scientists are working to find the evidence of life on other planets, especially on the
planet Mars. Did you ever think how old our mother Earth is? When and where the first form of life
appeared? How big were the dinosaurs? In fact, many of us are always curious to know who were
our ancestors–monkeys, chimpanzees or others. It is likely to be true to say that the present day life
forms such as plants, animals and micro-organisms may not be sufficient to answer these
questions. Now, the fundamental question is how we can find the answers to all the questions
related to ancient life.
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
Let us think about what happens to an organism after its death; whether it is
completely destroyed or it leaves some evidence of its existence. Usually,
organisms that have hard parts leave some evidence in the form of shells,
skeletons, bones and teeth after their death. Once these hard parts get
preserved in the sedimentary rocks they are known as fossils. The age of Earth
is about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) and the study of fossils shows that life began on
Earth around 3.8 Gyr ago. During the course of time, life has faced different
phases of evolution, diversification and extinction. Therefore, the history of life
can be traced through the study of fossils.
In this unit, you will learn about different types of fossils, processes and
conditions of fossilisation and significance of fossils. In addition, we will also
discuss the taxonomy hierarchy and biological nomenclature.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 define palaeontology and describe its various branches;
 discuss fossils and their types;
 explain the requirements and processes of fossilisation;
 elaborate biological taxonomic hierarchy;
 describe code of biological nomenclature; and
 write about the importance of fossils.

9.2 PALAEONTOLOGY
In simple words, Palaeontology is a branch of geology that deals with
the study of ancient life or life of past geologic time. In fact, the word
palaeontology itself comes from the Greek words “Palaeo” - (ancient) +
“onto”- (life) + “logos” - (study) and therefore, it means study of ancient
life. Palaeontology is based on the fossil remains of ancient organisms;
hence, it may also be defined as the study of fossils. Baron Georges
Cuvier (1769-1832) was the first to study and name the fossils (Fig. 9.1).
He is considered as the “Father of Palaeontology”. Cuvier was a French
scientist and he had vast expertise in anatomy and biology.

Fig. 9.1: Baron Georges Cuvier – Father of Palaeontology. (Source:

http://www.macroevolution. net/cuvier.html)

Palaeontology is sometimes spelt as Paleontology, especially in American text

books. However, in India we use the British version of the spelling that is

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Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation
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Palaeontology. It is divided into a number of branches (Fig. 9.2) as listed
below:
 Invertebrate Palaeontology: It deals with the study of fossils of invertebrate
animals such as corals, brachiopods, molluscs, trilobites and echinoderms.
 Vertebrate Palaeontology: It deals with the study of fossils of vertebrate
animals such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
 Micropalaeontology: It deals with the study of microscopic fossils, which
are not visible to the naked eyes, such as foraminifers, radiolarians and
ostracods.
 Palaeobotany: It deals with the study of plant fossils, for example -
Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Thinnfeldia, Sigillaria, Nilssonia, Williamsonia
and Ptilophyllum.
 Palynology: It deals with the study of fossils of pollen grains and spores.
 Palaeobiology: It has recently emerged as a new science for the study of
fossils. It involves the study of the biological aspects of the fossils. The main
focus of palaeobiology is to study the evolution, adaptation, function, ecology
and behaviour of the fossil species rather than studying their geological
uses. Palaeobiology provides important data, which helps to reconstruct the
way of life in which ancient species lived before fossilisation.

Fig. 9.2: Various divisions of palaeontology.

The information, we get from fossils helps us in understanding the history of life
as well as the history of the Earth.
13
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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9.3 FOSSILS
In order to study the pre-historic or past life, fossils serve as the only valuable
source of information as there is no other consistent source available to study
the past life. The word fossil, which comes from the Latin word fossilium, was
used originally in the sixteenth century to refer to any specimen dug up from the
ground, for example mineral, rock and metal as well as organic remains of
once-living organisms. It was only during the eighteenth century that the word
fossil was strictly used for any evidence of past life preserved in the Earth’s
crust.
9.3.1 What are Fossils?
The word “fossil” is used to refer to the remains or traces of ancient life which
have been preserved by natural processes in the sedimentary rocks (Fig. 9.3).
Fossils represent the only direct evidences of ancient life. They may be found
as preserved skeletons, bones and shells of the organisms or as preserved
impressions of the behavioural activities such as tracks, trails, foot-prints of the
organisms. Use of the term fossil is usually restricted to the remains of
organisms that died before thousands or millions of years. It is widely accepted
that any organic remains found in the rocks older than 10,000 years can be
termed as fossil. The organic remains younger than 10,000 years and that are
still under the process of fossilisation are known as subfossils.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9.3: Fossils: a) Trilobite- an invertebrate fossil; b) Fossil teeth of a vertebrate

animal; and c) Plant fossil. (Source: Biostratigraphy Group, Wadia Institute
of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun)

Fossils vary in size from microscopic bacteria of one micrometer in diameter to

gigantic dinosaurs or fossil tree trunks measuring several meters long.
Do you know?
Rocks are of three types: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Of these
rocks only sedimentary rocks, are formed by a slow process of deposition of
sediments (sand, mud, clay) layer by layer carried by rivers and streams into
oceans and other water bodies, have the potential to preserve fossils to any
reasonable extent. Whereas igneous and metamorphic rocks hardly have the
scope to preserve fossils. This is because igneous rocks are derived from the
molten material from below the crust of the Earth and are obviously not suitable
for the preservation of organisms at such high temperature. Metamorphic rocks,
which are formed by the intensive folding and re-crystallisation of pre-existing
rocks and the process of creating new material, tend to destroy the organic
remains.

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Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation
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You may have heard about petroleum, coal and natural gas. These are all
sources of non-renewable energy and collectively known as fossil fuels. Fossil
fuels are also formed from the organic remains of ancient organisms. These
contain high percentages of carbon and hydrogen and therefore, are usually
used as fuel. These are not considered as fossils as they provide little or no
information of the past life. Sometimes coal contains well preserved stems,
leaves, roots, leaves and cells of ancient plants, which can be identified to a
certain level.
9.3.2 Types of Fossils
Many types of fossils are found in the layers of rocks. Among them, some are
more common such as body fossils, trace fossils, whereas some others are
less common. Based on the mode of preservation, size and uses, fossils are
commonly classified into many types as shown in Fig. 9.4.

Fig. 9.4: Types of fossils.

i. Body Fossils: These are preserved hard parts of the actual organisms.
Body fossils may be the whole body of any organism, for example skeleton
of dinosaurs, shell of bivalves or body parts of an ancient animal like bones
and teeth of fishes, dinosaurs or mammals (Fig. 9.5). These are direct
evidence of ancient life and provide information about the shape, size and
functions of a once-living organism.
ii. Trace Fossils: These are not actual remains of an organism, but are the
preserved evidences or impressions of the activities of organisms of the
past. Trace fossils may include tracks, trails, burrows, footprints and
borings (Fig. 9.6). Trace fossils are also known as Ichnofossils and their
study is called Ichnology.
iii. Chemical Fossils: These are organically derived compounds that are
preserved in the rocks. Generally, these compounds contain no traces of
the actual organisms and are, therefore, considered as an indirect
evidence of past life. It has been observed that large organic molecules do
not survive long after the death of an organism, but these molecules may
break down to smaller stable organic molecules which can survive over
long geological time. The ancient DNA preserved in rocks is a common
example of chemical fossils.
15
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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(c)

(b)
(a) (d)
Fig. 9.5: Body fossils: a) Ammonoid; b) Bone of a vertebrate; c) Tooth of a shark;
and d) Tooth of a crocodile.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.6: Trace fossils: a) Tracks; and b) Horizontal burrows of the animals
(Source: Dr. Meera Tiwari, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun)

iv. Pseudofossils: These are not fossils though they look like fossils. In
nature, there are many inorganic substances, which generally resemble
fossils and these are called pseudofossils. Dendrite–an ore of manganese,
is a classic example of pseudofossil, which is often mistaken for leaves or
ferns because of its tree-like structure (Fig. 9.7).

Fig. 9.7: Dendrite–a pseudofossil. (Source: http://www.pinterest.com/pin/

335377503471216391)
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Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation
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v. Macrofossils: These are large fossils more than 0.3 mm in size and can
be seen with naked eyes (Fig. 9.8a-c). Bones, teeth and shells of animals
as well as wood and leaves of plants are the common examples of
macrofossils.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 9.8: Types of fossils: (a-c) Macrofossils; a) Petrified tusk of an elephant; b)

Cross-section of the tusk; c) Bivalve shell and (d-e) Microfossil of
ostracods. (Source: Museum, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra
Dun for a and b). Note the scale of the fossils; this will give you the idea on the
size of fossils

vi. Microfossils: These are very small fossils less than 1 mm in size and
require a microscope for their study (Fig. 9.8d-e). Ostracods (animal
fossils), pollens and spores (plant fossils) are common examples of
microfossils.
vii. Nanofossils: These are very small fossils having a size range between 5
to 60 micrometers (μm) and require an electron microscope for study.
Nanoplankton is a typical example of nanofossils.
viii. Index Fossils: These are characterised by short geological range (age),
wide geographic distribution, rapid evolutionary rate and distinct
morphological features. For example, trilobites having a geological range
from Cambrian to Permian are index fossils for the Palaeozoic rocks.
Index fossils are used for the correlation and dating of rocks.
ix. Living Fossils: The renowned English naturalist Charles Darwin first
used the term living fossil for the East Asian Ginkgo tree. Living fossils
include those species which have lived for long spans of geologic time
and are still living today with their body showing little or no morphologic
changes during the course of evolution (Fig. 9.9).

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.9: Living fossil Ginkgo: a) Ginkgoites leaf from the Triassic of North Korea
(Source: http://www.dges.tohoku.ac.jp/museum/fosgal19.html) and b) Ginkgo
biloba- modern living species. (Source: Dr. Shreekar Pant, BGSB
University, Rajouri)

17
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
Living fossils have little diversity and the actual reason behind their
evolutionary stability is yet to be understood. Living fossils are very
important to palaeontologists as they provide the biological data, which is
absent in the fossils. Ginkgo (Devonian to present) is a living fossil of
conifers.

SAQ 1
a) In which rocks would you find fossils and why?
b) What is palaeontology? List various branches of palaeontology.
c) Fossils are remains of ________________________________.
d) Pseudofossils are _______________________ (true fossils/false fossils).

9.4 FOSSILISATION
Fossilisation is the process of transfer of material from biosphere (organic
material) to lithosphere (fossil), in which the organic material is being replaced
by inorganic mineral matter. The chances of an organism becoming a fossil are
very less. It has been observed that for every organism that dies its chances of
fossilisation are less than one in a million. You would be surprised to know that
most remains do not fossilise after death. Let us examine why this is so. You
may be aware that organisms are composed of the following parts:
 soft fleshy parts–made up of unstable organic compounds of carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen.
 hard parts, for example shells, skeletons, bones and teeth–made up of
stable hard compounds such as calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate,
and
 both soft and hard parts.
The story of fossilisation begins with the death of an organism. After the death
of an organism, its body gets exposed to natural agencies like biological
(bacterial activity), physical (transportation by river or wind) and chemical
(reaction with water or gases). When an organism dies, its soft parts begin to
decay under bacterial action. When this process is completed no trace of the
soft parts of the organism are left behind. Under this process, the soft-bodied
organisms get completely destroyed, but organisms with hard parts leave their
hard parts undestroyed. The hard parts remaining after the completion of decay
are then subjected to transportation by wind, water or even by predators, which
result in the breakage and fragmentation of the hard parts before reaching into
the sedimentation site. At the sedimentation site, these broken and fragmented
hard parts get buried under sediments and then they are physically and
chemically altered due to the pressure generated by the overlying sediments
and water present within the sediments. Once, they pass through all these
processes, they are finally converted into fossils. It may be noted that this entire
process takes thousands of years and every stage results in significant loss of
information about the organism. During the process of fossilisation, many
organisms get destroyed either at the decay, transportation or alteration stage.
Therefore, fossilisation or preservation of fossils is considered a chancy
business.

18
Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation
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Do you know how fossils are formed?
When an organism dies, it falls to the ground and may get buried in the layers
of sediments. After thousands or millions of years, its remains get transferred
into rocks and become part of the sedimentary layers. Such parts are known as
fossils. Finally, after thousands or millions of years, when such sedimentary
rocks are exposed on the surface of the Earth by folding, faulting or erosion
then fossils can be seen (Fig. 9.10).

Fig. 9.10: Cartoon showing the process of fossilisation: a) An animal living near
the lake; b) Animal dies near the lake and is partially buried under the
sediments; c) Animal completely buried under the sediment and
converted into fossil after million or thousands of years; and d) After
millions of years, the river eroded the layer of sediments and fossil gets
exposed.

9.4.1 Conditions for Fossilisation

Like today’s organisms which are living in different environments such as in
seas, rivers, lakes or on plains or mountains, it is assumed that pre-historic
organisms might have lived in similar kinds of environments. It may be noted
that all environments are not equally suitable for preservation or fossilisation.
Hence, the nature or composition of the organisms and type of environment
where they are living play an important role in fossilisation. The favourable
conditions for fossilisation are mentioned below:
 The organisms should have hard parts: The hard parts of organisms such
as shells, bones, teeth and wood take more time to break down and can be
preserved as fossils. On the other hand, the soft-bodied organisms, for

19
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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example, insects, worms and jellyfish decay very quickly after death and are
rarely preserved.
 Rapid burial of organisms after death under a thick cover of sediments:
If the organisms are quickly buried under the sediment, it cuts the supply of
oxygen and prevents destruction of the organisms by scavengers and decay.
 Environment: The environment plays an important role in the organism’s
ability to fossilise. It has been observed that marine organisms are more
likely to be fossilised than those living on land (Milsom and Rigby, 2010)
because marine organisms have greater chance of being covered rapidly by
sediments, which increases the chance of fossilisation. Land-based
organisms have less chance of being covered by sediments and more risk
from scavengers and hence, they have less chances to fossilise.
9.4.2 Processes of Fossilisation
In subsection 9.3.2, we have learnt about various types of fossils. All these
types of fossils are formed by a variety of fossilisation processes. Fossilisation
may occur in many ways. Sometimes, the entire organism including its soft
parts is preserved. In rare cases, only hard parts of the organism are fossilised.
In few cases, only imprints and traces of organisms are preserved. Hence,
different organism types show different processes of fossilisation.
Fossils occur in many different forms such as unaltered soft parts, unaltered
hard parts and altered hard parts. Depending upon the nature of fossils, the
processes of fossilisation may be classified into the following types:
i) Unaltered soft parts or exceptional preservation
ii) Unaltered hard parts preservation
iii) Altered hard parts preservation, which is further divided into
(a) Permineralisation or petrifaction
(b) Replacement
(c) Carbonisation
(d) Molds and casts
(e) Tracks and trails
i) Unaltered Soft Parts or Exceptional Preservation
In very rare and ideal situations, the whole of the organism including its soft
and hard parts may be found to have been preserved. In this type of
preservation, the most fragile and delicate soft parts remain unaltered and
provide finer details of the soft parts. This type of preservation takes place in
several ways such as fossils preserved in amber, tar or ice.
Amber is the fossilised resin of ancient conifer trees. Usually, the sweetness
of resin attracts the insects and they come in contact with resin. Due to the
stickiness of resin the insects get trapped in it. Later, lumps of resin fall on
the ground and get buried in the sediment and finally, turn to solid amber.
The Vastan lignite mine in Surat District of Gujarat yields fossiliferous amber
with well preserved insects (Fig. 9.11).

20
Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation
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Fig. 9.11: Insect entombed in amber. (Source: Sahni and others, 2006)

Some organisms may fall into crevasses in glaciated areas or become trapped
in permanently frozen soil and thus get preserved perfectly. Low temperature
and anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions in frozen areas allow the best
preservation of the soft body parts of any organism. The woolly Mammoth
preserved in the Pleistocene sequence of Siberia is a classical example of
preservation in frozen ice.
Sudden burial of the ecosystems by volcanic ash and sand storms also leads to
excellent preservation of fossils. The well preserved Cretaceous biota of China
and Mongolia are well known examples of biota quickly buried by volcanic ash
and sand storms.
ii) Unaltered Hard Parts Preservation
Many invertebrates possess hard parts made up of stable compounds such
as calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate and silica. It has been found that
many shells and skeletons of invertebrates were preserved in the
sedimentary rocks with no alteration in their hard parts. However, it does not
mean that the organisms are unchanged. In fact, the less stable organic
material (soft parts) is removed from their bodies during the process of
fossilisation. Fossil record has numerous examples of fossil shells which are
millions of years old yet cannot be easily differentiated from the modern
shells.
iii) Altered Hard Parts Preservation
The story of alteration of the hard parts starts after the burial of the
organisms. Most shells and skeletons of animals contain pores, for
example, bone marrow in vertebrates. Once an organism gets buried under
the thick cover of sediment, the water containing dissolved minerals present
within the sediments fills the pores and replaces or alters the hard parts.
The pressure generated by sediments facilitates the process of alteration,
which may take place in the following ways:
(a) Permineralisation or Petrifaction: It is a slow process and involves the
removal of organic material by mineralised solution. Most of the shells,
bones and wood are porous. In addition, the decay of soft parts
increases the porosity of these organic materials. When these porous
materials are buried under sediments, the overburden increases the

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temperature and pressure. As a consequence, the chemical reaction
occurs between groundwater and soluble minerals present in the
sediments. This reaction leads to the formation of mineralised solution,
which fills the pores of organic material thus paving the way for the
solution to precipitate in pores. In this way, the organic material is
partially or completely replaced by the inorganic matter consisting of
silica, calcite or pyrite.
Petrifaction is a very slow process in which replacement occurs
molecule by molecule. As a result, very fine details about the organisms
get preserved. The petrified wood (Fig. 9.12) of trees and bones of
dinosaurs or tusks of elephants are common examples of
permineralisation.

Fig. 9.12: Petrified wood.

(b) Replacement: It is also a slow process of fossilisation. In this process,

the underground water slowly fills the pores of organic material and
completely dissolves the hard parts of the organisms trapped in
sediments. At the same time the groundwater carries minerals in
solution that replace the organic material with such minerals as silica,
calcite, hematite and pyrite.
(c) Carbonisation: In this process, the soft-bodied animals as well as the
stems and leaves of plants buried under the sediments are decomposed
or pressed and thus losing hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and other volatile
constituents. As a result, a thin carbon film is left behind. Such films are
enriched in carbon and appear as black shiny fossils. Carbon films
create impressions in the rock outlining the shape of the organisms.
Plant leaves are commonly preserved in this process. You may find
most of the carbonised fossils in the coal mines.
(d) Molds and Casts: This process involves the natural duplication of the
original organisms. When a shell gets buried in sediment, subsequently,
the sediment becomes hard. At the same time the water running through
the sediment may dissolve the shell completely, leaving behind an
impression or a void of the shell. Such an impression is known as mold.
If the void is filled with grains of sand or clay, it hardens and produces a
replica of the original shell shape, which is known as cast (Fig. 9.13).
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(a) (b)
Fig. 9.13: Fossils: a) bivalve; and b) Ammonite showing the casts. (Source: Dr.
Meera Tiwari, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun for b)

(e) Tracks and Trails: While moving on the soft ground such as mud and
sand, the organisms may leave behind impressions of their movements
(Fig. 9.6a). For example, the foot prints, burrows and borings are
preserved when the soft ground materials harden in rock. These types
of fossil impressions are also described as trace fossils.

9.5 TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY

The science of classification of life both extinct and extant forms into meaningful
categories or groups, is called taxonomy. Based on a certain set of features
comprising physical, morphological or molecular characters, the organisms can
be grouped or classified. For example, all animals having hair are grouped
together in a broad group or category known as mammals. Similarly, animals
having feathers are grouped into birds. It may be noted that taxonomy as a
science is as old as the human language, but modern work in this science
began in the mid seventeenth century by main contributions of Carl Linnaeus
(Fig. 9.14), who is known as the father of modern taxonomy. He was the first
scientist who proposed an orderly system for classification of various organisms
present on the Earth. He proposed that species is the fundamental unit of the
biological taxonomy.
At present there are seven main categories of the biological taxonomic
hierarchy. In descending order (i.e., higher to lower category), these are
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species (Table 9.1).
This arrangement of taxonomic categories is termed as taxonomic hierarchy.
The Kingdom is the largest category in the hierarchy system and it can be
subdivided into phyla (singular phylum), phyla into classes, classes into orders,
orders into families, families into genus (plural genera) and genera include
many species. It means each lower category is a subdivision of the higher
category. In other words, the species sharing similar features are combined into
a genus, closely related genera into families, families into orders, orders into
classes, classes into phyla, up to the broadest level of the kingdom. Finally, the
whole tree of life can be systematically organised from the most general/highest
level at the top (i.e., kingdom) to the most specific/lowest level at the bottom
(i.e., species) by using the taxonomic hierarchy.
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Fig. 9.14: Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) was a Swedish botanist who is known as
the father of modern taxonomy. (Source: http://www.famousscientists.org/
carolus-linnaeus)

Table 9.1: Taxonomic hierarchy of humans

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: Homo sapiens

It is important to understand taxonomy because it has three folds significance:

 It helps us to identify the species.
 It allows us to assign the taxonomic rank to the species.
 It helps us to reconstruct the evolutionary history of species.

9.6 CODES OF BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus envisioned the need for a uniform method of naming
organisms because an organism given a scientific name in Europe might be the
same organism in Asia with a different given scientific name. This would create
confusion because the same organism or species will have different names in
two different geographic areas although their features are the same. In order to
avoid such confusions, biologists of the world came into an agreement that
there should be a consistent system for scientific naming of organisms, which is
known as biological nomenclature. This nomenclature has sets of rules for
naming of organisms, which are known as codes of biological nomenclature.
The codes of biological nomenclature are broadly of two types: the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code
of Botanical Nomenclature. It is interesting to note that the zoological
nomenclature has sets of rules which are used for naming of animals while
naming of plants follows the botanical nomenclature. The International Union of
Biological Sciences is an international body which governs and ratifies various
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rules of biological nomenclature from time to time. The international code of
biological nomenclature is equally applicable to fossils and living organisms.
Biological nomenclature is a part of taxonomy because biologists used it to
assign a name to a new organism and to place it in taxonomic hierarchy as
shown in Table 9.1. Now let us discuss the rules of biological nomenclature
applicable at species level.
Code of Nomenclature for Species
(i) Establishment of New Species: For naming any new species whether it is
living or a fossil, the code has following rules:
(a) The name of the species follows the principle of binomial nomenclature.
It means that the name of the species has two parts. The first part
represents genus while the second part is the trivial name and the two
together constitute the specific name or the name of the species. For
example, Homo sapiens is a species of humans, where Homo is the
name of the genus or generic name and sapiens is the trivial name, both
together constituting the specific name.
(b) The first letter of the generic name is written in capital letter and the
trivial name with a small letter, for instance, Homo sapiens.
(c) The first name and second name of the species should be in italics
when printed and underlined when it is hand written.
(d) The name given to a new species has to be suffixed by sp. nov. (i.e.,
species nova meaning new species). While describing an already
named species it has to be suffixed by the name of the author who has
described it followed by the year of publication.
(e) The names have to be based on a place, person or character related to
the fossil in question.
(f) For every new species, it is necessary to identify a fossil specimen as a
type specimen known as Holotype. Alternatively, a set of specimens
may be identified as type material called Syntypes.
(g) Description of the species must be published in a valid medium such as
journals, books or magazines in print form and must be circulated
among the peer groups so that it gets official recognition and gets
communicated worldwide.
(ii) Law of Priority: It is a fundamental principle of biological nomenclature.
The law states that the first published name given to an organism will be
accepted and considered as a valid name for that organism and the
subsequently published new name or names for the same organism will be
considered as synonyms and therefore invalid.
It is pertinent to know that taxonomic names are generally given in Latin
words. The reason behind using Latin words for naming the organisms is
very simple. Indeed, basic work on taxonomy was started in Europe and
Latin was the common language of European people. Therefore, they used
it to name the various organisms.

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SAQ 2
a) Name of species should be in …………… when printed and
……………………. when hand written.
b) Name of species always follows a binomial combination (i.e., two
names), in which first name represents the ……………… and second
is the ……………….. ………… both representing……………….

9.7 IMPORTANCE OF FOSSILS

Geology is the science dealing with study of the planet Earth and this study can
never be completed without taking fossils into consideration. As you know
fossils are naturally occurring clues to the past life and therefore, are important
to interpret the history of Earth as well as evolution of life on it. As a result,
fossils are often considered as written texts preserved in the rocks in the form
of remains of ancient life that provide valuable clues to the following:
9.7.1 Evolution of Life
Organic evolution is a sequence that connects organisms to one another
through geological ages from an evolutionary point of view. Further, it
establishes ancestor-descendant relationships. The theory of organic evolution
states that today’s living more advanced and complex life forms had evolved
from the more primitive and simpler life forms that lived in the geological past. It
should be noted that fossils strongly and clearly support the idea of organic
evolution. The fossils of the most primitive life forms like bacteria, blue green
algae or Ediacara fauna are found in geologically older rocks, for example,
rocks of Precambrian and Lower Palaeozoic. However, fossils of more
advanced life forms like vascular plants, mammals or birds occur in geologically
younger rocks, for instance, of Phanerozoic times. As the life has changed
throughout the geological time and the rocks of the same geological ages
contain similar fossils and rocks with different ages have different fossils.
Based on the changes in life, the history of Earth has been divided into five
main time divisions, which form the geological time scale. These divisions from
oldest to youngest are:
 Cenozoic: It is marked by the presence of recent or modern life.
 Mesozoic: It is marked by the presence of medieval or middle life.
 Palaeozoic: It is marked by the presence of ancient or old life.
 Proterozoic: It is marked by the presence of earlier life.
 Archeozoic: It is marked by the absence of life or presence of most primitive
life.
The above mentioned sequence of life clearly shows that life has gradually
changed from simpler forms to more complex forms. It is thus, true to say that
the study of evolution of life forms through geological age can only be possible
by making a detailed and systematic study of fossils.

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9.7.2 Pre-historic Life
When we talk of pre-historic life, it refers to the life of the past that lies between
first appearances of life (about 3.8 Gyr ago) to the first human written record or
document of history (some 10,000 years ago). Fossils are the only evidence of
the past life and many of them represent once-living organisms that are now
extinct. As mentioned earlier, life has changed gradually over a long span of
geologic time by the process of organic evolution. In addition to organic
evolution, other factors such as predation, disease and competition with other
organisms may also cause the disappearance or extinction of some organisms.
Such organisms are left with no living representatives. The fossils are only a
valuable source of information about the extinct organisms as well as
biodiversity of the past. The gigantic dinosaurs, ammonites, trilobites and wooly
mammoths are examples of some extinct animals that are known today only by
their fossil record.
9.7.3 Dating of Rocks
Life is continuously changing through time, resulting in the appearance of new
life-forms and disappearance of some of the older ones. The sedimentary rocks
contain fossils deposited layer by layer. The principle of order of superposition
states that in a sedimentary rock succession, the layers at the bottom are
deposited first and hence, are the oldest. The beds overlying them are younger.
The fossils contained in this succession will keep changing and it may not be
possible to have the same forms throughout the succession. As a result, it is
possible to characterise the different layers of the rock succession based on
their enclosed fossils. We assign relative geologic age to these fossiliferous
layers on the basis of their fossil content. The branch of stratigraphy that deals
with relative ages of sedimentary rocks is known as biostratigraphy.
There are some ancient organisms, which lived on the Earth for a very short
period of time, but they had a wide geographic distribution, rapid evolutionary
rate and distinct morphological features. The fossils of such organisms are
called index fossils and these have served as key fossils to date the rocks. For
example, trilobites are used as index for dating rocks of Lower Palaeozoic
Erathem and ammonites are used for dating the rocks of Mesozoic Erathem.
Fossils are also used for biostratigraphic correlation, in which rock successions
of two geographically separated areas can be correlated on the basis of fossils
present in them in order to understand their spatial and temporal distribution.
9.7.4 Palaeogeography
You may be surprised to know that the geographic distribution or position of
land and sea was very different in the geological past than what we have today.
The study of past distribution of land and water is known as palaeogeography.
The fossils present in the layers of rock successions help us to reconstruct the
past distribution of land and water. It is a well known fact that India was once a
part of the former Gondwana continents, which separated from it during the
Mesozoic Era and collided with Asia in the Early Cenozoic Era. The present day
Himalaya was once upon a time a sea and the collision between Indian
peninsula and Asia is marked by the formation of the great Himalayan mountain
system whereby the sea bottom got uplifted. It is the study of fossils recovered

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from the Himalayan Mountains that tells us about the existence of the
Himalayan Sea that got finally uplifted into a mountain range in the Cenozoic
Era. Based on fossil similarities between South America, Africa, Australia,
Antarctica, and India, we know that these landmasses were united during the
Late Palaeozoic Era and formed a supercontinent known as Gondwana
landmass (Fig. 9.15).

Fig. 9.15: Late Palaeozoic palaeogeographic reconstruction of Gondwanan

landmasses based on fossils of land animals and plants- Cynognathus,
Mesosaurus, Lystrosaurus and Glossopteris. Note that Cynognathus
and Lystrosaurus are land reptiles. Fossils of Cynognathus are known
from Early Triassic of South America and Africa. Fossils of
Lystrosaurus are known from Early Triassic of Africa, India and
Antarctica. Mesosaurus is a small reptile and its fossils are known from
Early Permian of South America and Africa. The Glossopteris is a plant
fossil, which is known from Carboniferous and Permian of all five
continents such as South America, Africa, India, Antarctica and
Australia. (Source: simplified after Benton and Harper, 2009)

9.7.5 Palaeoclimate
Certain organisms particularly animals and plants are highly dependent on
environmental conditions and many of them are narrowly adapted to specific
climatic conditions. As a consequence, their fossils provide valuable clues to
know the climate of the past or palaeoclimate. Interpretation of palaeoclimate
from fossils involves knowledge of the relationship between present day
distribution of organisms and their climatic conditions. For example, the fossils
of reptiles such as lizards, snakes, etc. are indicators of a warm palaeoclimate
because they cannot live in cold climatic conditions as their body is not able to
maintain constant warm temperatures. The fossils of the plant cycads indicate
tropical and subtropical ancient climate because modern cycads occur in these
climatic zones. The margins of plant leaves are excellent indicators of past
climate, for example, fossil leaf with smooth margins are good indicators of
tropical palaeoclimate whereas leaf with toothed or lobed margins indicates
cold climate of the past.

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9.7.6 Palaeoenvironment
Like palaeoclimate, fossils are also good indicators of ancient environment (i.e.,
palaeoenvironment). Based on the fossils, it is easy to recognise marine and
non-marine environments. The marine palaeoenvironment is characterised by
the presence of cynobacteria, foraminifers, radiolarians, corals, brachiopods,
bryozoans, some bivalves, ammonoids and trilobites. However, the presence of
fossils of plants, fungi, some gastropods and ostracods, insects, amphibians,
birds and most mammals in the sedimentary sequences, generally, indicate
non-marine, freshwater and terrestrial palaeoenvironments.
9.7.7 Discovering Oil and Coal Deposits
The oil and coal deposits are the products of ancient animals and plants,
hence, fossils play a key role for exploring them. Both these deposits are
located deep underground. In petroleum exploration, fossils are used to
describe and predict the temporal and spatial distribution of source rock,
reservoir rock as well as cap rock. Fossils are also used to determine the
precise age of petroliferous basins and the correlation of oil wells and
boreholes. During oil exploration and drilling for oil and gas, it is necessary to
undertake precise correlation of the oil wells to determine hydrocarbon
reserves. This is easily done by the use of microfossils obtained from the core
samples and the process is called well logging. For coal exploration, the plant
microfossils such as spores are useful to identify and correlate the coal seams.
Three microfossil groups, namely, foraminifers, calcareous nannofossils and
palynomorphs (i.e., pollens and spores) are commonly used for correlation of oil
and coal deposits.

9.8 ACTIVITY
You might have been living near the Himalayan mountains and Indo-Gangetic
plain of northern India, coal-yielding Gondwana rocks and the Deccan traps of
peninsular India, Rajmahal hills of eastern India, eastern and western Ghats of
southern India or small hilly areas of western India. Visit the surrounding hilly
areas near you as mentioned above and try to find sedimentary rocks (i.e.,
sandstone, limestone or shale). Look carefully/focus your eyes on the
sedimentary rocks and note whether the rocks yield any fossils. If they do,
collect the fossils and wrap in the newspaper. Note the name of location, type
of fossil and name of fossil-yielding rock in your field note book. After coming
home, try to find whether the fossil belongs to an animal group or to a plant and
which process of fossilisation was responsible for its preservation.

9.9 SUMMARY
Let us quickly summarise what you have read in this unit.
 Fossils are clues of past life and their study is known as palaeontology.
 There are two principle types of fossils: body and trace fossils. The other
types of fossils are chemical fossils; on the basis of size, fossils can be
classified as macrofossils, microfossils and nanofossils; on their usage they
can be index fossils and living fossils; objects that look like fossils, but are of
inorganic origin are called pseudofossils.
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Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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 Fossilisation is the process of transfer of material from biosphere to
lithosphere, in which organic material is being replaced by inorganic mineral
matter.
 The presence of hard parts and rapid burial after death under a thick cover of
sediments are two important conditions for fossilisation.
 Preservation of unaltered soft parts, unaltered hard parts and altered hard
parts are main processes of fossilisation.
 Alteration of hard parts occurs mainly due to permineralisation or
petrifaction, replacement, carbonisation and formation of moulds and casts.
 Taxonomy is the science of classification of life into categories. It has seven
main categories such as Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and
Species.
 Codes of biological nomenclature are a uniform, globally accepted scientific
method for naming the organisms.
 Fossils are very useful in geology. They are used to know pre-historic life
and its evolution, to date the rocks, to determine the ancient geography,
climate, and environment and also for discovering and correlating oil and
coal deposits.

9.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are fossils? Describe various types of fossils.
2. Explain how fossils are preserved.
3. What is taxonomy? How are the organisms arranged in taxonomic
hierarchy?
4. Give a brief account of the codes of biological nomenclature. Discuss the
code of nomenclature in naming the species.
5. Write the importance of fossils in Geology? Discuss in detail.

9.11 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and the
Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Milsom, C. and Rigby, S. (2010) Fossils at a Glance, Wiley-Blackwell, West
Sussex.
 Sahni and others. (2006) Temporal Constraints and Depositional
Palaeoenvironments of the Vastan Lignite Sequence, Gujarat: Analogy for
the Cambay Shale Hydrocarbon Source Rock, Indian Journal of Petroleum
Geology, Vol. 15: 1-20.
 http://www.macroevolution.net/cuvier.html
 http://www.pinterest.com/pin/335377503471216391
 http://www.dges.tohoku.ac.jp/museum/fosgal19.html
 http://www.famousscientists.org/carolus-linnaeus
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9.12 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Moore, R.C., Lalicker, C.G. and Fischer, A.G. (1997) Invertebrate Fossils,
CBS Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
 Mukerjee, P.K. (1997) A textbook of Geology, The World Press Pvt. Ltd.,
Calcutta.
 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bengaluru.

9.13 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Question
1 a) We find fossils in the sedimentary rocks. Since these rocks are formed
by a slow process of layer by layer deposition of sediments carried by
rivers and streams into oceans and other water bodies they are suitable
for the preservation of fossils.
b) The science of fossils is known as palaeontology. Invertebrate
palaeontology, vertebrate palaeontolgy, micropalaeontology,
palaeobotany and palynology are the main branches of
palaeontology.
c) Body and trace fossils are the main types of fossils. The other types of
fossils are chemical fossils, macrofossils, microfossils, nanofossils,
index fossils and living fossils. Pseudofossils are a false impression of
fossils.
d) Past life.
e) False fossils.
2 a) italics, underlined.
b) genus, trivial name, name of the species.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 9.3.
2. Refer to section 9.4.
3. Refer to section 9.5.
4. Refer to section 9.6.
5. Refer to section 9.7.

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32
 UNIT 10

MICROFOSSILS

Structure____________________________________________________
10.1 Introduction 10.5 Studying Microfossils
Expected Learning Outcomes 10.6 Activity
10.2 Microfossils and Micropalaeontology 10.7 Summary
10.3 Microfossil Groups 10.8 Terminal Questions
Mineral-Walled Microfossils 10.9 References
Organic-Walled Microfossils 10.10 Further/Suggested Readings
Significance of Microfossils 10.11 Answers
10.4 Collecting Microfossils
Geological Fieldwork
Sampling
Processing
Separation

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied about fossils and fossilisation. You now know that
palaeontology is the science that deals with the study of fossils. You have also learnt that fossils are
of various types, for example, macrofossils and microfossils depending on their size. Fossils
provide information related to origin and evolution of life on the Earth and are thus, valuable tools
for understanding the history of the Earth. Microfossils are abundant in all sedimentary sequences,
ranging from Precambrian to Recent, but macrofossils are usually abundant in the rocks of
Phanerozoic ages i.e., from Cambrian onwards.
Microfossils belong to various groups of animals, plants and protists. As you have been already told
in Unit 9, the term microfossil is used only because of the microscopic size of the organisms and
they do not represent any particular group. The study of microfossils is known as
micropalaeontology. Microfossils usually occur in large numbers in many sedimentary rocks and
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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are the most abundant and most easily accessible fossils. In fact, a great deal
of information in palaeontology is gathered from the study of microfossils.
Therefore, in this unit, we will discuss the microfossils in greater detail.
In this unit, we will discuss specifically about microfossils, micropalaeontology,
major groups of microfossils and their significance. In addition, we will also
discuss methods involved in their collection and study at the end of the unit.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define microfossils and micropaleontology;
 classify the microfossils into mineral- and organic-walled groups;
 outline the importance of microfossils;
 describe the techniques involved in collecting microfossils; and
 explain the methods used for studying them.

10.2 MICROFOSSILS AND MICROPALAEONTOLOGY

Microfossils are the remains of very small single-celled and multi-celled
organisms. These are usually less than 2 millimetres (mm) in size. In fact, these
are remains of tiny animals and micro-organisms that live in the surface as well
as deep waters of the ocean, on the ocean floor and other water bodies such as
lakes or ponds and preserve in the sedimentary rocks after death. Therefore,
the term microfossil is not strictly restricted to a single kingdom of life as it
includes the tiny remains of many groups such as protists, bacteria, fungi,
animals and plants. It is worth mentioning here that there is no well-accepted
definition of microfossils. However, the term microfossil is commonly applicable
to all those organic remains whose study requires the use of light or electron
microscope (Armstrong and Brasier, 2005). These are very tiny remains and
can be measured in mm. The smallest microfossils may be only 0.001 mm (i.e.,
1 micron) in size and the largest are in the range from 1 to 2 mm in size. Fossils
larger than 2 mm are generally referred to as macrofossils.
The broken and fragmentary microscopic parts such as shell pieces, bones,
jaws and teeth of macro-organisms are also considered as microfossils.
However, it needs to be remembered that these microscopic remains (i.e.,
fragmentary skeletal elements of macro-organisms) are usually ignored by
many micropalaeontologists, because many of these represent broken and
imperfect remains and thus, provide incomplete or little information. On the
other hand, the remains of some micro-organisms particularly foraminifers,
radiolarians, ostracods, diatoms, dinoflagellates, spores and pollen are usually
preserved as the complete fossils and are of great interest to
micropalaeontologists.
While the small size is the main criterion for classifying microfossils, it is
important to note that some remains of foraminifers may be more than 2 mm or
about 15 cm in diameter, but they are still referred to be microfossils. Thus
grouping of microfossils in such cases is based on the method of study where
the use of microscope constitutes the determining criterion.
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Unit 10 Microfossils
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As you already know that microfossils are very abundant in all environments
including marine, brackish water and freshwater. And, the micropalaeontology
is a branch of palaeontology dealing with the study of microfossils and
nanofossils the latter being in the range between 5 and 60 μm (micrometer) in
size. The history of micropalaeontology is quite old, about more than two
centuries, but it appeared as a major discipline during the early twentieth
century. Prior to 1925, micropalaeontology mainly dealt with fossil foraminifers
because a large number of micropalaeontogists were involved in their study.
The study of other microfossil groups such as radiolarians, ostracods, diatoms,
dinoflagellates, pollen and spores started extensively after 1925. It may be
noted that after 1945, the micropalaeontology found its extensive and
undisputed uses in petroleum exploration as a result of which the study of
microfossils received a boost and it became the most important branch of
palaeontology.

10.3 MICROFOSSIL GROUPS

As stated earlier, the microfossils are remains of hard parts of tiny micro-
organisms. Most of these organisms do not possess hard shells or tests as a
result of which they do not get preserved as fossils. However, there are some
micro-organisms, whose shells or tests are made of mineral matter and tough
organic material and as a consequence, they often get preserved as fossils. On
the basis of the composition and structure of shell/test, microfossils are divided
into following two groups:
Main microfossil groups
Mineral-walled microfossils
Foraminifers
Radiolarians
Diatoms
Non-mineral (organic)-walled microfossils
Acritarchs
Dinoflagellates
Pollen and spores
10.3.1 Mineral-walled Microfossils
This group of microfossils includes the remains of those micro-organisms that
have mineralised shells or tests such as foraminifers, radiolarians, diatoms,
ostracods and conodonts. The shells of mineral-walled microfossils are
commonly made up of mineral matter such as calcium, silica or phosphate,
which makes shells hard and resistant for external physical and chemical
agencies and thus, possess higher preservation potential as fossils. Let us
discuss important fossils belonging to mineral-walled microfossils.
(i) Foraminifers
Foraminifers, nicknamed “forams,” are single-celled heterotrophic protozoans
with hard and preservable test or shell. They differ from other protozoans in
possessing a hard test and a complex network of branched fibre-like
pseudopodia, which form a net around the test and are used to capture the

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food particles from the water (Fig. 10.1). Forams live in marine waters at all
depths. Broadly, they adopted two main modes of life namely benthic and
planktic. Majority of forams are benthic where they live on or in the seabed
whereas planktic forams commonly drift by the ocean currents and
predominately live in equatorial and tropical regions.
Foraminifers belong to Kingdom Protista, Phylum Sarcodina, Class Rhizopoda
and Order Foraminferida. Skeleton of foraminifers is popularly known as test or
shell.

Fig. 10.1: Schematic view of a living foraminifer showing the relationship between
pseudopodia and test. (Source: redrawn and simplified after Stearn and
Carroll, 1989)
Morphology: The test of forams is usually made of at least three types of hard
material such as calcium carbonate, tectin and agglutinated matter. Calcium
carbonate is an inorganic matter secreted by the forams and tectin tests are
made of an organic material composed of complex carbohydrate and protein.
The agglutinated (i.e., glued) test may be composed of very small sand grains
and other particles that are cemented together. Test of forams is often less than
1 mm in diameter and may be composed of single or multiple chambers (Fig.
10.2). The single-chambered test is termed as unilocular and a test having
more than one chamber is described as multilocular (Fig. 10.2).

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.2: Tests of foraminifer: a) Unilocular; and b) Multilocular.
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The tests of forams have a number of forms, which are governed by
arrangements of the chambers. Linear and coiled are two main forms of the
test. The linear tests display uniserial, biserial and triserial pattern depending on
the number of rows in which the chambers are arranged whereas coiled tests
show planispiral and helical forms depending on the fact if they are coiled in a
single plane or drawn out around an axis (Fig. 10.3).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 10.3: Photographs of foraminifers showing different forms: a) Uniserial; b)
Biserial; c) Planispiral; and d) Helical. (Source: Dr. B.C.S. Raja Reddy, SV
University, Tirupati)

Uniserial form: It has a single row of chambers (Fig. 10.4a)

Biserial form: It has two rows of chambers (Fig. 10.4b)
Triserial form: It has three rows of chambers (Fig. 10.4c).
Planispiral form: Chambered are arranged in a single plane (Fig. 10.4d)
Helical form: Chambers are arranged along a vertical axis (Fig.10.4e).

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 10.4: Line drawing of foraminifer tests showing different forms: a) Uniserial;
b) Biserial; c) Triserial; d) Planispiral; and e) Helical. (Source: simplified
after Milsom and Rigby, 2010)

The chambers of forams vary in shapes. The single-chambered tests are

usually in flask or tabular shape whereas, multi-chambered tests display
spherical and club shapes. Each test of forams has an opening, known as
aperture (Fig. 10.1 and 10.4b-c). Besides aperture, forams have a number of
small internal openings known as foramina (singular foramen) as shown in Fig.
10.5. Hence, this group is named after the presence of foramina on their tests.
The external surface of the test is variably ornamented from completely to
partially smooth, pitted, ribbed or may bear spines and ribs.
Geological Range: Forams are one of the most diverse and extensively
studied groups of microfossils. They range in age from Cambrian to Present
and diversified during the Cretaceous period.

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Fig. 10.5: Photograph of a foraminifer showing foramina. (Source: Dr. B.C.S. Raja
Reddy, SV University, Tirupati)

(ii) Radiolarians
The radiolarians are single-celled planktic protozoans that have delicate internal
skeletons. Like foraminfers, radiolarians capture food particles with thread-like
extensions known as pseudopodia that radiate outwards from the centre of the
skeleton (Fig. 10.6). They are characterised by having a skeleton in the form of
a perforated membranous central capsule (Fig. 10.6). Most forms of radiolaria
display radial symmetry, which is commonly marked by radial skeleton spines
and is a characteristic feature of radiolarians. The name of radiolarians is
derived from the radial symmetry of their skeletons. However, it is worth
mentioning here that some radiolarians lack radial symmetry.

Fig. 10.6: Schematic view of a radiolarian. (Source: simplified after Shrock and
Twenhofel, 2005)

Radiolarians are exclusively marine organisms, living mostly as solitary forms

but a few are colonial forms. The average diameter of an individual radiolarian
is between 50 and 200 µm, buy some colonies reach upto 5 mm in length. After
death, they get deposited on the ocean floor where they form radiolarian ooze
after mixing with deep sea sediments.
Radiolarians belong to Kingdom Protoza, Phylum Radiozoa and Subphylum
Radiolaria.
Morphology: The beautiful skeleton of radiolaria is made up mostly of silica
secreted by the organism. However, some skeletons are made from strontium
sulphate and a few others by a combination of silica and organic material. In

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living condition, the skeleton is completely composed of cytoplasm that protects
it from dissolution in the seawater. The skeletons are mostly spherical or helmet
to space-ship shaped and are formed by spines, bars and perforated plates.
Spines are elongated external features of the skeleton that are attached only at
one end whereas bars are elongated internal features that attach at both ends
(Fig. 10.7). A perforated plate has more or less evenly spaced pores without a
specific plate boundary. Based on the symmetry, radiolarians are divided into
two types: spumellar and nassellar. The spumellar radiolarians are recognised
by their radial symmetry whereas nassellar by bilateral symmetry and conical
to bell-shaped skeletons (Fig. 10.7).

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.7: Line drawing of radiolarians showing characteristic morphological
features: a) Spumellar radiolarian; and b) Nassellar radiolarian. (Source:
simplified after Benton and Harper, 2009)

Geological Range: Like foraminifers, radiolarians also have a long geological

history. They first appeared in the Cambrian and are still surviving in the
present day ocean waters. At the sea bottom, their skeletons form silica-rich
sedimentary rock known as siliceous or radiolarian chert.
(iii) Diatoms
Diatoms are unicellular photosynthesising algae with golden brown
photosynthetic pigment. They secrete a minute siliceous (made of silica)
skeleton. They commonly range between 20 and 200 microns in diameter or
length, but some forms can be up to 2 mm long. These are mostly non-motile
algae and may exist either in solitary or colonial form. Being photosynthetic
micro-organisms they usually occupy the photic zone (i.e., up to 200 m depth)
of the water bodies, where enough light penetrates for photosynthesis. Diatoms
live in almost all kinds of environments from marine to freshwater.
Diatoms belong to the Kingdom Plantae, Sub-kingdom Chromista, Infra-
kingdom Diatomea and Class Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)
Morphology: The skeleton of a diatom is made up of silica and is called a
frustule. It consists of two unequal valves, in which larger a valve fits onto a
smaller valve like the lid of a box (Fig. 10.8a). Based on the morphology of
frustule or skeleton, diatoms are classified into pennales and centrales. The
frustules of pennale diatoms are linear to elliptical or rectangular and centrales
diatoms are characterised by having frustules which are circular, triangular or
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quadrate and show radial symmetry as shown in Fig. 10.8b-c. It has been
observed that pennale diatoms live in freshwater conditions and centrales live
in marine conditions. The frustules of diatoms are frequently dotted with minute
holes described as punctae. The outer openings of punctae are sealed by
porous plates of the frustules.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10.8: Schematic views of diatom frustules: a) Two valves of a frustules; b)
Pennate diatom; and c) Centrale diatom.

Geological Range: Diatoms first appeared in the Mesozoic era probably during
the Jurassic and are still living. The frustules of diatoms are dominantly
preserved in the deep sea sediments, where they form a diatom-rich rock
known as diatomite.

SAQ 1
a) How can you differentiate organic-walled microfossils from mineral-walled
microfossils?
b) Fill in the blanks.
1. Those organic remains whose study requires a microscope are
described as ……………….. (Macrofossil/Microfossil).
2. Geological range of foraminifers ……………………………………
(Palaeozoic to Present/ Precambrian to Present/ Mesozoic to Cenozoic).
c) Which fossil group makes siliceous or radiolarian chert?
(i) Diatoms (ii) Radiolarians (iii) Ostracods (iv) Foraminifers.
d) List the key morphological features of radiolarians.

10.3.2 Non-mineral (Organic) Walled Microfossils

This group of microfossils includes the remains of those micro-organisms
whose shell wall is made up of hard and tough organic or non-mineralised
proteinaceous material. The shells of such micro-organisms are much resistant
to microbial and chemical attacks as well as to the adverse effects of
temperature and pressure after their burial in sediments. As a consequence,
they get easily fossilised and are very common in sedimentary rocks. There are
three main types of organic-walled microfossils as mentioned below:
 Dinoflagellates
 Acritarchs
 Spores and pollen
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Unit 10 Microfossils
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Other less abundant forms of organic walled microfossils include Chitinozoa
and some fungal remains. Broadly, organic-walled microfossils are termed as
palynomorphs. The study of palynomorphs forms a separate branch of
palaeontology, called palynology. Palynomorphs may include the microscopic
remains of plants and animals varying in size from about 5 to 500 µm. These
are composed of organic compounds such as chitin, which are highly resistant
to biological, chemical and other forms of destruction.
(i) Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates are minute, aquatic, single-celled eukaryotic micro-organisms
commonly regarded as some form of algae (Fig. 10.9). They have two whip-like
tails called flagella for locomotion. They drift frequently from one place to
another mainly by movements of water and live mostly as solitary organisms,
but colonial forms also exist. It is interesting to note that dinoflagellates possess
both plant-like and animal-like characters. Some dinoflagellates are autotrophic,
but few others are heterotrophic. Most dinoflagellates live in the photic zone of
oceans and other water bodies.

Fig. 10.9: Photographs of dinoflagellate microfossils. (Source: Dr. Y. Raghumani

Singh, Manipur University, Imphal)

The dinoflagellate life cycle rotates between two stages viz., motile (swimming)
and a cyst (benthic). The motile stage dinoflagellates are rarely preserved. On
the other hand, dinoflagellates of cyst stage are formed from resistant organic
material that freely fossilise and are commonly found in the fossil record. Cyst
ranges in size from 40 to 150 μm. Dinoflagellates live in aquatic environments
from marine to freshwater.
Dinoflagellates belong to Kingdom Protozoa, Phylum Dinozoa and Subphylum
Dinoflagellata.The name dinoflagellates is derived from two Greek words dinos
meaning whirling and flagella meaning whip, hence referred to the movements
by flagella.
Morphology: About 10% of dinoflagellates develop tough and resistant organic
structures called cyst. It is the resistance of cysts that freely fossilise them and
leaves a fossil record. The two flagella of dinoflagellates are described as a
transverse flagellum that encircles the body in the cingulum and a
longitudinal flagellum that lies in the central area and forms a sulcus towards
the top or apex. Cingulum is the central equatorial position in the form of a
transverse furrow whereas sulcus is the position in a longitudinal furrow. The

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half of dinoflagellate from centre to top (apex) is termed as epitheca and from
centre to antapex is hypotheca (Fig. 10.10). Top of cyst is known as apex and
its bottom is termed as antapex.

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.10: Line drawing of dinoflagellate showing morphological features: (a)
Ventral view and b) Dorsal view.

Cyst may be composed of many small plates known as theca or thecal plates.
There are three basic types of cyst: proximate, chorate and cavate (Fig. 10.11).
 Proximate cysts: In these cysts, the theca is almost the same in size and
shape and has close contact with the thecal wall.
 Chorate cysts: They show no traces of a reflected sulcus or cingulum
 Cavate cysts: These cysts have two walls- an inner wall and an outer wall.
Cysts may be smooth or bear granules, ridges, indentations, crests or short
spines as well as horns.
Geological Range: Dinoflagellates seem to have appeared in the Palaeozoic
era possibly during the Silurian and are still living.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10.11: Types of dinoflagellate cyst: a) Proximate; b) Chorate; and c) Cavate.

(ii) Acritarchs
Acritarchs are microscopic organic-walled vesicular microfossils with unknown
biological affinities. They form probably a polyphyletic group (i.e., a group
originated from more than one ancestor) and may include many different kinds
of organisms from bacteria to single-celled protists or multi-celled eukaryotes
(e.g., fungi, algae or animal eggs). It is believed that they probably represent
the cyst stages or benthic phases in the life cycles of planktic algae similar to
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dinoflagellates cyst stage. Acritarchs range in size from less than 10 microns to
more than 1 mm, but the majority of acritachs fall in the range between 15 and
80 microns. They are exclusively marine micro-organisms.
Morphology: The test of an acritarch consists of spherical to ovoidal or
triangular central cavity termed as vesicle (Fig. 10.12). Most vesicles range in
size between 50 to 100 μm. The wall of the vesicle may consist of one to three
layers, which are made of tough and hard organic material known as
sporopollenin. The central cavity can be closed or open externally through a
pore called pylome. The external or outer surface of the vesicle may be smooth
or ornamented by spines, ridges, processes, indentations or pores. All these
features represent outgrowths of the vesicle wall. The shape of the vesicle and
absence or presence of ornamentations as well as processes are used to
classify the acritarchs.

Fig. 10.12: Line drawing showing morphology of an acritarch. (Source: simplified

after Benton and Harper, 2009)

Geological Range: The acritarchs are one of the oldest documented fossils.
They first appeared in the fossil record in the Precambrian about 1.8 billion
years ago, and are still present in modern seas. They are considered the most
complex Precambrian fossils.
(iii) Spores and Pollen

Spores and pollen are reproductive parts that are produced during the life
cycles of plants (Fig. 10.13). Spores are reproductive parts produced in the life
cycles of lower plants such as bryophytes and ferns whereas pollen grains are
the sperm-carrying reproductive parts produced by the higher plants both
gymnosperms and angiosperms. Both spores and pollen of land plants have
very resistant walls made of organic material known as sporopollenin and
fossilise freely. They are very tiny grains, typically range in size between 10 and
200 µm. These grains are produced in large numbers by plants and can travel
widely, rapidly and freely in air and water and they settle down at the bottom of
lakes, ponds, rivers and oceans as a part of sediments. The word pollen may
be used as singular as well as plural form.
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Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.10.13: Photographs of spores and pollen: a) to b) Fossil spores; and c) to d)
Fossil pollen. (Source: Dr. Y. Raghumani Singh, Manipur University,
Imphal)

Morphology: The morphology of spores is largely controlled by divisions of the

spore mother cell (i.e., the cell from which the spore develops). It splits into a
tetrad comprising four small spores. Tetrad has two types of arrangement of
spores such as tetrahedral and tetragonal. In tetrahedral arrangement, the cell
is divided into four spores at once and all these four spores are in contact with
each other at three contact areas/faces forming a Y-mark in the contact area.
The spores having Y-mark show radial symmetry and are termed as trilete
spores (Fig. 10.14).

Fig. 10.14: Morphology of spores and their formation from a spore mother cell.

On the other hand, the tetragonal tetrad shows successive divisions of the cell
into spores, where the cell first divides into two spores which subsequently
subdivide further. The spores of tetragonal arrangement have two contact areas
marked by a single scar. The spores with a single scar (i.e., contact mark)
display bilateral symmetry and are named as monolete spores (Fig. 10.14).
Pollen grains range in size from 20 to 150 μm. They are typically oblate,
spheroidal and prolate in shape. Many individual pollen have no pore and such
pollen are termed as inaperturate whereas others have one or more pores.
Pollen having one pore are known as monoporate, those with two pores are
called diporate, and having three pores are triporate (Fig. 10.15). Most spores
and pollen have a double-layered wall structure with inner and outer wall layers.
The outer layer is highly resistant and fossilises freely. It is ornamented variably
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Unit 10 Microfossils
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having granulations, pits and rod-like extensions. The shape and arrangement
of pores are important features in the classification of spores and pollen.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10.15: Forms of the pollen: a) Monoporate; b) Diporate; and (c) Triporate.

Geological Range: The earliest reported occurrences of spores are from the
Silurian rocks whereas oldest pollen are known from the rocks of Devonian, and
both spores and pollen are continuously living up to the present day. The
evolutionary history of spores and pollen is closely associated with the evolution
of land plants.
10.3.3 Significance of Microfossils
The microfossils are minute microscopic organic remains that are usually found
almost in all types of sedimentary rocks and rarely in low grade metamorphic
rocks. Some characteristics of microfossils such as global distribution,
distinctive morphology, climate sensitive nature and rapid evolutionary rate
make them ideal for stratigraphic studies. As a whole, microfossils are broadly
used for stratigraphic correlation, dating of rocks, reconstruction of
environment, climate and oceanic circulation patterns of the geological past.
They find extensive industrial use in logging of oil wells and location of source
rocks for oil and gas.

10.4 COLLECTING MICROFOSSILS

It is a well accepted fact that microfossils are more abundant and widely
distributed in most of the sedimentary rocks as compared to larger or
macrofossils. In addition to this, microfossil-bearing rocks can provide a large
amount of information on various aspects of the geological past such as origin
and evolution of life, palaeoecology, palaeoclimate, palaeoenvironment, etc.
and their study is very significant in geology. It is important to note that
macrofossils, which are larger in size, are commonly visible to naked eye in the
field. On the other hand, the size of microfossils is so small that we cannot see
them with naked eye in the field. As a consequence, the study of microfossils
involves specialised methods and techniques for their collection in the field and
preparation in laboratory.
The main methods and techniques used to collect the microfossils are given
below:
 Geological fieldwork
 Sampling
 Processing
 Separation

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Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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10.4.1 Geological Fieldwork
Fieldwork is an important component of any palaeontological as well as
geological study. It depends on the specific aim and goal of the study. During
the fieldwork, we visit the geological site where we wish to collect the samples
systematically according to the objectives of the study. We also record the
attitude of beds of a geological section/site and its lithology as well as draw the
sketches in the field diary. In addition, we also record the geographic
coordinates of the area with the help of Global Positioning System (GPS) or
topographic map and also take its photographs.
A field kit is an essential requirement for field work and it may contain the
following equipment (Fig. 10.16):
 Hammer
 Chisels and shovels
 Compass clinometers/Brunton compass
 Measuring tape and hand lens
 Topographic and geologic maps
 Field notebook/diary
 Plastic and cloth sample bags
 Plastic acid bottle (for identification of limestone)
 Knife, field camera and GPS
 First aid box

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 10.16: Field equipments: a) Geological hammer; b) Chisel; c) Brunton
compass; d) Measuring tape; and e) Hand lens.

10.4.2 Sampling
You have read that microfossils are usually not visible in the field because they
are too small. However, some forms of foraminifers and ostracods are large
enough to be seen with naked eyes. In this case, you can identify the particular
bed/layer where samples can be collected for mircopalaeontological studies. In
other cases, the samples are usually collected at random and you will not know
whether or not samples will yield microfossils until they are processed in the
laboratory. Depending on the nature of study, samples can be collected
vertically (i.e., from the bottom to the top) at regular or irregular intervals of a
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Unit 10 Microfossils
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geological section. For micropalaeontogical studies, we usually collect samples
from within the rock and not from the weathered surface since there is a chance
of contamination in weathered surface samples.
The samples can be taken from any geological site, where rock succession is
well exposed both horizontally as well as vertically. The subsurface samples
can be collected from the core samples obtained during the drilling process
undertaken by the oil companies or from the open mines.
While collecting samples, the following precautions must be taken into
consideration:
(i) Do not collect samples from a weathered rock exposure.
(ii) Clean the top or weathered surface of exposure before taking samples.
(iii) Always collect samples from fresh rock surfaces.
(iv) Clean equipment such as hammers, chisels and shovels before a sample
is taken in order to avoid contamination.
(v) Put each sample into a new sample bag and label it carefully with the
locality and bed information and enter the same details in your field
notebook.
(vi) For micropalaeontolgical studies, the size of sample should be 200 gram
to 1 kg.
(vii) Microfossils are more common in fine grained sediments such as clay,
mudstone or silt than in coarse grained rocks like sandstone.
(viii) Try to collect samples from soft fine grained rocks such as mudstone,
siltstone or clay.
(ix) Samples may be collected from lower (i.e. base of the section) to the
higher (i.e. top) elevation level.
(x) Care should be taken to avoid contamination at every step while doing
sampling and to avoid accidents while doing the fieldwork.
10.4.3 Processing
After collecting samples in the field, they are taken into the laboratory for
processing or preparation in order to separate or recover microfossils from
them. It may be noted that all collected samples may not be equally soft or
hard. Therefore, based on the nature of lithology, different processing
treatments may be given to the collected samples. The processing treatment for
samples containing softer sediments such as shales, clay or mudstones begins
with breaking them into smaller pieces usually less than 3 cm in size and drying
them. Once the sample is dried, then we place them in a container (e.g., a
plastic tub) covered with water for 10-12 hours. This allows the sample to
disintegrate and form mud slurry if the rock is very soft. This slurry can then be
screen washed with water by using sieves of different mesh size, for example,
80, 100, 200 or 280 depending on the type of microfossil which we are looking
for (Fig. 10.17). The washing of sample removes the unwanted fine particles of
clay or sand from the samples. The screen washing is the simplest and most
efficient technique for processing of soft sediments or samples.
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Fig. 10.17: Test sieve.

For the disintegration of hard samples containing limestone and sandstone or
hard mudstone, a number of chemicals such as sodium bicarbonate, sodium
hydroxide and sodium sulphate may be used. Alternating freezing and thawing
method is also employed for disintegration of samples.
The samples of very hard rocks such as chert can be studied by preparing their
thin sections. It is important to keep in mind that while processing the samples,
half of the sample should be preserved in the laboratory for reference or for use
in case the process of separation fails in the first instance or there are some
interesting results that need to be re-investigated.
Once the samples are disintegrated after employing the above mentioned
methods, the obtained residue must be dried completely. The residue obtained
is then put in the plastic sample bags and numbered with respect to their
location and stratigraphic position.
10.4.4 Separation
Separation of microfossils from the dried residue requires a high-resolution
binocular light microscope. Here, we first put the dried residue containing
microfossils and matrix of a particular sample bag in the picking tray (Fig.
10.18a) and examine it under the microscope (Fig. 10.18b). We pick up the
microfossils with the help of fine-hair brush and store them in the
micropalaeontological assemblage slide (Fig. 10.18c). On the other hand, the
thin sections of samples can be directly viewed under the microscope. The use
of digital camera and computer attachment with microscope is preferable during
the study of a thin section. While viewing thin sections, if we get any
microfossils, the same can be viewed under the microscope or seen on the
screen of the computer if we are using the attachment, where we can take their
photographs for further studies.

(c) (b)
Fig. 10.18: Tools and instruments used for separating microfossils: a) Picking
tray; b) Microscope; and c) Micropalaeontological assemblage slide.
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Unit 10 Microfossils
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SAQ 2
a) List the important groups of fossils belonging to organic-walled microfossils.
b) What is the composition of shells of organic-walled microfossils?
c) Fossil spores and pollen are the remains of reproductive parts of ------------ .
d) List equipment of the geological field kit.

10.5 STUDYING MICROFOSSILS

The study of microfossils involves their description and identification. It is a
challenging job and requires knowledge of taxonomy and biological
classification and involves consultation of reference books, e.g., fossil
identification guides and textbooks of palaeontology.
For description and identification of microfossils, we need a high-resolution
binocular microscope and sometimes a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
After separating or isolating microfossils from the matrix, these are examined
under the microscope. During their examination, all morphological details are to
be noted and their photographs taken. In addition, line drawings help in
illustrating the important morphological features seen through microscope. The
microfossils under study are compared with the previously described fossils in
order to know whether material under study is new or a previously known
species. If it represents a new form, a new name may be given to it according
to the code of biological nomenclature.

10.6 ACTIVITY
List of important microfossils is given in the Table 10.1. The important facts of
foraminifers are also given. You are required to study the similar facts for other
microfossil groups and accordingly, fill in the table as done in case of
foraminifers.
Table 10.1: Microfossil groups
Name of Mineral Composition Key Line Geologic
Microfossil /organic- of the shell/ morphologic drawing range
walled micro- test features
fossils
Mineral-walled Calcium Aperture, Cambrian to
microfossil carbonate, foramina, present
Foraminiferans

tectin and unilocular,

agglutinated multilocular,
uniseral,
biserial,
triserial,
planiserial
and helical
Radiolarians

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Diatoms
Dinoflagellates

spores
Pollen
and

You can also collect some photographs of microfossils from internet and paste
them in their respective group given in Table 10.1.

10.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the following:
 Microfossils are the remains of very small single-celled and multi-celled
organisms. These are usually less than 2 mm in size.
 The term microfossil is applicable to all those organic remains whose study
requires the use of a light or electron microscope.
 The study of microfossils is known as micropalaeontology. The history of
micropalaeontology is more than two centuries old.
 Foraminifers, radiolarians and diatoms are the main groups of mineral-walled
microfossils, whereas acritarchs, dinoflagellates, spores and pollen are the
main groups of organic-walled microfossils.
 Foraminifers are single-celled protozoans and may be planktic or benthic in
mode of life. The majority of foraminiferal tests are multi-chambered bearing
many small internal openings known as foramina. They range in age from
Cambrian to present.
 Radiolarians are single-celled planktic protozoans characterised by radial
symmetry. They are exclusively marine and range in age from Cambrian to
present.
 Diatoms are unicellular photosynthesising non-motile algae that live in
almost all kinds of environments from marine to freshwater. Their skeleton,
called frustule, is made up of silica and consists of two unequal valves. They
range in age from Mesozoic to present.
 Dinoflagellates are small, aquatic, single-celled eukaryotic micro-organisms
commonly regarded as algae. They possess both plant-like and animal-like
characters. About 10% of dinoflagellates develop tough and resistant organic
structures called cyst, which fossilise freely. They range in age from
Palaeozoic to present.
 Acritarchs are microscopic organic-walled vesicular microfossils with
unknown biological affinities. They are exclusively marine and are the oldest
known group of microfossils. They range in age from Precambrian to
present.

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 Spores and pollen both are part of the plant reproductive system. Spores are
the reproductive bodies of lower vascular plants and their earliest
occurrences are known from Silurian rocks. Pollen are the sperm-carrying
reproductive bodies of seed plants. They occur first in Devonian rocks. The
occurrences of spores and pollen reflect the evolutionary history of land
plants.
 Microfossils are broadly used for stratigraphic correlation, dating the rocks,
reconstruction of environment, climate and oceanic circulation patterns of the
geological past and are also useful in oil industry.
 The collection of samples from the field and extraction of microfossils from
them in laboratory involves fieldwork, sampling, processing or preparation of
samples and sorting of microfossils under microscope.
 The study of microfossils involves their description and identification. For this
purpose, a high-resolution biological microscope and sometimes Scanning
Electron Microscope are used.

10.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are microfossils? Discuss various types of microfossils.
2. Write about mineralised microfossil groups.
3. Discuss the importance of microfossils.
4. List out the methods that are followed while collecting microfossil samples in
field.
5. Write notes on the morphology and geological age range of the following:
i. Radiolaria
ii. Foraminifera
iii. Dinoflagellates
iv. Spores and pollen

10.9 REFERENCES
 Armstrong, H.A. and Brasier, M.D. (2005) Microfossils, Blackwell Publishing,
Malden, USA.
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and the
Fossil record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Milsom, C. and Rigby, S. (2010) Fossils at a Glance, Wiley-Blackwell. West
Sussex.
 Shrock, R.S. and Twenhofel, W.H. (2005) Principles of Invertebrate
Palaeontology,CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
(reprinted).
 Stearn, C.W. and Carroll, R.L. (1989) Paleontology – The record of Life,
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
 http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/final_sop_palaentology.pdf

10.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Kathal, P.K. (2012) Applied Geological Micropalaeontology, Scientific
Publishers, Jodhpur.
 Nield, E.W and Tucker, V.C.T. (1985) Palaeontology – An Introduction,
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
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10.11 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a)
Organic-walled microfossils Mineral-walled microfossils
The shells of organic-walled The shells of mineral-walled
microfossils are commonly made up microfossils are commonly made up
of hard and tough organic or non- of mineral matter such as calcium,
mineralised proteinaceous material, silica or phosphate, which makes
which makes shells resistant to shells hard and resistant for external
microbial and chemical attacks as physical and chemical agencies and
well as to the adverse effects of thus, possess higher preservation
temperature and pressure after their potential as fossils. Foraminifers,
burial in sediments and hence, radiolarians, diatoms, ostracods and
commonly found as fossils. conodonts are common groups.
Dinoflagellates, acritarchs, spores
and pollen are main types.
b) (1) Microfossils (2) Palaeozoic to present.
c) (i) Diatoms
d) The skeletons of radiolarians are made up of silica secreted by the
organism. The skeletons are mostly spherical or helmet to space-ship
shaped and are formed by spines, bars and perforated plates. Spines
are elongated external features of the skeleton that are attached only at
one end where as bars are elongated internal features attached at both
ends. A perforated plate has more or less evenly spaced pores without
specific plate boundary. Based on symmetry, radiolarians are divided
into two types: spumellar and nassellar.
2. a) Dinoflagellates, acritarchs, spores and pollen are main types of organic-
walled microfossils.
a) The shells of organic-walled microfossils are made up of hard, tough
and resistant organic material known as sporopollenin.
b) Plants.
c) The main equipment of a geological field kit includes hammer, chisels
and shovels, compass and clinometers, measuring tape and hand lens,
topographical and geological maps, field notebook/diary, plastic and
cloth sample bags, plastic acid bottle, knife, field camera and GPS and
first aid box.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 10.2 and 10.3.
2. Refer to subsection 10.3.1.
3. Refer to subsection 10.3.3.
4. Refer to section 10.4.
5. Refer to subsection 10.3.1 and 10.3.2.

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 UNIT 11

EVOLUTION OF HORSE

Structure____________________________________________________
11.1 Introduction 11.3 Role of Climate in the Evolution of Horse
Expected Learning Outcomes 11.4 Activity
11.2 Evolution of Horse 11.5 Summary
Systematic Palaeontology 11.6 Terminal Questions
Place and Time of Origin 11.7 References
Major Evolutionary Transitions 11.8 Further/Suggested Readings
Phylogeny of Horse 11.9 Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Vertebrates are a diverse group of organisms ranging from lampreys to human beings. The group
includes animals with backbone, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The
dinosaurs that have caught public attention by making their appearance in several films and books
too are vertebrates. Vertebrates have a long geological history on the planet Earth beginning more
than 500 million years (Myr) ago, starting from the Cambrian to the present.
They first appeared in the fossil record during the Cambrian period of the Palaeozoic era. Fishes,
amphibians and reptiles were the most dominant groups of vertebrates in the Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic eras. In the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs- a group of reptiles, and mammals made their
appearance. Dinosaurs had a wide geographic distribution, being reported from all continents and
were the largest animals to roam the Earth during the Mesozoic era. The mammals began to
diversify only after the demise of dinosaurs at the close of the Mesozoic era at around 66 Myr ago.
In the Cenozoic era, mammals rapidly occupied every niche and corner of the globe and therefore,
the Cenozoic era is also known as the “Age of Mammals”.
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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Mammals of the Cenozoic era belong to three groups: placentals (that give birth
to young ones), marsupials (in which an offspring after birth continues to
develop within the pouch of the mother) and monotremes (egg laying
mammals). Among these three groups, the placentals like the horses,
elephants and humans have a well-documented fossil record.
Now we will deal with one of the most important groups of placental mammals
namely, horse. In this unit, we will discuss the systematics, evolution and
phylogeny of horse. In addition, we will also learn how climate has played a role
in the evolution of horse.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 outline the systematic positions of horse;
 describe the probable time and place of its origin;
 discuss the major evolutionary trends in horse;
 enumerate their phylogeny; and
 discuss the role played by the climate in the evolution of horse

11.2 EVOLUTION OF HORSE

Among all the vertebrates there is no other group whose fossil record is better
known than that of the horses, the odd-toed ungulate mammals. The word
ungulate refers to the mammals that bear hooves on their fingers and toes
rather than claws. Horses are odd-toed ungulates like the rhinoceros and tapirs
that have either 1, 3, or 5 counts of toes on their hand or foot and thus, belong
to the Order Perissodactyla. In contrast, cows and camels are even-toed
ungulates (2 or 4 toes) that are included in the order Artiodactyla. Equidae is
the family of horses. It comprises a single extant genus Equus, in which horses
are placed along with the donkeys and zebras
11.2.1 Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia
Order Perissodactyla
Family Equidae
Genus Equus
11.2.2 Place and Time of Origin
The story of evolution of horse started at the beginning of the Eocene epoch of
the Cenozoic era and North America is considered as the original home of the
horses. As stated earlier horses, rhinoceros and tapirs belong to the
mammalian group perissodactyls. It is believed that perissodactyls originated in
a forest environment by Early Eocene times. Whereas the tapirs and, to some
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extent, rhinoceroses, retained their forest specialisations, modern horses
adapted to life on grasslands. Because of their habit to live in large herds,
horses have been buried and fossilised in large numbers since the earliest
stage of their evolution. In North America, an almost complete sedimentary
sequence from the Eocene to the Recent is present that has yielded well-
preserved fossil horses since the early 19th century, because of which the
evolutionary history of horses is well-documented among all mammals.
Horse remains have also been found from different stratigraphic horizons in
Europe and Asia as we ascend the geological column, but the fossil record is
not as complete as in North America. The recent findings of the earliest horse
Hyracotherium from Europe and a speculated ancestor of horse Radinskya
from China questions the birth place of horses, although many palaeontologists
believe North America as the birth place of horses because the entire
evolutionary sequence of the horses is known from here. In addition, recent
studies have also shown that Hyracotherium was not a true horse.
Though the question of biogeographic origin of the equidae is currently
unresolved, it is well established that during the Early Eocene, the Equidae
could move between North America and Eurasia through a land bridge in the
North Atlantic ocean called as the DeGeer dispersal route (Fig. 11.1), which
by early Middle Eocene was severed thus restricting the movement of animals
either way. Thereafter, the Equidae became extinct in Europe, but continued to
evolve in isolation in North America until the Oligocene. The land connections
between North America and Europe were re-established in the Miocene, about
24 Myr ago and the equids again dispersed to Europe and from there to the Old
World. Though the DeGeer dispersal corridor was no longer available, these
migrations could take place during the times of lowered sea levels that exposed
the shallow Barrents shelf between Siberia and the Aleutian Islands, forming
the Bering land bridge (Fig. 11.1). Throughout the remainder of the Cenozoic
era whenever the sea level dropped the Bering land bridge was exposed and
the equids migrated from North America to Europe and the old world, such as in
the Middle Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene times. The horses also
dispersed to South America during the great faunal interchange that occurred
about 4 to 3 Myr ago when the land connection was established between the
Americas by way of the Isthmus of Panama (Fig. 11.1). By the end of the
Pleistocene, the horses became extinct in North America, but survived in other
parts of the world to continue till today. Horses were re-introduced in the New
World by early human migrants.
Do you know?
The “Old World” consists of Africa, Europe and Asia. The term originated in the
early 16th century after the discovery of North and South America called as the
“New World” by the Europeans who till then thought of the world as consisting
of Africa, Asia and Europe only.
The evolutionary history of the horse was one of the first to be developed and
cited as evidence for the evolutionary process soon after the theory of evolution
was proposed by Darwin in his book ‘Origin of Species’ in 1859. The story of
the horse soon became a classic example of evolution, appearing in every text
book on the subject.
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Fig. 11.1: Map showing the dispersal routes for the migration of horses during
different points of time in the Cenozoic era. (Source: simplified and
redrawn after MacFadden, 1992)

11.2.3 Major Evolutionary Transitions

The horse originated in the Eocene and through time it underwent a number of
changes from a dog-like ancestor to what it is today. The main changes which
are exhibited in the phylogeny of horse are listed below (after Colbert, 1980):
1. Increase in body size
2. Lengthening of legs and feet
3. Reduction of lateral toes with emphasis on the middle toe
4. Straightening and stiffening of the back
5. Widening of the incisor teeth
6. Molarisation of the premolars (i.e., in order to grind food premolars became
like molars)
7. Increase in height of the crown of the cheek teeth
8. Development of crests on molars
9. Deepening of the front portion of the skull and of the lower jaw to
accommodate the high crowned teeth
10. Lengthening of the face in front of eyes also to accommodate the high
crowned teeth
11. Increase in brain size
11.2.4 Phylogeny of Horse
The phylogeny of horses has been and still is one of the acceptable and most
frequently quoted examples of evolution. You can see summary of the
phylogenetic history of horse in Figs.11.2 and 11.3, which show the major
changes that took place in the skeleton of horses during the course of their
evolution.
Let us discuss the different evolutionary stages of horse during the
Cenozoic era.
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(i) Horses in Eocene
Eohippus: Eohippus, commonly known as the dawn horse, was a small animal
about 10-20 inches (25-50 cm) high at the shoulder, had an arched back, short
neck, short snout, short legs and a long tail (Fig. 11.3). Its legs were flexible
and rotatable with all major bones present and un-fused. It had 4 toes on each
of the front foot and 3 toes on hind feet. Vestiges of other toes were however
still present. Eohippus walked on dog-like padded feet and had only small
hooves on each toe. It was a forest dweller that looked more like a dog than a
horse. It browsed on soft foliage. Its teeth were low-crowned. Each side of the
jaw had 3 incisors, 1 canine, 4 premolars and 3 molars (i.e., its dental formula
was 3143/3143). The cusps of the molars were slightly connected by low
crests. It became extinct in the Early Eocene, around 49 Myr ago, but prior to its
extinction, it evolved into Orohippus (Fig. 11.2).

Fig. 11.2: Phylogeny of horse (Source: simplified and redrawn after MacFadden,
1992), Pal stands for Palaeocene, Plio for Pliocene and Qt for
Quaternary.
Do you know?
A dental formula is a summary of a mammal’s teeth. The number of teeth of
each type is written for one side of the mouth with the upper and lower teeth
shown on separate rows.
Orohippus: Orohippus means “mountain horse”, although it never lived in the
mountainous region. It looked largely like Eohippus. The major changes that
took place in Orohippus were the loss of the toe vestiges and change in dental
morphology. It was about 10-20 inches (25-50 cm) high at the shoulder with a

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dog-like look and padded feet. It had a small brain, arched back, and short legs,
neck and snout (Fig. 11.3). Its diet comprised tougher plant material than that of
Eohippus and this brought in molarisation of the 4th premolar and more
pronounced development of the crests on the teeth. Orohippus survived until 46
Myr ago.
Epihippus: It arose from Orohippus in the Middle Eocene times (Fig. 11.2)
about 47 Myr ago. Like Orohippus and Eohippus, Epihippus was a small, dog-
like, pad-footed and small-brained horse. It had 4 toes in front and 3 behind.
Meanwhile, the evolution of teeth continued. In Epihippus, the last two
premolars became molarised, making five cheek teeth grinding type. The teeth
however, remained low-crowned, but with well-developed crests. It has been
seen that Epihippus was slightly larger than Orohippus and became extinct by
the end of Eocene.
Mesohippus: By the Late Eocene time, approximately 40 Myr ago the horse
genus Mesohippus descended from Epihippus (Fig. 11.2). Mesohippus also
known as an intermediate horse was slightly larger than Epihippus. Standing 24
inches (71 cm) high at the shoulder, it was of the size of a sheep. Its back was
less arched, and the legs, neck, snout and face a little longer (Fig. 11.3).
However, Mesohippus retained three toes on its hind feet whereas on its front
feet the 4th toe was reduced. Mesohippus like its ancestors was still pad-footed.
The third last premolar however continued the evolutionary trend of
molarisation, thereby resulting in six grinding cheek teeth in Mesohippus as well
as all the later horses. Mesohippus continued to survive until 29 Myr in the Late
Oligocene.
(ii) Horses in Oligocene
Miohippus: It arose from Mesohippus in the Late Oligocene time (Fig. 11.2)
about 37 Myr ago. It was a larger horse with a slightly longer skull than
Mesohippus. A characteristic feature of Miohippus was the development of a
variable extra crest on its upper cheek teeth, a trait that was retained by all the
later horses. The ankle joint of Miohippus also changed a little. Miohippus
continued for a while as it was, and then by the Early Miocene, it had split into
two branches. One of the branches continued as three-toed browsing horses
such as Kalobatippus, Anchitherium, Megahippus and the Asian Sinohippus.
The other branch that arose from Miohippus was that of Parahippus.
(iii) Horses in Miocene
Parahippus: As stated above, Parahippus evolved from Miohippus (Fig. 11.2).
It was both a browser and a grazer (a mixed feeder). Appearing in Early
Miocene around 25 Myr ago, Parahippus was a little larger than Miohippus, with
about the same brain size and body form (Fig. 11.3). However, as this horse
started eating grass its teeth became slightly high-crowned (hypsodont).
Parahippus adapted to a running mode, which in turn developed springy foot
ligaments, although the foot still remained three-toed. Parahippus went extinct
by 15 Myr ago.
Do you know?
Hypsodont dentition comprises high-crowned and short-rooted teeth. This
dentition is characteristic of those animals that feed on gritty and fibrous food
material such as grasses.
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Merychippus: Parahippus by about 18.5 Myr ago evolved into a spring-footed,
hypsodont horse, named Merychippus (Fig. 11.2). Merychippus was about 40
inches (1 m) high at the shoulder. It was still three-toed, but a fully spring footed
horse that stood permanently on the tiptoe (Fig. 11.3). The side toes though
present were of variable size whereas the central toe was a little larger with a
well developed large hoof. Also the leg bones were fused and reduced in size
to eliminate leg rotation. These transitions occurred as Merychippus adapted to
rapid running over hard ground. Another major transformation that took place in
Merychippus was the increase in the height of its teeth as it fed dominantly on
grass. It was the first member of the line of descent of the grazing horses that
marked the transition of horses from primitive browsers to the modern grazers.
It is, therefore, also known as a ruminant horse. However, to accommodate the
large teeth, the jaw became deeper, and the muzzle (the projecting part of the
face, including the nose and mouth) became elongated. This gave Merychippus
a new look and so it was aptly named as Merychippus, “the horse with a new
look”.
Merychippus underwent rapid speciation called “merychippine radiation”
giving rise to new horse species that fall in three major groups. These groups
are hipparions, protohippines and true equines.
Hipparions were small to large pony like, three-toed grazing horses that
emerged around 16 Myr ago. They include forms like Comohipparion,
Pseudhipparion, Neohipparion, Hipparion and Nannippus. These horses spread
from North America to the Old World, reaching the Indian subcontinent about
14-13 Myr ago.
Protohippines evolved by 16 Myr ago. Protohippus and Calippus were the
older, smaller forms that retained three toes in their feet. By the Middle Miocene
the protohippines line of descent was represented by Pliohippus. Initially, a
three-toed horse, Pliohippus, through three successive stages in the Early
Pliocene, lost side toes, ultimately culminating into a single-toed Pliohippus
(Fig. 11.3). Pliohippus gave rise to the “hippidions” which were stocky, short-
legged, single-toed horses with odd boxy skulls. These horses travelled from
North America to South America and thrived there at least up to 2-1 Myr ago.
True equines include the present day horse and its ancestors. They comprise
both three-toed as well as single-toed horses. The three-toed horses were
Merychippus in which the side toes were smaller than the central toe, whereas,
the single-toed horses are Dinohippus and Equus. By 12 Myr ago, Dinohippus
descended from Merychippus (Fig. 11.2). Dinohippus the one-toed horse had
slightly straighter teeth than those of Merychippus. It looked very similar in foot,
tooth, and skull morphology to the modern horse (Fig. 11.3).
(iv) Horses in Pliocene
Descendents of “hipparions” and “protohippines” stock continued into the
Pliocene and spread to the old world and South America. Dinohippus the true
equine was the most common horse in North America in the late Pliocene. It
gave rise to the modern day horse, Equus.

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(v) Modern Horse
Equus: It is the genus of all the modern equines that first arose around 5 Myr
ago from Dinohippus. The first Equus was 52 inches (1.3 m) tall (the size of a
pony), with a rigid spine, long neck and legs, fused leg bones with no rotation,
long nose, flexible muzzle and a deep jaw. The brain was a bit larger than that
of Dinohippus. Equus soon diversified into several species that co-existed with
other horses. Equus like Dinohippus is single-toed (Fig. 11.3). However, its
teeth are straight and higher-crowned than of Dinohippus (Colbert and others,
2001).

Fig. 11.3: Morphological changes that took place in horses during the course of
evolution. (Source: modified after Benton, 2005)

During the first major glaciation of the Late Pliocene, about 2.5 Myr ago, certain
Equus species crossed to the Old World. Some entered Africa and diversified
into the modern zebras. Others spread across Asia, the Middle East and Africa
where they adapted to desert life such as Kiangs, Onagers and wild asses
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including donkeys. Still others spread across Asia, Africa, South America, and
Europe as the true horse, Equus caballus.
It is worth mentioning here that Equus arose in North America and at the end of
Pleistocene epoch (11000 years ago), it became extinct in North America
probably as a result of climate change and overhunting by humans. Later in the
16th century the horse was reintroduced in North America by humans.
Do you know?
The Miocene to Pliocene fossil record of the Siwalik Hills of the Indian
Subcontinent yields abundant material of hipparionine equids. The oldest fossil
comes from the Chinji Formation and its equivalent beds dated around 14-13
Myr old. The fossil horse recovered is Hipparion which was an immigrant from
North America. Though, Hipparion was not the dominant component of
mammalian taxa initially, its number and diversity increased by the upper part of
the Middle Siwaliks. However, by the Upper Siwalik times it became extinct and
was replaced by Equus. Species of fossil Equus are also known from the
Karewa deposits of the Kashmir valley and from Pleistocene alluvial deposits of
the Narmada valley.

11.3 ROLE OF CLIMATE IN THE EVOLUTION OF

HORSE
You now know that the beginning of the evolution of horse took place in the
Cenozoic era, close to the Palaeocene-Eocene boundary. You may find it
interesting to note that the Palaeocene–Eocene boundary witnessed an abrupt
global warming, which is commonly referred to as the Palaeocene–Eocene
Thermal Maximum (PETM). At this boundary many modern mammalian taxa
appeared and so did the first horse Eohippus. The major changes that took
place among horses during the course of evolution were the reduction in the
number of toes and deepening of the cheek teeth (i.e., premolars and molars).
These changes are linked to changes in environmental conditions which
brought retreat in forest cover and spread of grasslands. The Eocene warming
trend continued at least up to its earliest part which brought in only minor
evolutionary changes in Eohippus and its near descendants. The body and feet
stayed mostly the same, with slight changes in the toes. The major change was
in the teeth of Eocene equids as they started to eat more plant browse and less
fruit. They also developed more grinding teeth to eat the slightly tougher food.
With the onset of the Late Eocene, the cooling of the Earth began and small
ephemeral ice sheets developed and the climate became drier. This affected
the vegetation patterns with vast forests shrinking and grass evolving during the
Late Oligocene–Early Miocene times. So as we move toward the Oligocene,
horses become as mixed feeders and by Miocene horses changed their dietary
mode from browsing to grazing. Since grass is difficult to chew and wears down
teeth rapidly due to its high silica content, horse teeth increased the height of
the tooth crowns so that the teeth remain out of the gum as their tops were
continuously worn down. There was an increase in body size and length of the
face as well.
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The grazing horses also adapted to rapid running on open grasslands. They
started to become leggier for better speed out in the open eventually becoming
specialised runners. The bones of the legs began to fuse together, and the leg
bones became specialised for efficient forward-and-back strides, with flexible
leg rotation being eliminated. Most significantly, the horses began to stand
permanently on tiptoe i.e., they changed from three-toed to single-toed horse,
another adaptation for speed, instead of walking on dog-like pads.
In Pleistocene times, the climate again changed as Earth went into a glacial
mode. The Pleistocene climate change accompanied by the overhunting by
man led to the extinction of numerous mammals in North America including the
modern horse, Equus. The warming and cooling episodes of the Cenozoic had
also brought in global sea level changes that formed land bridges during the fall
of sea level which facilitated the dispersal of horse from North America to the
rest of the world. The horses, though became extinct in North America where
its entire lineage proliferated, survived in other parts of the world.
The fossil history of equids reveals that the progression between different equid
species was not as smooth and consistent as was once believed. Though some
transitions like molarisation of premolars were gradual, others like reduction in
toes and increase in body size were abrupt. Since these changes were the
adaptations required by the horse to survive the changing climate, it can be
said that the evolution of horse was driven by climate change.

SAQ 1
a) Fill in the blanks.
1. ______________________ is the family of horses.
2. ______________________was the first horse genus.
3. ______________________ is the possible place of origin of horse.
b) Match the following:
(i) Dog-like padded feet (a) Merychippus
(ii) Mountain horse (b) Parahippus
(ii) A mixed feeder (c) Orohippus
(iv) The horse with a new looks (d) Eohippus
c) What is Equus?

11.4 ACTIVITY
You will find the generalised evolutionary sequence of horse from
Hyracotherium to Equus through the Cenozoic era in the Fig. 11.6. In this
figure, some evolutionary stages of horse are missing. Here you have to do
following three things:
Here you have to do three things:
i) identify the missing stages,
ii) write them at an appropriate level in the sequence and
iii) mark the boundary between browsing and grazing horses.
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Fig. 11.6: Evolutionary sequence of horse. Pal stands for Palaeocene, Plio for
Pliocene and Qt for Quaternary.

11.5 SUMMARY
Let us quickly summarise what you have learnt in this unit.
 Horses are odd toed ungulates like the rhinoceros and tapirs that have 1, 3
or 5 numbers of toes on their hand and feet and thus, belong to the
order Perissodactyla.
 Equidae is the family of horses. It comprises a single extant genus Equus.
 Ancestor of the horses first appeared in North America during the Eocene
epoch.
 The evolutionary sequence of Equidae from the oldest to the modern horse
comprises Eohippus – Orohippus – Epihippus – Mesohippus – Miohippus –
Parahippus –Merychippus – Dinohippus – Equus.
 The evolution of horse involves increase in body size, lengthening of legs
and feet, reduction of toes, modification of dentition, deepening of the front
portion of the skull and of the lower jaw, lengthening of the face and increase
in brain size.
 The major evolutionary changes among the horse were brought by change in
environmental conditions such as retreat in forest cover and spread of
grasslands.
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11.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write in brief on the major trends of evolution of horse.
2. Describe the phylogeny of horse.
3. Discuss the role of climate in the evolution of horse.

11.7 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. (2005) Vertebrate Palaeontology, 3rd edition, Blackwell Science
Ltd., USA.
 Colbert, E.H. (1980) Evolution of the Vertebrates – A history of the
backboned animals through time. John Wiley & Sons, USA, Pp. 379-384 and
425-437.
 Colbert, E.H. and others (2012) Colbert’s Evolution of the Vertebrates – A
history of the backboned animals through time, Wiley India (Pvt.) Ltd., New
Delhi (reprinted).
 MacFadden, B.J. (1992) Fossil Horses: Systematics, Paleobiology, and
Evolution of the Family Equidae, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

11.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Colbert, E.H. and others (2012) Colbert’s Evolution of the Vertebrates – A
history of the backboned animals through time, Wiley India (Pvt.) Ltd., New
Delhi (reprinted).
 Jain, P.C. and Anantharaman, M.S. (1996) Palaeontology – Evolution and
Animal Distribution, Fourth Edition, Vishal Publications, Jalandhar.

11.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. (a) Equidae.
(b) Eohippus.
(c) North America.
2. (i) - (d), (ii) - (c), (iii) - (b), (iv) - (a)
3. Equus is a genus of all modern equines. It first arose around 5 Myr
ago from Dinohippus. The first Equus was 52 inches (1.3 m) tall (a
size of pony), with a rigid spine, long neck and legs, fused leg bones
with no rotation, long nose, flexible muzzle and a deep jaw. The
brain was a bit larger than that of Dinohippus. Equus soon diversified
into several species that co-existed with other horses. Equus like
Dinohippus is single-toed. However, its teeth are straight and higher-
crowned than Dinohippus.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to subsection 11.2.3.
2. Refer to subsection 11.2.4.
3. Refer to section 11.3.
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 UNIT 12

PLANT FOSSILS AND GONDWANA

FLORA

Structure_____________________________________________________
12.1 Introduction Vertebraria
Expected Learning Outcomes Thinnfeldia
12.2 Plant Fossils Sigillaria
Definition Nilssonia
Classification Williamsonia
Modes of Preservation Ptilophyllum
Significance 12.5 Activity
12.3 Gondwana Flora of India 12.6 Summary
12.4 Descriptions of some Plant 12.7 Terminal Questions
Fossils 12.8 References
Glossopteris 12.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Gangamopteris 12.10 Answers

12.1 INTRODUCTION
The animals, plants and micro-organisms are the three main life forms surviving today. Even their
fossilised remains are found in rocks that tell us about their past history. The animals comprise
invertebrates and vertebrates. In Block 4, you will read about the invertebrates and their geological
history that began in the latest Precambrian time. You also read about the microfossils in Unit 10 that
too have a long geological record beginning from Precambrian onwards. In Unit 11, you read the
evolutionary history of one of the vertebrate groups i.e., horse. In this unit, you will read the plant
fossils and the Gondwana flora of India.
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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Like the kingdom Animalia, plants also form a separate kingdom known as the
Plantae. It is thought that plants appeared first in the Precambrian, but their
fossil record is poor. It is also proposed that earliest plants were aquatic and
during the Ordovician period a transition from water to land took place that
gave rise to non-vascular land plants. However, it was during the Silurian
period, that the vascular plants appeared first on the land. The flowering plants
emerged rather recently, during the Cretaceous period. It is interesting to note
that plants, whether living or dead, are beneficial to humans, as living plants
provide the continuous supply of oxygen and food and dead remains form the
huge coal deposits that meet our energy demand.
The fossil record of plants as a whole is sporadic because they have a low
preservation potential and as such fossilised remains of plant fossils largely
comprise materials such as leaves, cones, barks, flowers and petrified wood. In
this unit, we will discuss about the plant fossils and classification of plants, their
modes of preservation and applications. We will also discuss about the
Gondwana flora of India and the morphological characters of some of the
important Gondwana plant fossils.

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define plant fossils and classify the plants;
 discuss the modes of preservation of plant fossils;
 elaborate the significance of plant fossils
 discuss Gondwana flora; and
 describe some common forms of plant fossils.

12.2 PLANT FOSSILS

Before discussing the plant fossils, it is important to introduce know you to what
plants are. We have read in our school text that plants are multi-cellular
organisms which by way of photosynthesis manufacture food. In nature, there
exist many other organisms that can manufacture their food, but all of them are
single-celled organisms whereas only the true plants, also called as
metaphytes are multi-cellular organisms that can manufacture food.
Another important feature in plants is the alternation of generations of two
morphologically distinct vegetative phases, the gametophyte and the
sporophyte (Fig. 12.1). In the gametophyte generation, plant is composed of
haploid cells that produce the sex cells- the gametes. The gametes fuse to form
diploid zygotes which then initiate the development of the sporophyte
generation- the spore-producing stage of the plants. The germination of spores
produces the next gametophyte generation. In the plants that made their
appearance earlier in the geological time the gametophyte generation
dominated and continues as such in the primitive surviving forms such as
mosses. On the other hand, the plants that appeared later in the geological
time, the sporophyte stage dominates such as in ferns, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.

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Fig. 12.1: Plant life cycle showing alternation of generations.

12.2.1 Definition
Plant fossils are the remains of the past plant life that have been preserved in
sediments of the Earth’s crust. The study of fossil plants falls into two
disciplines, palaeobotany and palynology. Palaeobotany deals with the study
of macroscopic (visible with the naked eye) plant remains such as leaves,
petrified wood, flowers or seeds. Palynology involves the study of microscopic
(visible with the microscope) plant remains such as pollen and spores.
Palynology is usually treated as a branch of micropalaeontology.
12.2.2 Classification
The present scientific understanding suggests that plants have originated from
algae to which they are closely related. The algal groups and plants together
form a clade termed as the Chlorobionta that are all characterised by the
possession of chlorophyll and similarities of their chloroplasts. Plants within this
larger clade are sub-grouped as a major group Embryophyta that is
characterised by alternation of generations. All plants make food and in order to
do so they require sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. The water from roots to
the leaves and the manufactured food from the leaves to the different parts of
the modern plants distributes by way of vessels. However, this was not the
same in the plants that made their appearance during the early stages of the
plant evolution.
There are many classifications of plants, but they are classified broadly into four
following groups:
 Thallophyta
 Bryophyta
 Pteridophyta
 Spermatophyta
Thallophytes, bryophytes and pteridophytes are seedless and flowerless plants
and together they are all called as the Cryptogams whereas spermatophytes
including gymnosperms and angiosperms are seed and flower-bearing plants,

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respectively, and termed as Phanerogams. The embryophytes include
bryophytes, pteridophytes and phanerogams.
(i) Thallophyta
Plants belonging to the phylum Thallophyta are single as well as multi-celled
and most of them are of primitive type. They vary in size and range usually from
single-celled micro-organisms to large sea-weeds. The body of thallophytes is
normally not differentiated into root, stem or leaves; rather it is made of a
uniform mass of vegetative tissues known as thallus. They occur in water (both
marine and freshwater) as well as on land. Algae is one of the dominant groups
of thallophytes, other groups include fungi, bacteria, diatoms and lichens. They
range in age from Precambrian to present.
(ii) Bryophyta – Non-vascular plants
The term Bryophyte is derived from Greek “Bryon” meaning “moss” and “Phyte”
meaning plant and hence, it refers to a group of plants that contain moss.
Bryophytes are considered as the first land plants. They are rather simple,
small, non-vascular plants (Fig. 12.2a) that are more advanced than
thallophytes and are found in a wide variety of habitats, but commonly thrive in
marshy and swampy areas. Bryophytes are highly diverse and at present this
group has more than 25,000 living species. They comprise mainly three
distinctive groups such as mosses, liverworts and hornworts. It may be noted
that bryophytes exhibit some peculiar adaptations to life on land. For example,
they possess a waterproof cuticle on their stems and leaves to prevent the loss
of moisture due to evaporation under dry conditions whereas some forms
developed root-like structures known as rhizoids that attach them in the
substrate in order to get food from soil. Bryophytes have a poor fossil record
possibly due to their low preservation potential. They probably appeared first
during the Ordovician period and are still living today.
(iii) Pteridophyta – Vascular plants with no true seed and flower
The term Pteridophyte is derived from two Greek words “Pteryz” meaning
“winged” and “Phyto” meaning “plant”. Hence, it refers to a group of plants that
has a wing-like appearance of leaves. Pteridophytes (pronounced as
teridophytes and initial “p” is silent) are vascular plants with no true seed and
flower and are more advanced as compared to the bryophytes. The vascular
system of pteriodophytes is made up of a series of vessels that include xylem
and phloem in which nutrients are translocated. The pteridophytes possess
leaves, roots and true stems (Fig. 12.2b). Moreover, their roots are well-
developed that can penetrate deep into the soil or substrate in search of
nutrients. In addition to the vascular system, pteridophytes possess epidermis
(skin), an outermost cellular layer that covers the whole body of plants and also
provides protection to them during their growth. All these innovations make
pteridophytes more suitable to live on the land. Ferns or filicales, horsetails or
equisetales, club-mosses or lycopodiales and sphenophyllales are the main
groups of pteridophytes. The pteridophytes have a long geological history. They
appeared first during the Silurian period and are still surviving today.
Pteriodophytes were dominant on the land during the Late Palaeozoic era,
which is also known as the “Age of Pteridophytes” in the history of plants.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12.2: Living members of plants: a) bryophyte; b) pteridophyte; c)
gymnosperm; and d) angiosperm. (Courtesy: Dr. S. Pant, BGSB
University, Rajouri)

(iv) Spermatophyta- The vascular plants with seed and flower

Spermatophytes are the vascular plants that produce seed and are also known
as seed plants. The distinctive features of spermatophytes include the
development of a pollen tube and the production of seeds. They appeared first
during the Devonian period. Spermatophytes are classified into two groups:
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
(a) Gymnosperms: The term gymnosperms is derived from the Greek words
“Gymnos” means “naked’ and “Sperma” means “seed” and hence refers to
a group of naked-seeded plants. These are seed-bearing plants. The seeds
of gymnosperms are naked and are not enclosed in the ovaries as in case
of angiosperms. Conifers, cycads, gnetophytes and Ginkgo are the main
groups of gymnosperms. However, pine (conifers) is one of the dominant
forms of the gymnosperms (Fig. 12.2c). It is thought that gymnosperms
evolved from seedless plants. They range in age from Devonian to present
and were a dominant component of the ecosystem during the
Carboniferous.
(b) Angiosperms: The term Angiosperm is derived from the Greek words
“Angeion” means “vessel” and “Sperma” means “seed” and hence refers to
a group of plants whose seeds are enclosed in protecting vessels or within
a fruit. These are true flowering plants (Fig. 12.2d) and commonly differ
from gymnosperms by the fact that the seeds of angiosperms are enclosed
in protecting vessels or ovaries. Monocots and dicots are the two main
groups of angiosperms. Monocots are characterised by having a seed with
one cotyledon or seed leaf, leaves with parallel veins and well-developed
flowers. Grasses and palm trees are typical examples of monocots. Dicots
are characterised by having a seed with two cotyledons or seed leaves,
leaves have veins with a net-like network and their stems are thicker at the
bottom. Oak and poplar trees are some examples of dicots. Angiosperms
appeared first during the Early Cretaceous and are still surviving as a
dominant plant group on the Earth.
Did you know: The first land plants to appear were the bryophytes, well
preserved specimens of which are known from Middle to Late Silurian times.
However, indirect evidence for the presence of plants prior to Silurian such as
soils with root-like structures is known since long from the Ordovician. Recent
discovery of plant spores as old as 470 million years (Middle Ordovician) from
Oman (Wellman et al. 2003) having affinities with liverworts provides definite
evidence that land plants made their appearance by the Middle Ordovician.
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12.2.3 Modes of Preservation
The fate of most organic material produced by living systems is to be
decomposed to carbon dioxide and water, and recycled into the biosphere. The
fact that organic matter is present in many sedimentary rocks indicates that the
decomposition is not 100% and plants and other organic remains get preserved
as fossils. Plants become fossilised in a variety of ways. Each type of
preservation carries different information about the once living organism. Also
not all organic compounds are equally resistant to degradation and decay. Plant
cell walls are composed primarily of the polysaccharide polymer cellulose and
are far more likely to escape decomposition than internal membranes and
organelles, which are rich in protein, lipids and sugars. Secondary compounds,
such as those impregnating or covering cell walls are also resistant to
decomposition such as lignin, wax, cutin and sporopollenin, which forms the
external shell of spores and pollen (Benton and Harper, 2009; Milson and
Rigby, 2010).
For the preservation of plant fossils, three conditions are required:
 Rapid burial in sediments,
 Reducing burial environment, i.e., absence of oxygen and
 Fixing of the organic material to retard anaerobic decay.
Consequently, plant fossils are well preserved in environments that are very low
in oxygen because most decomposers require oxygen for metabolism. Such
sediments are commonly gray, green or black in colour. Plant fossils are usually
found in fine-grained sediments such as sand, silt or clay and also in
association with organic deposits such as peat (coal). Six modes of
preservation of plant fossils are commonly recognised, and are listed below:
 Compressions
 Impressions
 Casts and Molds
 Permineralisation
 Compactions
 Molecular Fossils
(i) Compressions
Compressions are plant remains that have suffered physical deformation such
that the three dimensional plant parts are compressed into two dimensions.
Compressions preserve organic matter such as leaves that often retain cuticles.
Peat too is a compression, a thick accumulation of plant debris relatively free of
mineral sediment. Compressions are excellent records of external form,
especially for planar structures like leaves.
(ii) Impressions
Impressions, like compressions, are two dimensional imprints of plants found
most commonly in fine-grained sediment such as silt or clay (Fig. 12.3).
However, unlike compressions they are completely devoid of any organic
matter. In fact, impressions are compressions without organic material. The
impressions of plants preserved in the fine-grained sediments contain
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remarkable details of original external form of plants. Impressions, like
compressions, record information about external shape and morphology of
plant organs. Leaves are among the most common organs preserved as
impressions.

Fig. 12.3: Photograph showing impressions of fossil leaves.

Let’s try to think what is the type of mode of preservation in a rock which when
split apart was found to have plant imprints on its two slabs. The organic matter,
however, was adhered to only one side of the rock. In this case, the side with
the organic material is the compression, while the corresponding side without
the organic material is impression.
(iii) Casts and Molds
When sediment is deposited into cavities left by the decay of plant parts, a cast
is resulted. A mold is essentially a cavity left in the sediment by the decayed
plant tissue. Casts and molds usually lack organic matter. Casts and molds
may be found together with the cast filling the mold. Molds are formed when
soft sediment surrounding the structure lithifies or hardens before the structure
decays. When the mold gets filled with sediment that subsequently hardens, a
cast is formed. Casts and molds record external or sometimes internal organ
features. Unlike compressions and impressions, molds and casts often are true
records of the original three dimensional shape of the plant structure.
(iv) Permineralisation
It occurs when the plant tissues are infiltrated with mineral rich fluid. Minerals
like silica, calcium carbonate, phosphate or pyrite precipitate in cell and
intercellular spaces, thus preserving internal structures of plant parts in three
dimensions. This type of preservation is also known as the “structural
preservation” of organic material and thus, permineralisations yield detailed
information about the internal structure of the once living plant. The mineral
matter many times replaces the cell-wall and other internal structures wherein,
the organic material is lost (Fig. 12.4). Such kind of preservation is called
petrifaction. The permineralised wood thus preserves the cellular detail of wood
anatomy and the lignin of cell walls (i.e., organic matter) by mineral in filling
whereas petrified wood on the other hand lacks cellular preservation and
organic matter.
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Fig. 12.4: Petrified fossil wood.

Do you know?
Silica permineralisation (silification) occurs in areas where silica-rich
volcaniclastic sediments are weathering such as the famous upright trees of
Yellowstone National Park, USA, whereas, permineralisation with calcium
carbonate (calcite or dolomite) is particularly common in coal seams, where
peat gets permineralised as “coal balls” such as in Carboniferous coal seams.
Coal balls are rounded to ellipsoidal fossils that preserve plant remains.
(v) Compactions
In compaction, plants retain their external form with only slight volume reduction
i.e., it is three dimensional. Compactions possess organic material and are not
mineralised. Compactions are common in peat, brown coals (lignite) and soft
sediments and more so if the fossils are younger. Pollen and spores are often
preserved as compactions. Internal structure, especially of thick walled hard
fruits, is sometimes well-preserved as compactions.
(vi) Molecular Fossils
Break down products of chlorophyll, carbohydrate and lignins preserved in
fossil leaves and lipids and their derivatives in sediments are the examples of
molecular fossils. Molecules of oleananes, formed by flowering plants, some
ferns and lichens are more usually found preserved in sediments. Rarely, but
genetic material DNA and RNA too gets preserved. The preservation of these
chemical products of plants is highly variable. Further, it depends on oxygen
levels during deposition and temperatures experienced by the rocks since
preservation.

SAQ 1
a) Match the following
(i) Compression (a) Plant remains infiltrated by mineralising
solutions.
(ii) Impression (b) Plant imprints having organic matter.
(iii) Compaction (c) Plant imprints lacking organic matter.
(iv) Perminerlisation (d) Plant remains with little reduction in volume.
b) Flower-bearing plants are known as ----------------- .
c) List the four groups of plants.
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12.2.4 Significance
Plant fossils are significant in many areas of geology. They have played a key
role in correlating sedimentary sequences, reconstructing past geography,
climate and ecology, in addition to understanding plant evolution on the Earth.
Let us discuss some of the important utilities of plant fossils.
1. Correlation of rock units which are widely separated geographically based on
similar fossil leaves, seeds, etc.
2. Fossil plants have been used in palaeogeographic reconstruction i.e.,
reconstructions of the palaeoposition of continents with respect to each
other. Recall, the presence of the Glossopteris flora during the Carboniferous
- Permian times in South America, Africa, India, Antarctica and Australia as
discussed in Unit 9. This plant has been cited as evidence for the formation
of these landmasses into a supercontinent known as Gondwanaland.
3. Palaeoecology, the study of the past ecology, can also be deduced from the
fossils. The principle means of inferring palaeohabitat is through the
assumption that the habitat preferred by modern analogues is that of fossil
relative. Using this uniformitarianism principle (i.e., present is the key to the
past), the area from where fossils plants are recovered, its palaeoecology
can be reconstructed.
4. An important application of plant fossils is determining the palaeoclimate,
i.e., the climate of the past. In this regard, several approaches have been
made over the years, a brief account of which is given here.
(i) The Nearest Living Relative (NLR) method is based on the premise that
climatic preferences of the fossils are similar to those of their NLR. Thus,
in order to infer past climates comparison of as many fossils as possible
within a flora to their most closely related living taxa is made. The more
species in a fossil flora that have NLRs, the more precise is the
palaeoclimatic interpretation. Also, more closely a fossil taxon is related
to an extant one, more precise is the result. The method is particularly
useful when dealing with Cenozoic floras, as these are more likely to
have close living relatives. Further back in time, the method is less
effective as older fossil taxa do not have close living relatives.
(ii) Upchurch and Wolfe (1987) established ways of assessing
palaeotemperatures and rainfall measures based upon the plant
morphology drawing analogy with the modern ones as:
(a) largest leaves are found in tropical rain forest, and size diminishes as
temperature and moisture decline
(b) in tropical areas leaves have entire (unbroken) margins (Fig. 12.5a),
whereas in temperate areas there are many more leaves with toothed
margins (Fig. 12.5b)
(c) leaves from tropical rain forest species have elongated tips to allow
water to clear the leaf during excessive downpours (Fig. 12.5c)
(d) the proportion of deciduous trees (those that shed all their leaves
simultaneously in winter or during the dry season) to evergreens is
highest in temperate zones
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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12.5: Morphology of leaves: a) smooth margin; b) toothed margin; and c)
elongated tip leaves.

5. Dendrochronology or tree ring dating is a method of dating based on the

analysis of patterns of tree growth rings. It is used to determine the age of
archeological sites by studying the growth rings present in the wood that
has been used for construction, paintings, furniture, etc.
6. In addition, the fossilised plant organic material serves as a sample for
carbon dating, as well as for stable isotope studies for determination of past
levels of salinity, temperature and carbon dioxide content.

12.3 GONDWANA FLORA OF INDIA

Prior to discussing the Gondwana flora of India, it is pertinent to learn about the
Gondwana and Gondwana Supergroup. Gondwana is the name given to the
southern part of the supercontinent Pangaea. It has been proposed that
Pangaea existed from approximately 510 to 180 million years (Myr) ago. About
200-180 Myr ago, Pangaea broke into two landmasses. The southern landmass
is termed as Gondwana and northern one as Laurasia. Gondwana included the
modern landmasses of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia,
Madagascar and the Indian subcontinent which today are separated from one
another, whereas the Laurasia includes North America, Europe and Asia
excluding India.
In India, the Upper Carboniferous/Lower Permian to Lower Cretaceous
sedimentary basins of peninsular India are grouped into the Gondwana
Supergroup. It is named after the Gond Kingdom of Central India (Madhya
Pradesh), where these rocks were first discovered. It may be noted that the
name Gondwana is used for the southern landmasses such as South America,
Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Madagascar and India, and, Gondwana
Supergroup is used for Gondwana sedimentary basins of India. The Gondwana
basins of India occupy 50,000 sq. km area and are present along six linear
belts such as Damodar basin, Rewa basin, Wardha valley, Pranhita-Godavari
basins, Mahanadi basin and Rajmahal basin. Based on plant fossils the
Gondwana Supergroup is classified into two groups: the Lower and the Upper
Gondwana (Table 12.1). The Lower Gondwana Group is characterised by the
presence of Glossopteris flora while Upper Gondwana is characterised by
Dicroidium-Ptilophyllum flora.

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Table 12.1: Classification of Gondwana Supergroup
Supergroup Group Floral Phase Age
Upper Ptilophyllum Jurassic to Lower
Gondwana Cretaceous
Gondwana
Lower Glossopteris Upper Carboniferous /
Gondwana Lower Permian to Triassic

(i) Glossopteris Floral Phase of the Lower Gondwana Group

In the Late Carboniferous-Permian times the Gondwanan landmasses were
covered by ice because of which the flora was scanty. The flora during this time
comprised forms such as Gangamopteris, Noeggerathiopsis, Plicatipollenites
and Potoniciporites. The leaves of these plants were small in size, with fine
venation and absence of a mid-rib such as in Gangamopteris.
As the glaciers started retreating by Permian times both land and higher
temperatures were available for the growth of plants such that leaves of
Gangamopteris as large as 8 cm in length have been recorded. Also conifer
like Paranacladus made its appearance. Later in the Permian itself, leaves of
Gangamopteris as long as 35 cm and 8 cm wide grew. Plants started to
diversify. About 14 species of Gangamopteris and 11 of Noeggerahiopsis are
reported from the Lower Permian deposits. Gymnosperms like Buriadia too
made its appearance as did the ferns. The Gangamopteris, however, declined
and finally became extinct giving way to Glossopteris.
Glossopteris, another important Lower Gondwana plant appeared during this
time and soon became the most diversified taxon at species level that lasted on
the Gondwanaland until the Triassic time. The plant leaves in the Late Permian
with the onset of warm and moist conditions grew in size. Leaves of
Glossopteris were about 60 cm in length, 15 cm wide with a 1.5 cm thick
petiole. The leaves possessed a mid-rib and reticulate venation. About 70
species of Glossopteris are known to have existed on the former Gondwanan
landmasses. This time of the Gondwana history, because of the dominance of
the Glossopteris, has been called as Glossopteris floral phase and the rocks
yielding the plant assemblage as discussed above represent the Lower
Gondwana flora.
During the Triassic Glossopteris was present, but its numbers had fallen
sharply as the climate changed from warm temperate to semi arid. Glossopteris
flora finally became extinct by the Middle Triassic. This was replaced by
Thinfeldia (also referred to as Dicroidium) as the dominant flora of the Triassic
Gondwanaland. In the lower part of the Triassic, along with Thinfeldia plants
like Lepidopteris, Cycadopteris, and Neocalamites lived on the Gondwanaland.
The leaves of the plants were forked, having a thick rachis and cuticle all
indicating semi-aridity. However, towards the upper part of the Triassic with the
return of warm and humid conditions plants like Pterophyllum, Taeniopteris and
Pseudopteris made their appearance in addition to the continuation of
Thinfeldia. Conifers like Podozamites and Araucarites, ferns like Cladophlebis
and Parsoraphyllum as well as Ginkgo and Baiera were present, but rare. The
dominance of Thinfeldia throughout the Triassic has led some of the geologist
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to call this time period as the Thinfeldia floral phase and divide this part of the
Gondwanas as Middle Gondwana whereas the continuation of Glossopteris
during this time though in less numbers has been suggested by others to be
clubbed as part of the Glossopteris floral phase and, therefore, as part of the
Lower Gondwana thereby dividing the Gondwana Supergroup into the Lower
and the Upper Gondwana rather than into the lower, middle and upper.
(ii) Ptilophyllum Floral Phase of the Upper Gondwana
By the Jurassic times initial rupturing of the Gondwana landmasses began. The
climate from warm humid in the beginning of the Jurassic changed to temperate
and seasonal towards the end. This time period is marked by the dominance of
Ptilophyllum flora characterised by the presence of Ptilophyllum, Equisetales,
filicales, pteridosperms, cycadophytes, coniferales and ginkgoales throughout
the Gondwana. During the Early to Middle Jurassic, the cycadales and ferns
such as Marattiaceae and Osmundaceae that lived in warm and moist
conditions whereas during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous conifers and
ginkophytes like Ginkgoites and Brachyphyllum became abundant as the
annual climate became seasonal with hot and wet summers and cold and dry
winters. Ferns like Polydiaceae and Onychiopsis though present were rare.
This time period, because of the dominance of Ptilophyllum, is called as the
Ptilophyllum floral phase and forms the upper part of the Gondwana.
Now, we will provide a brief description of some of the important plant fossils
known from the Gondwana Supergroup.

12.4 DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME PLANT FOSSILS

In this section, we will discuss some important genera of plant fossils, which
commonly occur in the Gondwana Supergroup of peninsular India. Gondwana
Supergroup comprises a sedimentary succession that was deposited during the
Upper Carboniferous/Lower Permian to Lower Cretaceous times. It contains
huge coal deposits and yields well-preserved floral remains.
12.4.1 Glossopteris
Glossopteris is an extinct genus of Glossopteridales flora that once dominated
the supercontinent Gondwana during the Permian. It is a leaf morphogenus.
The leaf of Glossopteris is simple, spatulate (broad rounded apex and tapering
base), petiolate, lanceolate (longer than wide and tapering to a point) to tongue-
shaped with an entire margin. It is characterised by the presence of a mid-rib
(Fig. 12.6a) made up of several parallel vascular strands that extend to near the
leaf tip. The outer bundles of the mid-rib give off laterals that repeatedly
dichotomise (divide into two parts) and anastomose (fuse together) to form a
uniform reticulate (net like) pattern of veins. The upper surface of the leaf is
devoid of stomata (an opening through which gas exchange takes place). The
stomata on the lower surface are present.
Stratigraphic Range: Permian to Middle Triassic.
Distribution: Glossopteris is known from Australia, Antarctica, Africa, South
America and India.

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Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora
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12.4.2 Gangamopteris
Gangamopteris is also an extinct genus of Glossopteridales flora. Like
Glossopteris, it is also based on fossil leaves (Fig. 12.6b). It is a common
element of the Permian Gondwana floras and its general morphology is like that
of Glossopteris. Gangamopteris is generally found in the Lower Permian rocks,
whereas Glossopteris is believed to have its greatest distribution in the Upper
Permian rocks. The Gangamopteris leaf is simple and spatulate with a sessile
base (without a stalk borne directly on an axis) and an entire margin.
Gangamopteris is distinguished by the absence of a well-defined mid-rib and
more uniform parallel to sub-parallel venation. The whole leaf of Gangamopteris
has similar stomatiferous areas bounded by non-stomatiferous areas, another
feature used for assignment of a fossil leaf to Gangamopteris.
Stratigraphic Range: Upper Carboniferous to Permian.
Distribution: Gangamopteris is widely known from India, Australia, South
Africa and South America.
12.4.3 Vertebraria
The roots of Glossopteris and Gangamopteris plants are called Vertebraria.
This genus is well preserved in form of compressions, impressions and petrified
fossils. The form has a median ridge or depression with rectangular lateral
segments present on its either side that give it the appearance similar to the
vertebral column of vertebrates (Fig. 12.6c). The lateral segments alternate
slightly.
Stratigraphic Range: Upper Carboniferous to Middle Triassic.
Distribution: Vertebraria is known from Australia, Antarctica, Africa, South
America and India.

12.4.4 Thinnfeldia
The genus Thinnfeldia was historically used for Dicroidium like foliage (cluster
of leaves) from the Northern Hemisphere. The fronds (a large divided leaf) of
Thinnfeldia are bi- or multi-pinnate. The rachis (main axis of the frond) is broad
and branched (Fig. 12.6d). The pinnules are linear with an entire or lobate
margin. Mid-rib is prominent with numerous veins spreading from it. It is
commonly found in the Upper Gondwanan formations of India.
Stratigraphic Range: Upper Triassic to Jurassic.

12.4.5 Sigillaria
Sigillaria was a Carboniferous–Permian arborescent (tree-like) stem genus of a
lycopod that was about 20 meter tall. The stem was straight and lacked
extensive branching. The leaf bases left leaf scars on the stem that gave it a
ribbed appearance (Fig. 12.7a). They were hexagonal to elliptical in outline.
Though helically arranged leaves appear to be aligned in vertical rows.
Sporangia were borne on the stem surface amongst the leaves.
Stratigraphic Range: Carboniferous to Permian.
Distribution: It is known from Europe, Asia and North America.
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Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12.6: Plant fossils: a) Glossopteris; b) Gangamopteris; c) Vertebraria; and d)
Thinnfeldia.

12.4.6 Nilssonia
Nilssonia is a leaf genus. The leaf is compound with a broad rachis and
rectangular leaflets that are attached by the whole base to the rachis (Fig.
12.7b). The rachis is ridged and the venation is parallel running from the base
to the apex of the leaflet. Leaflets have an entire margin with the lamina
(flattened blade portion) attached to the upper surface of the rachis. Nilssonia
foliage was produced by members of Cycadales. The leaves were arranged in
dense clusters on the distal portion of the shoots.
Stratigraphic Range: Upper Triassic to Cretaceous
Distribution: Nilssonia is known from Europe, North America and India.

12.4.7 Williamsonia
Williamsonia was a small tree about 2.0 m tall with a crown of pinnate leaves at
the apex. The trunk had scars that marked the former position of scaly, helically
arranged leaves (Fig. 12.7c). Sporangia, the reproductive organs were borne
among the leaf bases on the trunks. It had slender branching stems with leaves
widely separated along the stems. Permineralised remains of Williamsonia
have been reported from the Jurassic of India.
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Cretaceous.
Distribution: Williamsonia is known from Europe, North America, South
America and India.

12.4.8 Ptilophyllum
Ptilophyllum is a leaf genus. The leaf is compound with a wide rachis and
numerous lanceolate pinnules with an entire margin (Fig. 12.7d). The pinnules
attach to the upper surface of the rachis obliquely. The pinnules are
asymmetrically aligned on either side of the rachis having a broad base
proximally (nearest to the axis or point of attachment) that tapers distally
(farthest from the axis or point of attachment) into an acute apex. Forking
between the pinnules occurs distally. Pinnules had a prominent mid-rib with
veins arising from the entire region of attachment and running parallel to the
margin.
Stratigraphic Range: Jurassic to Cretaceous
Distribution: It is known from South America, India, Antarctica, Australia,
Europe, Russia and North America.

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Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12.7: Plant fossils: a) Sigillaria; b) Nilssonia; c) Williamsonia; and d)
Ptilophyllum.

SAQ 2
a) Match the following.
(i) Glossopteris (a) Upper Gondwana flora.
(ii) Ptilophyllum (b) Lower Gondwana flora.
(iii) Dendrochronology (c) Absence of well-defined mid-rib.
(iv) Gangamopteris (d) Tree ring dating.
b) List the important plant fossils of the Lower Gondwana group.

12.5 ACTIVITY
Given below are line drawings of three plant fossils (Fig. 12.8). Label their
various parts and identify them based on the morphological description.

----------------------------- ------------------------------- --------------------------

Fig. 12.8: Line drawing of plant fossils.

12.6 SUMMARY
 Plant fossils are remains of the past plant life. The study of fossil plants falls
into two disciplines, palaeobotany and palynology. Palaeobotany deals with
the study of macroscopic plant remains, whereas palynology involves the
study of microscopic plant remains.
 Plants are classified broadly into four following groups: thallophytes,
bryophytes, pteridophytes and spermatophytes.
 Thallophytes have no well differentiated body parts such as root, stem or
leaves. They range in age from Precambrian to Present. Bryophytes are
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Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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simple, small, non-vascular, first land plants and are more advanced than
thallophytes. Pteridophytes are vascular plants with no true seed and flower.
They range in age from Silurian to present.
 Spermatophytes are vascular plants that produce seed and also known as
seed plants. These are classified into two groups: gymnosperms and
angiosperms. Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants and range in age from
Devonian to Present. Angiosperms are flowering plants ranging from Early
Cretaceous to Present.
 Rapid burial of plant remains in sediments, reducing burial environment and
fixing of the organic material to retard anaerobic decay are the main
conditions for the preservation of plant fossils.
 Compressions, impressions, casts and molds, permineralisation, and
compactions are the main modes of plant fossil preservation.
 Plant fossils are significant for correlating sedimentary sequences,
reconstructing geography, climate and ecology of the past and for
documenting the plant history.
 Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Vertebraria, Thinnfeldia, Sigillaria, Nilssonia,
Williamsonia and Ptilophyllum are the important forms of the plant fossils,
which are commonly found in the sediments of the Gondwanan Supergroup.
 On the basis of plant fossils, the Gondwana Supergroup is classified into the
Lower and the Upper Gondwana groups. The Lower Gondwana Group is
characterised by the presence of Glossopteris flora while the Upper
Gondwana is characterised by Dicroidium-Ptilophyllum flora.

12.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are plant fossils? Discuss the main modes of their preservation.
2. Describe the various divisions of plants.
3. Plant fossils are very useful in Geology. Explain.
4. Discuss Gondwana flora of India.
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Glossopteris (ii) Vertebraria (iii) Williamsonia (iv) Ptilophyllum

12.8 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and the
Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Milsom, C. and Rigby, S. (2010) Fossils at a Glance, Wiley-Blackwell, West
Sussex.
 Upchurch Jr., G.R. and Wolfe, J.A. (1987) Mid-Cretaceous to Early Tertiary
vegetation and climate: evidence from fossil leaves and woods. In: Friis,
E.M., Chaloner, W.G. and Crane, P.R. (Editors) The Origins of Angiosperms
and their Biological consequences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Wellman, C.H., Osterloff, P.L. and Mohiuddin, U. (2003) Fragments of the
earliest land plants, Nature vol. 425, 282–285.
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Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora
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12.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Prasad, K.N. (1999) An Introduction to Palaeobotany, APH Publishing
Corporation, New Delhi.
 Shukla, A.C. and Mishra, S.P. (1975) Essentials of Palaeobotany,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Noida.
12.10 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) (i) – (b), (ii) – (c), (iii) – (d) and (iv) – (a).
b) Angiosperms.
c) The four major groups of plants are thallophytes, bryophytes,
pteridophytes and spermatophytes.
2. a) (i) – (b), (ii) – (a), (iii) – (d) and (iv) – (c).
b) The important plant fossils of the Lower Gondwana Group are
Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Vertebraria, Schizoneura,
Phyllotheca and Sphenophyllum.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to subsections 12.2.1 and 12.2.3.
2. Refer to subsection 12.2.2.
3. Refer to subsection 12.2.4.
4. Refer to section 12.3.
5. Refer to subsections 12.4.1, 12.4.3, 12.4.7 and 12.4.8.

81
Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology
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82
 Glossary
Acritarchs : A group of organic-walled microfossils that appeared
first in the fossil record during the Precambrian times.
They are widely used for Precambrian and Palaeozoic
biostratigraphic studies. The name acritarch is derived
from two Greek words acritos meaning unknown and
arche meaning origin and hence, it refers to
organisms of uncertain origin.

Benthic organisms : Those who live at the ocean bottom.

Calcite : A mineral with a composition of calcium carbonate.

Most limestones are made of this mineral. Many
organisms use it to build their skeleton and shell.

Carbonisation : A process of fossilisation, in which the organic

substance after its burial is transformed into a thin
carbon film.

Chert : A fine-grained siliceous microcrystalline sedimentary

rock that may contain microfossils.

Chitin : A hard organic material usually made of protein and

found in the skeleton of arthropods and sponges.

Coal : A carbon-rich sedimentary rock formed from the

remains of fossil plants.

Cocoliths : Minute, individual calcareous plates or discs that

occur as part of the protective covering of a group of
the single-celled algae called coccolithophorids.

Crevasse : A deep crack in an ice sheet or glacier.

Cuticle: : A very thin waxy film covering the surface of plants,

derived from the outer surfaces of the epidermal cells.

Diatoms : Small microscopic algae that appeared first in the

Jurassic period.

Dinosaurs : A diverse extinct group of Mesozoic terrestrial

reptiles.

Dinoflagellates : A group of organic-walled microfossils. They have

both animal and plant-like characters. They appeared
first in the Silurian period.

83
 Evolution : The change of organisms over time.

Extinction : The complete disappearance of a species, genus or

family.

Foraminifers : Mineral-walled microfossils that appeared first in the

Early Cambrian period.

Fossils : Clues to the past life preserved in the rocks.

Fossil record : The totality of fossils preserved in all rocks of the

world

Fossilisation : The process of fossil formation by which organic

material is replaced by inorganic mineral matter.

Hadean Eon : An informal lifeless Eon for Precambrian times, which

ranged from 4567 to 4000 million year ago.

Invertebrates : are animals without backbone that appeared first in

the Late Precambrian times. Brachiopods, corals,
molluscs, echinoderms and trilobites are common
examples.

Microfossils : Remains of microorganisms that are usually less than

1 mm in size. They are so small that high-resolution
microscope is used for their study. A very simple and
well-known definition of microfossils is that these
include all remains whose study requires a
microscope.

Nanoplanktons : Small planktonic organisms ranging in size from 2 to

20 μm in size.

Palaeoclimate : The climate of some former period of geological time.

Palaeoenvironment : An environment of the geological past.

Palaeogeography : The distribution of land and sea over geological

history.

Palaeontology : The study of life of the geological past. In American

texts it is spelt as Paleontology

Petrifaction : A process of fossilisation by which organic material is

replaced by inorganic matter.

Phanerozoic Eon : A broad division of geological time scale from 542

million years to present. It comprises Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.

84
Phylogeny : The history or course of development of the evolution
of a species or group.

Planktic organisms : Ogranisms live either on the surface of water or within

the water column

Predation : An act of preying by a predator that kills and eats the

prey.

Predator : An animal that preys on others.

Rachis : The main axis or a stem of a plant, especially a grass

that bears flower stalks at short intervals.

Pyrite : An iron sulphide mineral.

Radiolarians : Mineral-walled single-celled microfossils that

appeared first in the fossil record during the Cambrian
period.

Sedimentary rocks : Layered or stratified rocks such as sandstone,

limestone and shale, which are formed by the
deposition of the sediments.

Sedimentation : The process of deposition of sediments layer by layer

in a depositional basin.

Species : A group of closely related individuals that can

interbreed.

Sporangium : A cell or structure in which spores are produced. It

can be composed of a single cell or can be multi-
cellular. Ferns, mosses, algae and fungi release
spores from sporangia.

Taxonomy : A science of systematic classification of life into

various ordered categories such as species, genus,
family or kingdom.

Vertebrates : Animals having backbone such as fishes, amphibians,

reptiles, birds and mammals.

85
86
 BGYCT-137
STRATIGRAPHY AND
Indira Gandhi National Open University PALAEONTOLOGY
School of Sciences

Block

4
INVERTEBRATE PALAEONTOLOGY
UNIT 13
Brachiopods and Corals 93
UNIT 14
Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods 111
UNIT 15
Molluscs – Cephalopods 131
UNIT 16
Trilobites and Echinoderms 151

Glossary 171

87
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. M. A. Malik (Retd.) Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences University of Jammu Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu, J & K Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. D. C. Srivastava Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Science Prof. S.J. Sangode
University of Delhi, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Department of Geology
Delhi Roorkee, Uttarkhand Savitribai Phule Pune University
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. L. S. Chamyal Pune, Maharashtra
School of Studies in Earth Sciences Department of Geology Dr. K. Anbarasu
Vikram University M.S.University of Baroda Department of Geology
Ujjain, MP Vadodara, Gujarat National College
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Reddy Prof. H. B. Srivastava Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Faculty of Geology Discipline
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University Banaras Hindu University School of Sciences, IGNOU
Hyderabad Varanasi, UP
Prof. Meenal Mishra
Late Prof. G. Vallinayagam Prof. Arun Kumar
Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Department of Geology Department of Earth Sciences
Kurukshetra University Manipur University Dr. M. Prashanth
Kurukshetra, Haryana Imphal, Manipur Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. (Mrs.) Madhumita Das Dr. Omkar Verma
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Department of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Utkal University
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

Block Preparation Team

Course Contributor Content Editor Language Editor
Dr. Omkar Verma (Units 13, 14, 15 & Prof. (Retd.) S. K. Shah Dr. Kishor Kumar
16) Department of Geology Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
School of Sciences University of Jammu Dehra Dun
IGNOU, New Delhi Jammu
Transformation: Dr. Omkar Verma
Course Coordinators: Dr. Omkar Verma and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Dr. Omkar Verma
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinator
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of some of the figures.
December, 2020 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
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88
BGYCT-137: STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
Block 1 Fundamentals of Stratigraphy
Unit 1 Principles of Stratigraphy

Unit 2 Stratigraphic Classification

Unit 3 Physiography of India

Block 2 Stratigraphy of India

Unit 4 Precambrian of India

Unit 5 Palaeozoic of India

Unit 6 Mesozoic of India

Unit 7 Gondwana Supergroup and Deccan Traps

Unit 8 Cenozoic of Himalaya

Block 3 Introduction to Palaeontology

Unit 9 Fossils and Fossilisation

Unit 10 Microfossils

Unit 11 Evolution of Horse

Unit 12 Plant Fossils and Gondwana Flora

Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology

Unit 13 Brachiopods and Corals

Unit 14 Molluscs – Bivalves and Gastropods

Unit 15 Molluscs - Cephalopods

Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms

89
 BLOCK 4: INVERTEBRATE PALAEONTOLOGY
In Block 3, you have been introduced to fossils, their major groups and evolution of life.
Fossils are the remains of the past life, which are commonly preserved in the sedimentary
rocks. Earliest fossil record shows that life existed about 3800 million years (Myr) before the
present. Life on Earth comprises six kingdoms, which are Eubacteria, Archaea or
Archaeobacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Sometime, the kingdoms Eubacteria
and Archaea are grouped together under a single kingdom known as Monera. Animals are,
further divided into two major groups such as invertebrates and vertebrates. The fossil
record also reveals that invertebrates appeared much earlier than vertebrates on the planet
Earth. Invertebrates are animals without backbones or vertebral column. They are a
wondrously diverse group of animals with a fossil record spanning over 600 Myr before the
present. The abundance, diversity and wide range of habitats of invertebrate fossils make
them an ideal resource for palaeontologists to use in learning the geological history of Earth.
There are more than 20 phyla of invertebrates and among them the sponges, cnidarians,
bryozoans, brachiopods, molluscs, echinoderms, sarcodina and arthropods are the major
phyla, which are readily preserved as fossils and are available to the palaeontologists for
study. The study of invertebrate fossils reveals that they probably evolved from metazoan
(multi-cellular organisms) ancestors during the late Precambrian around 600 Ma ago. In fact,
these are animals that lived in a variety of environments including marine, freshwater and
terrestrial. Invertebrate fossils are very useful for learning the geology of our planet. They
also provide a unique window into the past and allow us to know how life has responded to
various environmental conditions throughout the Earth’s history and help us to reconstruct
the history of life and environment of the past.
This block deals with invertebrate fossils. In this block, you will be introduced to the
systematics, morphology and geological history of major groups of invertebrates such as
corals, brachiopods, molluscs, trilobites and echinoderms. It may be mentioned here that
without having an adequate knowledge of the anatomy of soft parts of invertebrates; it would
be difficult to understand the morphology of the hard parts. Taking this into consideration, an
appropriate attention is also given to describing the more important soft parts of
invertebrates. An attempt has also been made to provide best illustrations wherever required
so that you will get proper understanding of the morphology of invertebrates.
This block, comprising four units, deals with five groups of invertebrates.
Unit 13 deals with main groups of brachiopods and corals. It gives a general introduction
and describes taxonomy, morphology and geological history of brachiopods and corals. It
emphasises the paleontological significance of corals and Lingula, which is a living fossil of
Brachiopoda.
Unit 14 deals with the general introduction, taxonomy, morphology and geological history of
two main classes of molluscs: Bivalvia and Gastropoda. It explains the fundamental
organisation and classification of molluscs in general. The major differences between
bivalves and brachiopods are also discussed in this unit.
Unit 15 deals with the general introduction, taxonomy, morphology and geological history of
cephalopod molluscs. Cephalopoda represents the third and the largest class of Mollusca.
This unit describes the two principal groups of cephalopods, which are nautiloids and

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ammonoids. In addition, it discusses the differences between nautiloids and ammonoids and
the functional adaptations in ammonoids.
Unit 16 introduces the taxonomy, morphology and geological history of trilobites and
echinoderms. It focuses on the two major groups of echinoderms, namely, crinoids and
echinoids.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
 define main fossil groups of invertebrates such as corals, brachiopods, molluscs,
trilobites and echinoderms;
 classify the major groups of invertebrates;
 describe their systematics and morphology; and
 discuss their geological distribution.
We wish you all success in this endeavour!

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 UNIT 13

BRACHIOPODS AND CORALS

Structure___________________________________________________
13.1 Introduction 13.4 Coral and Earth’s Rotation
Expected Learning Outcomes 13.5 Activity
13.2 Brachiopods 13.6 Summary
What is Brachiopoda? 13.7 Terminal Questions
Systematic Palaeonotology 13.8 References
Morphology 13.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Geological History 13.10 Answers
13.3 Corals
What are Corals?

Systematic Palaeonotology

Morphology

Geological History

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Almost all the major groups of invertebrates including those living today appeared in the fossil
record near the end of early Cambrian period around 514 million years (Myr) ago. The Cambrian
or early Palaeozoic life was largely confined to the marine realm in which brachiopods and corals
were the two major components in addition to some others. Hence, it is true to say that life the
history of these groups of invertebrates is considerably long, about 514 Myr old. Brachiopods and
corals are marine animals. Today both these groups have decreased in numbers compared to
Palaeozoic times. You can see the living brachiopods at a few beaches and corals in shallow
tropical waters. In this unit, we will discuss the systematics, morphology and geological history of
brachiopods and corals.
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Expected Learning Outcomes______________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define brachiopods and corals;
 describe the morphology of brachiopod shell or valves and coral skeleton;
 discuss the geological history of brachiopods and corals;
 list the major groups of brachiopods and corals; and
 analyse the significance of coral growth rings.

13.2 BRACHIOPODS
The Brachiopoda (Brack-i-oh-poda) is a major fossil group of animals. Though
present day brachiopods are an insignificant group, they have a long fossil
history and at one time they were a dominant and diverse phylum of
invertebrate animals. They are entirely marine animals with bilateral symmetry
and having a soft coiled ciliated feeding and respiratory organ known as
lophophore, which is present within a two-valved shell. Brachiopods occur in
all oceans at depths ranging from the intertidal to 5000 m. Most brachiopods
live on the bottom of the ocean floor, though some burrow. Till date no
brachiopod has been found in the fresh water environment.
13.2.1 What Is Brachiopoda?
Brachiopoda is an independent phylum of invertebrates. The name
Brachiopoda is derived from Latin words brachium meaning arm and poda
meaning foot, which gave its name to the phylum (literally arm-foot).
Brachiopods are commonly known as lamp shells, because these shells have
some resemblance to Roman oil lamps. All brachiopods are sessile (non-
mobile), benthic, solitary marine animals having shells made of two unequal
valves and live on the sea floor usually in clusters. Many of them remain fixed
to the sea floor while others just lie on the sea-bed. They are filter-feeders and
collect their food particles from ocean currents by using the lophophore. They
have been found living in a wide range of marine environments from shallow
marine to deep marine and warm tropical waters to cold Antarctic seas. The
presence of brachiopod fossils in sedimentary rocks indicates ancient marine
conditions.
The brachiopod shells are made up of mineral calcite (CaCO3 - Calcium
Carbonate). They consist of two unequal valves that enclose its soft body’s
tissues such as mantle, lophophore, pedicle and muscles. The two valves vary
in size and morphology and are joined together in two different ways either by
hinge (teeth and sockets) or by muscles (Fig. 13.1). Based on the nature of
joining two valves, the brachiopods were previously grouped into two classes,
namely, Articulata and Inarticulata. In articulate brachiopods, the two valves
are joined by means of teeth and sockets and in inarticulate brachiopods, they
are held together by muscles only. Presently, brachiopods are divided into
three classes: Linguliformea, Craniiformea and Rhynchonelliformea based on
cladistic analyses. However, linguliformeans and craniiformeans represent
inarticulate brachiopods and rhynchonelliformeans refer to articulate
brachiopods (Benton and Harper, 2009; Milsom and Rigby, 2010).
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Fig. 13.1: Shells of brachiopods.

Brachiopods have some superficial similarity to bivalves in that the shell of

both animals is made of two valves. The fundamental difference between
these two groups of animals is in the size and position of the valves. In
brachiopods, the two valves are of unequal size while size of valves is equal in
case of bivalves. Moreover, the valves of brachiopods are ventral and dorsal in
position (Fig. 13.2) while those of bivalves are right and left. We will discuss
bivalves in Unit 14.

Fig. 13.2: Schematic of a living brachiopod showing the position of pedicle and
brachial valves with respect to the soft body parts. The valve that
bears the pedicle opening is always known as ventral and the valve
that contains the support for the lophophore is dorsal.

13.2.2 Systematic Palaeontology

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Brachiopoda
Subphyla Linguliformea
Craniiformea
Rhynchonelliformea
The basic differences between the above mentioned subphyla of brachiopods
are listed in Table 13.1.
Did you know: In palaeontology, the term calcareous is used to represent the
chemical composition of the shells of organisms e.g., molluscs, which are
made up of mainly calcium carbonate. However in geology, the term

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calcareous is applied to a sediment, sedimentary rock, or soil type which
contains a high proportion of calcium carbonate.
Table 13.1: Simplified characteristics of three subphyla of brachiopods.
Phylum Brachiopoda
Subphylum Subphylum Subphylum
Characteristics Linguliformea
Craniiformea Rhynchonelliformea
Organo-
Shell chemistry Calcareous Calcareous
phosphatic
Valves are not Valves are Valves are joined by
joined by teeth not joined by teeth and socket
Valves joining
and socket teeth and joining mechanism
system
joining socket joining
mechanism mechanism
Present Reduced or Present
Pedicle
absent

13.2.3 Morphology
The shell of a brachiopod consists of two-valves which are held together either
by teeth and socket (e.g., rhynchonelliformeans or articulates) or by muscles
(e.g., linguliformeans and craniiformeans or inarticluates). It is important to
note that there are certain basic morphological features, which are common in
all types of brachiopods. Since articulate brachiopods are well-represented in
the fossil records, they are more important from a paleontological point of view
than inarticulates. Also they bear all the hard parts that are seen in
inarticulates, hence, here we will describe the morphology of articulate
brachiopods only.
The two valves of brachiopods are morphologically quite different, especially in
terms of size, shape and orientation. However, in typical brachiopods, each
valve is bilaterally symmetrical and one valve is always larger than the other.
The larger valve is commonly known as pedicle or ventral valve. It contains
an opening known as pedicle opening or foramen at the beak where a fleshy
or muscular stalk called the pedicle emerges and attaches the animal to the
ocean floor or to another animal. The smaller valve is known as brachial or
dorsal valve (Fig. 13.3). It contains the lophophore (a food gathering organ)
along with its supports. Lophophore has two arms called brachia, which give
the name to the valve.
Each valve has a pointed end which is known as beak and it marks the
beginning of shell growth. In brachiopod shells, the shell growth mostly occurs
in the forms of concentric lines, radial ribs or corrugations on the exterior
surface of the valves. The arched part of the valve near the beak is called
umbo and it is more pronounced on the pedicle valve. The beak is considered
the posterior end of the valve whereas the rounded margin located opposite
to the beak is the anterior end as shown in Fig. 13.4.
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(a) (b)

Fig. 13.4: Shells of brachiopods showing external morphology: a) dorsal view;

and b) side view.

Commissure is the line where the two valves meet (Fig. 13.4b). It may be
straight or zig-zag. Brachiopods have muscles that are used to open and close
their valves. They are attached inside the valves and their places of
attachment are marked by smooth, depressed or elevated areas which are
described as muscle scars or markings. In articulate brachiopods, the
opening and closing of the valves are controlled by two sets of muscles,
namely, the diductor and adductor muscle scars. The diductor muscle scars
open the valves while adductor muscle scars close the valves (Fig. 13.5).
There is another set of muscle scars that are present on the pedicle valve
known as adjustor muscle scars. In living conditions, a set of adjustor
muscles are attached here and on the other side they are attached to pedicle
to facilitate the movement of pedicle.

Fig. 13.5: Dorsal view of a brachiopod shell showing internal morphology of

pedicle valve. (Source: simplified after Clarkson, 1979)

In some brachiopods, the pedicle valve has a deep medial depressed area
described as the sulcus that receives a medial elevated portion termed as
fold of the brachial valve. Teeth are knob-like projections that are present on
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the posterior end of the pedicle valve and fit into the small depressions known
as sockets of the brachial valve. The contact point where teeth and sockets of
the two valves rotate to open and close forms the hinge and the portion of the
posterior end where both valves meet is known as hinge line (Fig. 13.5). A
straight hinge line is described as strophic, while a curved one is named as
astrophic.
The flat or curved surface between the beak and hinge line is called the
interarea, which may be present on both the valves. Interarea of pedicle and
brachial valves are commonly known as the pedical interarea and brachial
interarea, respectively. An interarea is more conspicuous on the pedicle
valve. Directly beneath the beak, the interarea of the pedicle valve may be
interrupted by a triangular cavity called delthyrium from which emerges the
pedicle. The corresponding cavity in the brachial valve is known as
notothyrium as shown in Fig. 13.6. The delthyrium may be partly or fully
closed by the two calcareous deltidial plates forming the deltidium and the
corresponding covering of notothyrium is known as chilidium (Moore et al.,
1997).

Fig. 13.6: Posterior view of a brachiopod shell showing external morphology.

In the delthyrium area, the single calcareous plate covering is termed as

deltidial plate and if the same area has more than one plate then it is termed
as deltidium. Single calcareous plate covering of notothyrium is known as
chilidial plate and two or more plates covering is described as chilidium.
The shell of most articulate brachiopods consists of two layers; an outer layer
made of organic compounds periostracum, and mineralised (inorganic) inner
layers referred to as primary and secondary. Brachiopod valves come in a
variety of shapes like convex, concave or flat and some forms show interesting
external ornamentation of costae and plicae. Costae are very fine radial ridges
on the external surface of the valve originating from the beak and plicae are
radial ridges present on external as well as internal surfaces of the valve. In a
few forms, the valves are covered with spines.
Key morphological features of brachiopods: pedicle (ventral) valve,
brachial (dorsal) valve, beak, umbo, commissure, teeth, sockets, hinge line
and interarea.
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SAQ 1
a) What is the function of a lophophore in brachiopods?
b) Name the three subphyla of Brachiopoda.
c) Match the following:
(i) Inarticulate brachiopods (a) Brachiopods with teeth and sockets
(ii) Pedicle valve bears (b) Posterior end where valves meet
(iii) Hinge line (c) Brachiopods without teeth
(iv) Articulate brachiopods (d) Brachiopod valves
(v) Unequal valves with a (e) Pedicle opening
bilateral symmetry
13.2.4 Geological History
Brachiopods have a very long geological history because they first appeared
near the beginning of the Cambrian period and some of the forms are still alive
today on the floor of the modern oceans (Fig. 13.7). Most of the Cambrian
brachiopods were considered to be inarticulates, but few forms of primitive
articulate brachiopods are also known from Cambrian. They diversified in the
Ordovician and reached the peak of their diversity during the Ordovician,
Silurian and Devonian. Cambrian faunas were dominated by the inarticulate
and Ordovician by articulate brachiopods. They remained a dominant
community in the marine ecosystem throughout the Palaeozoic era. At the end
of Palaeozoic, many brachiopod families became extinct, and only a very few
of them made the transition to the post-Palaeozoic (i.e. Mesozoic and
Cenozoic) time. Only a few orders of brachiopods such as Lingulida, Discinida,
Craniida, Rhynchonellida, Thecideida and Terebratulida have living
representatives today. Because of their great diversity, they have been used
as index fossils for dating the Palaeozoic rocks. The geological range of some
of the orders of brachiopods is given in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2: Geological range of some orders of brachiopods.
Subphylum Order Geological range Important genera
Lingulida Cambrian to Lingula, Obolus,
Linguliformea
Recent Pseudolingula
Craniida Ordovician to Crania, Neocrania
Craniiformea
Recent
Obolellida Cambrian Obolella,
Trematobolus
Strophomenida Ordovician to Billingsella,
Rhynchonelliformea
Triassic Eoplectodonta
Productida Ordovician to Productus,
Triassic Gigantoproductus
Orthida Cambrian to Orthis, Dalmanella
Permian
Pentamerida Cambrian to Pentamerus,
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Devonian Stricklandia
Rhynchonellida Ordovician to Rhynchonella,
Recent Wilsonia
Spiriferida Ordovician to Spirifer, Mucrospirifer
Permian
Spiriferinida Carboniferous to Spiriferina,
Jurassic Punctospirifer
Terebeatulida Devonian to Terebratella,
Recent Magellania

Fig. 13.7: Stratigraphic distribution of brachiopods. Width of column represents

the abundance or diversity of brachiopods in a particular period/era.
The brachiopods faced five major events of extinction which were followed by
events of recoveries and diversifications. These events are end-Ordovician,
late Devonian, end-Permian, end-Triassic and end-Cretaceous mass
extinctions. Out of these, three events, namely, end-Ordovician, end-Permian
and end-Cretaceous were very severe events which caused about 80%, more
than 90% and around 70%, extinction among brachiopods at family and
species levels, respectively. As a result of such extinction events, out of 4500
fossil genera of brachiopods, only 120 are living today while all others are
extinct.
Story of Lingula – As a Living Fossil
Lingula is the best known representative of linguliformean (inarticulate)
brachiopods and belongs to the class Lingulata. It first appeared in the
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Cambrian and is still persisting today. Thus Lingula has a long geological
history, ranging from Cambrian to Recent (i.e., more than 550 million years)
and its body shows morphological stability, meaning no significant changes
took place in the biology of Lingula during its entire span of life history. Since
Lingula has survived today without any significant morphological changes from
the early Palaeozoic, it is often considered as one of the classic examples of
living fossils. It is important to note that Lingula has escaped every major
extinction event throughout history.

SAQ 2
a) What is the geological range of brachiopods?
b) Which of the following brachiopods appeared first in the fossil record?
i) Inarticulate brachiopods ii) Articulate brachiopods
c) Which of the following era is also known as age of brachiopods?
(i) Mesozoic (ii) Palaeozoic (iii) Cenozoic
d) Lingula belongs to the order:
(i) Lingulida (ii) Rhynchonellida (iii) Spiriferida

13.3 CORALS
Corals are cnidarians (Ni-da´-ri-ans). Apart from corals, phylum Cnidaria also
includes anemones, jellyfish, sea fans, sea pens and their close relatives.
Most cnidarians live in the seas, but a few thrive in the fresh water
environment. Cnidarians are characterised by their cylindrical body, radial
symmetry and carnivorous nature. They have two basic life forms, namely,
polyp and medusa (Fig. 13.8). Polyps are usually sessile animals, which have
a tube-shaped body with an opening at the top that functions both as a mouth
and anus. This opening is surrounded by a number of tentacles. Typical
examples of polyps are corals and sea anemones. While medusae (singular
medusa) are free-swimming sea inhabitants and their body has an inverted
orientation relative to that of polyps. The mouth of a medusa is located
downward. The jellyfish is a common example of medusa. Since the tentacles
of cnidarians have poisonous stinging cells, they are also known as “nettle-
bearers” (Benton and Harper, 2009).

Fig. 13.8: Life cycle of cnidarians showing polyp and medusa forms. Note that
polyp is attached to the bottom/substratum and has its mouth upward.
Medusa is a floating form of cnidarians having its mouth downward.
(Source: simplified after Clarkson, 1979; Benton and Harper, 2009)
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13.3.1 What are Corals?
Corals are flower-like simple sea animals (Fig. 13.9a). They are composed of
tiny, fragile animals known as coral polyps. They have no medusa forms.
Corals occur mostly in the form of colonies (groups of thousands of coral
polyps) (Fig. 13.9b), and very few corals are solitary (Fig. 13.9c). The size of
an individual coral ranges from tiny up to 30 cm in diameter. Coral polyps are
nocturnal; as a consequence, they remain inside their skeletons during the
day. At night, polyps extend their tentacles to feed by capturing and eating
planktons. Some coral polyps, for example, polyps of scleractinian corals have
established a symbiotic relationship with an important group of photosynthetic
algae known as zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae give brilliant colour to the
corals and keep them healthy by providing them nutrition and removing their
waste.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 13.9: Corals: a) Living; b) Colonial; and c) Solitary corals. (Courtesy: Prof.
G.V.R. Prasad for b and c)

Corals are classified into two types: hard corals and soft corals.
i) Hard Corals: They have a hard exo-skeleton made of calcium carbonate
(limestone). Hard coral polyps extract calcium from the sea water and use it
to create a hardened structure for protection and growth. They are also
known as the stony and reef building corals.
ii) Soft Corals: They have no exo-skeleton; hence they are more tree-like and
flexible. The skeleton of soft coral is located within their bodies and is less
rigid than the skeleton of hard corals.
To survive and grow, corals require shallow, clean, mud/sediment free water
where sunlight can reach. They thrive in water having 5 to 10 m depth,
however, some corals can grow poorly at depths of 90 m. Hard corals grow
best in warm water (tropical oceans) having temperature in the range of 21 -
29°C whereas soft corals thrive mainly in cold, high-latitude waters (Garrison,
2009). Corals prefer salt water to survive, so this is the reason that they do not
thrive in areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean.
13.3.2 Systematic Palaeontology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Cnidaria
Class Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones)
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Corals belong to the class Anthozoa. Anthozoans include two groups of corals
as discussed above, namely, soft corals and hard corals. Soft corals (subclass
Octocorallia), have a poor fossil record because of their soft skeleton, but they
are well known in modern oceans and are represented by the sea pens and
sea fans. Hard corals (subclass Zoantharia) have left a good fossil record due
to the easy preservation of their skeletons. Hence, palaeontologists are more
concerned with the hard corals. Zoantharians comprise three orders: Rugosa,
Tabulata and Scleractinia. Of these, rugose and tabulate corals are extinct and
all modern corals are scleractinian corals.
13.3.3 Morphology
Coral skeletons are calcareous, which can be made either by calcite or
aragonite (both are mineral forms of calcium carbonate – CaCo3). As you
know polyp is an individual coral animal and it has a soft body that secretes a
cup-shaped skeleton in which the animal sits. The whole skeleton of a simple
coral is known as the corallum (Fig. 13.10). In case of the colonial corals, the
skeleton of each individual coral of the colony is described as a corallite. The
skeleton of a simple coral is more or less conical or horn-like in shape. The
shape of the colonial corals tends to be dome-like. The bowl-shaped
depression at the distal end of the corallum which contains soft parts of the
animal is termed as calyx (plural calices). The outermost calcareous wall of
the skeleton which forms the boundary of corallum and sometimes shows
growth rings is called epitheca (Fig. 13.10).

Fig. 13.10: Line drawings of corals showing morphological features. (source:

redrawn after Nield and Tucker, 1985; Milsom and Rigby, 2010)

A number of vertical and horizontal structures are developed within the

corallum to support the growth of the polyp. The vertical structures/plates
radiating from the centre of the cavity within the corallum are termed as septa
(singular septum). Thin plates joining the adjacent septa are the
dissepiments. The septa may vary in size. As the polyp grows more septa
are required to adjust the growth of the skeleton. The first formed septa known
as prosepta (primary septa), which are longer and thicker than the secondary
septa, metasepta intercalated between them (Fig. 13.11). Sometimes, the
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septa appear outside the corallum as ridge-like structures called costae. The
horizontal structures/plates are known as tabulae (singular tabula).

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.11: Line drawing showing coral morphology: a) coral skeleton; b)
enlarged view of calyx (a) showing prosepta and metasepta.
Fossula is a pit/depression at the surface of the calyx which forms due to the
stoppage of growth of septa. Columella is a vertical rod which occupies the
central region of the coral and extends from the base of the coral’s chamber at
the bottom of the calyx (Fig. 13.10). A solid structure of columella with knob or
pointed end at the calyx is said to be styliform.
Key morphological features of corals: corallum, corallite, calyx, epitheca,
septa, dissepiments, prosepta, metsepta, costae, tabula, fossula, columella
and styliform.
Some corals do not form colonies and remain simple or single throughout life.
While other corals which are simple in their young stage form communities
during the later stage by giving off buds. Such corals are called reef building
corals. The budding process involves a loss of individuality and transforms a
simple coral polyp into a compound individual, which gives rise to a mass of
polyps known as a colony. Therefore, it is not necessarily true that all corals
possess all above described morphological characters. Now let us familiarise
ourselves with the three groups (orders) of the hard corals in brief.
i) Tabulate Corals (Order Tabulata): They are colonial corals and their
skeletons are made of calcite. They have very well developed tabulae and
weakly developed septa (Fig. 13.12a).
ii) Rugose Corals (Order Rugosa): They are solitary and colonial corals and
their skeletons are made of calcite. They have well-developed septa and
possess coarse ridges on the outer wall of corallum known as rugae. The
rugae are the rough ridges or wrinkles (rugae) present on the outer surface
of the rugose coral Tabulae and dissepiments are common elements of
rugose corals (Fig. 13.12b).
iii) Scleractinian Corals (Order Scleractinia): They are solitary and colonial
corals. They have light and porous skeletons made of aragonite. They
differ from the rugose corals by their patterns of septal insertion. The
septal insertion in the scleractinian corals are arranged in sets or multiples
of six and in sets of four in case of rugose corals (Fig. 13.12c).
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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 13.12: Groups of corals: a) Tabulate; b) Rugose; and c) Scleractinian corals.

13.3.4 Geological History

In the preceding sections of the unit, you have learnt about the general
morphology of a coral and about the three orders of hard corals. In this
section, we will discuss the geological history of hard corals (Fig. 13.13).

Fig. 13.13: Stratigraphic distribution of three orders of corals. Inferred

evolutionary relationships are shown by thin dotted lines. Each group
of corals evolved separately possibly from a soft-bodied ancestor.
Thickness of the columns shows the abundance of the particular
order of corals in a specific period (source: redrawn and modified
after Milsom and Rigby, 2010; Jones, 2011). Width of column
represents the abundance of corals in a particular period/era.
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As you know, corals belong to phylum Cnidaria. Cnidarians first appeared in
the Precambrian and there are some doubtful tabulate corals which are known
from the Cambrian period. We mentioned earlier that rugose, tabulate and
scleractinian are the important fossil coral groups because they have long and
well-preserved fossil record. Rugose and tabulate corals evolved in the
Ordovician period from soft-bodied anemone ancestors. They are also known
as corals of Palaeozoic era. They appeared in the Late Ordovician period,
diversified in the Silurian, Devonian and declined in the Late Devonian and
Carboniferous, and finally became extinct at the end of the Permian period
(Fig. 13.13). Scleractinian corals evolved in the middle Triassic from soft-
bodied ancestors. They first appeared in the Triassic period and diversified
throughout the Mesozoic. However, some representatives or genera of
scleractinians became extinct at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, but others
radiated rapidly after the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary mass extinction at
around 66 Ma ago (Fig. 13.13). They are also known as modern reef
building corals and corals of Meso-Cenozoic era.

SAQ 3
a) Corals belong to class ………………… .
b) Is medusa present in the corals? Yes or No.
c) Corals are ……………….. (Sea animals or Sea plants ).
d) Which group of corals form coral reefs? (a) Octocorallia, (b)
Zoantharia.
e) Match the following:
(i) Calyx (a) Rugose and tabulate corals
(ii) Corallum (b) Outer wall of coral’s skeleton
(iii) Epitheca (c) Skeleton of a simple coral
(iv) Septa (d) Horizontal plates present in the body of corals.
(v) Tabulae (e) Scleractinian corals
(vi) Columella (f) Bowl-shaped depression at the top of corallum
(vii) Palaeozoic (g) Vertical plates radiating from the centre of the
corals cavity within the corallum
(viii) Meso-Cenozoic (h) Vertical rod occupies the central portion coral
of corals

13.4 CORAL AND EARTH’S ROTATION

You have already learnt about epitheca is the outer wall of the corallite or
corallum. In some corals, epitheca shows the development of growth rings or
incremental lines. These rings or lines are similar to the tree rings. Let us
discuss how corals develop the growth rings in their skeleton. The corals grow
by extracting calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from the sea waters and using it to
make their skeletons. The density of the coral skeleton varies according to
their diurnal, monthly or yearly response to the lunar orbit and environmental
conditions, for example, light, weather and temperature. Coral skeletons
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formed in different conditions have different densities. This creates growth
rings on the coral which may reflect daily, monthly or yearly growth
increments.
The growth rings are clearly visible in the well-preserved specimens of corals.
Commonly, a fossil coral displays three types of growth bandings: fine, thick
and widely spaced that reflect daily, monthly and yearly growth cycles,
respectively.
Scientists have been studying these rings present in fossil corals to know
whether there was any relationship between the development of growth rings
in corals and change in the rotation of the Earth. An interesting study to
understand this relationship was carried out by John Wells of Cornell
University, USA in 1963. Wells worked on Devonian (416 – 359 Myr ago)
corals, which had been dated as 370 Myr old using radiometric methods. He
calculated the yearly growth bands on a variety of Devonian corals and found
that Devonian corals had an average 400 daily growth bands per year. On the
basis of these observations, he further suggests that the Devonian year had
about 400 days, which means that each day was 21.9 hours long. Another
study of corals indicates 390 days per year in the Carboniferous (359 – 229
Myr ago) as compared with approximately 360 days per year in present times.
Therefore, based on the coral’s growth band study (also known as a coral
clock), it has been concluded that the Earth’s rate of rotation is decreasing
slowly from ancient times due to the gravitation pull of the moon as suggested
by astronomical estimates. Hence, coral-clock provides a consistent support to
the idea of a decrease in the Earth’s rate of rotation which is forwarded based
on astronomical and radiometric methods.

13.4 ACTIVITY
Below is a posterior view of a brachiopod shell (Fig. 9.14). Label the
following morphological features: pedicle (ventral) valve, brachial
(dorsal) valve, beak, umbo, hinge line and ribs.

Fig. 9.14: Posterior view of a brachiopod shell.

13.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that:
 Brachiopods and corals are marine invertebrates.
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 Pedicle or ventral valve, brachial or dorsal valve, beak, umbo, commissure,
teeth, sockets, hinge line and interarea are the morphological features of
brachiopod shell.
 Brachiopods are also classified into three groups: Linguliformea,
Craniiformea and Rhynchonelliformea. They first appeared in Cambrian and
a very few groups are living today. They were more dominant during the
Palaeozoic and had experienced five major extinction events.
 Corallum, corallite, calyx, epitheca, septa, dissepiments, prosepta,
metsepta, costae, tabula, fossula, columella and styliform are major
morphological features of coral skeleton.
 Corals are divided into three groups, namely, Rugosa, Tabulata and
Scleractinia. Rugose and tabulate corals were dominant during the
Palaeozoic where as scleractinian corals were dominant in Mesozoic and
are still living.

13.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the morphology and geological history of brachiopods.
2. Define corals and describe the morphology of coral skeleton.
3. What is stratigraphic range of corals?
13.7 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and
the Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Clarkson, E.N.K. (1979) Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution,
Blackwell Science Ltd., USA.
 Garrison, T. (2009) Essentials of Oceanography, Brooks/Cole, Cengage
Learning, Canada.
 Jones, R.W. (2011) Applications of Palaeontology, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
 Milsom, C. and Rigby, S. (2010) Fossils at a Glance, Wiley-Blackwell, West
Sussex.
 Moore, R.C., Lalicker, C.G. and Fischer, A. G. (1997) Invertebrate Fossils,
CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Nield, E.W. and Tucker, V.C.T. (1985) Palaeontology – An Introduction,
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
 Stearn, C.W. and Carroll, R.L. (1989) Paleontology: The Record of Life,
John Wiley and Sons, New York.

13.8 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ray, A. K. (2008) Fossils in Earth Sciences, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi.
 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.
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13.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Lophophore is soft bodied internal food gathering organ of brachiopods
located inside the smaller (brachial) valve of brachiopods. They use it to
pump sea water and sieve small food particle from the water.
b) Linguliformea, Craniiformea and Rhynchonelliformea.
c) (i) – (c), (ii) - (e), (iii) - (b), (iv) - (a) and (v) - (d).
2 a) Cambrian to Recent (Present or Holocene)
b) (i) Inarticulate brachiopods
c) (ii) Palaeozoic
d) (i) Lingulida
3 a) Anthozoa
b) No
c) Sea animal
d) (b) Zoantharia
e) (i) - (f), (ii) - (c), (iii) - (b), (iv) - (g), (v) - (d), (vi) - (h), (vii) - (a)
and (viii) - (e).
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 13.2.
2. Refer to subsection 13.3.1 and 13.3.3.
3. Refer to subsection 13.3.4.

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 UNIT 14

MOLLUSCS – BIVALVES AND

GASTROPODS

Structure___________________________________________________
14.1 Introduction 14.4 Gastropods
Expected Learning Outcomes What is Gastropoda?

14.2 Molluscs Systematic Palaeonotology

Basic of Molluscan Geological History

Classification 14.5 Activity

14.3 Bivalves 14.6 Summary
What is Bivalvia? 14.7 Terminal Questions
Systematic Palaeontology 14.8 References
Morphology 14.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Geological History 14.10 Answers
Differences between Bivalves and Brachiopods

14.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 13, you have read about the systematics, morphology and historical distribution of
brachiopods and corals. Both are marine animals. Unfortunately, during the course of geological
time many forms belonging to these two groups got extinct and, as a consequence, very few of
them are surviving in today’s oceans.
Now we shall deal with the second largest phylum of invertebrate animals – Mollusca. Majority of
molluscs are marine animals, but a few of them live in freshwater or are on land. Molluscs canbe
divided into four important groups- bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods and chitons. In this unit, we
will discuss the basic organisation and classification of molluscs. In addition, we will describe the
systematics, morphology and geological history of bivalves and gastropods in detail.
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Expected Learning Outcomes______________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define and classify molluscs;
 outline the organisation and life history of major groups of bivalves and
gastropods;
 describe the shell morphology of bivalves and gastropods; and
 discuss the geological history of bivalves and gastropods.

14.2 MOLLUSCS
The Mollusca, widely known as mollusks, is the second most diverse and
abundant invertebrate phylum after the Arthropoda. Phylum Mollusca contains
more than 130,000 living and about 35,000 extinct species that are found as
fossils. It includes a wide range of familiar animals such as the oysters, clams
and mussels (Bivalvia); snails, slugs, whelks and limpets (Gastropoda);
nautiluses, octopuses and cuttlefish (Cephalopoda); chitons (Amphineura) and
tooth shells (Scaphopoda).
Molluscs, in general, are unsegmented, soft-bodied animals. The soft body of
a typical mollusc is enclosed by an external skeleton secreted by the animal.
This external skeleton or shell is known as an exo-skeleton. Shell, which is
usually composed of calcium carbonate, provides protection from predators as
well as support to the animal. Molluscs are mostly marine, but some groups
have successfully occupied the fresh water and land habitats. They vary
greatly in size: while some are the size of sand grains, a very few forms like
squids attain a length of more than16 m. It is interesting to note that molluscs
include planktic (floaters), nektic (swimmers) and sessile benthic (bottom
dwellers) forms.
Do You Know?
Living molluscs are an important source of food for humans. Some molluscs,
especially oysters are cultured to manufacture pearls and their shells are used
as ornaments.

14.2.1 Basic Morphology of Molluscs

Molluscs have a remarkable diversity in their body forms and mode of life.
Therefore, it could not be possible to explain the basic anatomy of molluscs by
choosing any single form. As a result, palaeonologists have developed a
hypothetical mollusc of the simplest body plan, which is considered as the
probable common ancestor of all molluscs (Fig. 14.1).
If you remove the hard external shell (i.e., exo-skeleton) of a mollusc, then you
will find that a mollusc is a soft, elongated and unsegmented animal having a
head, a muscular foot, mantle, gill structures and visceral mass. The head
comprises sensory organs and mouth. It is situated on the anterior side of the
shell. Foot is a flat sole-like structure which serves as the primary mechanism
for locomotion. Mantle covers the dorsal and lateral parts of the animal and
has a sheet of tissue that secretes the shell. The animal uses gills for

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respiration that are placed posteriorly. The visceral mass comprises internal
organs for digestion, excretion and circulation.

Fig. 14.1: Generalised soft-part morphology of a mollusk. (Source: simplified after

Milsom and Rigby, 2010)

The shell is the main hard part of molluscs which is calcareous (CaCO3) in
nature. The evolutionary development of molluscs shows that some forms like
octopus and squid lost their shell with the passage of time. In other forms, the
hard shell remained a major part of the animals, for example, in gastropods,
bivalves and ammonoids.
14.2.2 Classification
Phylum Mollusca is divided into five classes, based on the differences in
general shell forms and their characteristics, mode of life, nature of foot and
certain other soft parts. Here it is significant to note that the nature of shell is
considered an important feature in the molluscan classification. The division of
classes with characteristic features and age are given in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1: Classification of molluscs. (Source: simplified after Clarkson,
2007; Benton and Harper, 2009)

Classes Characteristic features

Bivaliva Two-valved nature of the shell, valves joined along the
dorsal hinge line with teeth, sockets and ligament, no
head, well-developed foot and gills are modified for
respiration and filter feeding.
Examples – oysters, mussels and clams.
Age – Early Cambrian to Recent.
Gastropoda Large muscular foot on the ventral side, single valve (i.e.,
univalve), coiled shell, head is well-developed with eyes
and other sense organs.
Examples – snails, slugs, whelks and limpets.
Age – Late Cambrian to Recent.
Cephalopoda Advanced intelligent molluscs having well-developed head
and sensory organs.
Examples – nautiluses, octopuses and cuttlefish.
Age – Late Cambrian to Recent.

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Amphineura Shell segmented with eight plates, broad and flat foot and
a series of gill pairs.
Example – chitons.
Age – Late Cambrian to Recent.
Scaphopoda Shell is long and cylindrical opening at both ends.
Example – tooth shell.
Age – Devonian to Recent.

Out of all the molluscs, the bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods are
significant for geological studies as they are more likely to get preserved as
fossils because of the hard nature of their shells. In this unit, we will be
discussing the bivalves and gastropods and we will discuss cephalopods in
the next unit.

14.3 BIVALVES
Many of you, especially those living near the sea shores are familiar with
bivalves because they are the common sea shells that are found on the beach
sands. Bivalves form an important and interesting group of molluscs for a
number of reasons. Some of which are listed below:
 bivalves represent a wide range of adaptation that is from marine to
freshwater and from infaunal burrowers, epifaunal to active swimmers
 they produce valuable by-products such as pearls, which are secreted by
the mantle
 living bivalves are an important source of food, and
 wood-boring bivalves damage boats, docks and other wooden structures.
14.3.1 What Is Bivalvia?
Bivalvia is the second largest class of molluscs, which includes cockles,
mussels, oysters, clams, shipworms and scallops. Bivalves consist of a twin-
valved shell (i.e., shell made up of two almost similar valves) that gives them a
superficial resemblance to brachiopods, but varies in shell morphology and
symmetry. In many bivalves, the valves are virtually mirror images of each
other, but a very few forms like oysters and rudist bivalves have one valve
larger than the other. Bivalves have also been described as ‘pelecypods’ and
‘lamellibranchs’. However, the term Bivalvia was the first name given to the
bivalves and is, therefore, the valid name.
The name Bivalvia was given by Linnaeus in 1758. It is the original name of
the Class and is used to describe those animals having shells consisting of
two hinged valves, e.g., bivalves. The class Bivalvia has also been referred to
by other names such as Pelecypoda and Lamellibranchia. The term
Pelecypoda is derived from two Greek words, Pelekys meaning a hatchet and
Podos meaning foot, which signifies a hatchet foot. The name Lamellibranchia
is derived from Latin words Lamella meaning a small leaf and Branchia
meaning gills, which signifies the leaf-like form of the gills. Pelecypoda and
Lamellibranchia are now considered as out dated class names.

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The bivalves are bilaterally symmetrical molluscs in both soft and hard parts,
in which the mantle envelops the gills, foot and visceral mass. In addition, the
mantle also secretes a calcareous shell which consists of two lateral valves,
which are united dorsally. They vary in size from less than 1 mm to 1 m in
length, but the majority of them are not more than 10 cm in length.
14.3.2 Systematic Palaeonotology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Bivalvia
Subclass Palaeotaxodonta
Cryptodonta
Pteriomorphia
Palaeoheterodonta
Heterodonta
Anomalodesmata
The class Bivalvia is classified into six subclasses based on certain
characteristic features, e.g., dentition, shell microstructure, hinge structure,
anatomy of stomach and type of gill.
Common genera of bivalves: Pecten, Ostrea, Gryphaea, Inoceramus,
Trigonia, Cardita, Pinna, Mytilus, Arca, Nucula and Alectryonia.
14.3.3 Morphology
The soft parts such as the mantle, gills and foot of bivalves are covered by a
hard exo-skeleton, which is made up of two valves. In most cases, the valves
are equal in size, asymmetrical in outline and essentially mirror images of
each other. The valves are secreted by the mantle and are made up mostly of
calcite (CaCO3), but in few cases valves with aragonite composition are also
known.
In bivalves, the two valves are named as right and left valves (Fig. 14.2),
because they are located to the right and left sides of the animal. Each valve
has a nose-like pointed apex, which marks the region of initial growth of the
shell that is known as beak. Beak usually curves toward the anterior (i.e.,
front) end of valves. Umbo (plural umbones) is the region of maximum
curvature of each valve close to the beak and situated on the dorsal margin of
the shell (Fig. 14.2). In most of the bivalves, the two valves are joined together
along their dorsal margin by means of elastic ligaments and by an interlocking
mechanism of teeth and sockets. The valves open at their ventral margin.
Orientation of the bivalve shell:
If you place the beaks of the shell uppermost in your front, the valve appears
on the right side is right valve and that on the left is left valve. The margin
closest to the beak is anterior of the shell and opposite margin is posterior.

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The margin of the shell near the hinge is dorsal and the opposite margin is
ventral (Fig. 14.2).

Fig. 14.2: Dorsal view of the shell showing external morphology of a bivalve.

If you see the internal surface of the valves, you can find the following
features: muscle scars, pallial line, pallial sinus, teeth and sockets. Muscle
scars are one of the important features of bivalve morphology. Indeed, these
are the impressions or attachment sites left by the soft (fleshy) adductor
muscles and commonly referred to as adductor impressions or adductor
scars. Many bivalves have two adductor scars; one on the posterior margin,
known as posterior adductor scar and the other on the anterior margin
described as anterior adductor scar (Fig. 14.3). Based on the nature of
adductor scar, bivalves are described as the following forms:
a) Dimyarian: two adductor scars (both anterior and posterior) are present.
b) Isomayarian: in this case, both scars are equal in size.
c) Anisomyarian: in these forms, the posterior scar is larger than the anterior
adductor scar.
d) Monomyarian: includes those forms that are having one muscle scar only.
In dimyarian forms, two (anterior and posterior) adductor scars are connected
to each other by a linear depression that runs more or less parallel to the
ventral margin of the valve. This linear depression is known as pallial line
(Fig. 14.3). In some cases, the pallial line exhibits an indentation or a fold near
the posterior adductor scar, which is termed as pallial sinus.
It is interesting to note that muscles play a significant role in closing and
opening of valves. When adductor muscles, located anteriorly and posteriorly,
contract only then valves close and when these muscles relax, the ligament
expands and valves open ventrally.

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Fig. 14.3: Left valve of a bivalve showing internal (interior) morphology of a

bivalve.
We have described earlier in this section that the two valves are joined
dorsally by teeth and sockets. The portion of dorsal margin of valves, where
teeth and sockets occur is known as hinge line or cardinal margin. The area
lying between the hinge line and the umbo of each valve is called hinge area.
In some cases, the hinge area is divided into a lunule and an escutcheon (Fig.
14.2). Lunule is a heart-shaped area that occurs in front of the beak and
escutcheon is an elongated depression present posterior to the beak. The
hinge line may be straight or curved and bears teeth and sockets. Both valves
bear teeth and sockets alternatively and teeth of one valve fit into the
corresponding socket of the opposite valve. This mechanism prevents the
lateral motion of valves and keeps them tightly closed making it harder for a
predator to open the shell by twisting the valves. Teeth and sockets are
present in the beak region of the valves. The teeth present below the beak are
termed as cardinal teeth and those that occur in front or towards the posterior
side of the cardinal teeth are the lateral teeth (Fig. 14.3).
In bivalves, the term dentition is used to describe the arrangement of teeth,
sockets and other closely related features. There are three types of dentitions
present in bivalves: taxodont, schizodont and heterodont (Fig. 14.4).
a) Taxodont: it is a primitive type of dentition, where teeth are numerous,
more or less equal in size and arranged in a subparallel pattern (Fig.
14.4a).
b) Schizodont: it includes two or three thick teeth with prominent grooves
(Fig. 14.4b).
c) Heterodont: it comprises both cardinal and lateral teeth (Fig. 14.4c),
which are not uniform and less in number.
The bivalve shells lacking dentitions are termed as edentulous shells.
Turning to the outside surface of the valves, you can see that in some cases it
is smooth while in others it is ornamented with fine growth lines. The growth
lines are concentric about the umbones and show the earlier positions of the
edge of a valve. The outer surfaces may also be ornamented with other
surface features such as radial ribs, concentric ridges and spines.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 14.4: Internal view of valves of bivalves showing different types of dentition:
a) Taxodont; b) Schizodont; and c) Heterodont.
Key morphological features of bivalves: right valve, left valve, umbo, beak,
adductor scars, pallial line, pallial sinus, teeth, sockets, hinge line, lunule,
escutcheon, cardinal teeth, lateral teeth and growth lines.
14.3.4 Geological History
Like brachiopods, bivalves also have a very long geologic history. The earliest
bivalves are known from the early Cambrian, but they became diverse during
the Ordovician. Unfortunately, till date no bivalves have been reported from
the middle and late Cambrian times. Several groups of bivalves arose during
their Ordovician expansion. Such groups had taxodont and heterodont hinges
and a wide range of feeding habits such as palp feeding, shallow burrowing,
epifaunal and infaunal feedings. After the Ordovician expansion, bivalve
diversity stabilised, but they did not emerge as a diverse group during the
Palaeozoic (Fig. 14.5). The non-marine bivalves first arose in the Devonian
and became abundant in the Carboniferous.

Fig.14.5: Stratigraphic distribution of bivalves. (Source: simplified after Jones,

2011). Width of column represents the abundance of bivalves in a
particular period/era.
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Bivalves underwent a second great radiation during the early Mesozoic. Many
new groups appeared during this radiation, several of which successfully
adapted to the infaunal mode of life. Epifaunal bivalves also diversified in the
Mesozoic. One group of bivalves, namely, rudists originated in late Jurassic
and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. Except rudists, most other
bivalves crossed the late Cretaceous mass extinction event and survive till
date (Fig. 14.5).
14.3.5 Differences Between Bivalves and Brachiopods
As you know the shells of bivalves and brachiopods comprise two valves. For
this reason, bivalves are often confused with brachiopods. For correct
identification of these invertebrates, it is pertinent to know the differences
between them. The major differences between them are given in Table 14.2.
Table 14.2: Main differences between bivalves and brachiopods.

Characters Bivalves Brachiopods (articulate)

Shell shape Two valves are equal in size Two valves are not equal in
(i.e. equivalved). size (i.e., inequivalved).
Valves Valves are left and right in Valves are named as pedicle
position where each valve is and brachial that are ventral
a mirror image of the other and dorsal in position,
respectively. Pedicle valve is
bigger than the brachial
valve.
Shell Calcite or aragonite Calcite
composition
Shell Bilaterally symmetrical with a Bilaterally symmetrical with
symmetry plane of symmetry between plane of symmetry along mid-
valves (Fig. 14.6a). line of each valve (Fig.
14.6b).

Fig.14.6a: Shell of a bivalve

showing plane of symmetry Fig. 14.6b: Pedicle valve of a
in dorsal view. brachiopod shell showing the
plane of symmetry in internal
view.
Dentition Teeth and sockets usually Teeth occur on pedicle valve
present in each valve. and sockets on brachial
valve. Inarticulate
brachiopods lack teeth and
sockets
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Hinge Ligament, teeth and socket Teeth fit into sockets in the
mechanism interlock the valves opposite valve. Ligament is
absent.
Pedicle Absent Present
opening

SAQ 1
a) What is the characteristic feature of a bivalve?
b) What is the primary function of ligament, teeth and sockets in
bivalves? In which margin of the shell they occur.
c) Differentiate between beak and umbo?
d) Give the geological age range of Bivalvia.
14.4 GASTROPODS
Gastropods are the largest, most diverse and successful class of the phylum
Mollusca. The class, Gastropoda (gas-tro-pod-a), comprises more than 50,000
known species, of which about 35,000 are living (extant) and around 15,000
extinct. It includes animals having a single valved (commonly known as
univalved) shell like snails, limpets. However, in some cases, it also includes
forms which have no hard shell like slugs. Gastropods first appeared in the
early Cambrian and presently, they are distributed widely across the globe.
Originally, they were marine animals, later they successfully occupied the land
and fresh water environments. Nevertheless, the majority of gastropods
remained marine and a very few groups adapted to freshwater and land
conditions. During the course of their evolution, they have developed a wide
range of locomotion modes such as creeping, floating and swimming and a
remarkable range of feeding styles like grazing, predatory and parasitic.
14.4.1 What is Gastropoda?
As stated above, the gastropods (Class Gastropoda) represent one of the
main groups of molluscs. A very common example of living gastropods, which
you might have seen during the rainy season, is the garden snail. Besides
garden snails, the other members of this class include slugs, limpets,
periwinkles, coweries, nudibranchs and many others. It is interesting to note
that all forms of gastropods do not possess hard shells. However, a majority of
living gastropods (e.g., snails) and those preserved as fossils have single
piece coiled hard shells. Some other forms like slugs have lost their shell and
hence are not found as fossils. The average size of shells of gastropods is
around 25 mm in length or diameter, but size of fully grown adults, ranges
from 0.5 mm to around 60 cm (Moore and others, 1997).
Let us have a brief view of the soft parts of gastropods. The body of a
gastropod is easily divisible into three parts: head, visceral mass, foot and
mantle (Fig. 14.7). Head is a well-developed soft part of the gastropods and it
bears a mouth, eyes and a pair of sensory tentacles. Visceral mass includes
organs of the digestive tract. Foot is a muscular part of the body, which is
used for slow creeping locomotion by the animal. In some cases, it can be

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modified in the swimming forms and becomes a useful tool in swimming.
Mantle lies over the visceral mass and secretes the shell. Many gastropods
are characterised by a process known as torsion, in which the visceral mass
and mantle of the animal lie over its head (Fig. 14.7).

Fig. 14.7: Schematic diagram of a living gastropod showing the soft parts.
(Source: simplified after Clarkson, 1998; Jackson, 2010)

14.4.2 Systematic Palaeonotology

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Gastropoda
Subclass Prosobranchiata
Opisthobranchiata
Pulmonata

Prosobranhiata: It includes primitive and marine forms of gastropods.

They have a well-developed shell.
Examples – limpets, whelks and winkles.
Age range: Early Cambrian – Present.

Opisthobranchiata: It includes marine forms which have reduced or no

shell. This group consists of sea slugs and sea
hares.
Age range: Cambrian – Present.

Pulmonata: It consists of freshwater and terrestrial gastropods.

This is the only group of molluscs that have made a
successful transition from water to land. Many forms
of this subclass have retained their shells except
land slugs.

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Examples – land snails and slugs
Age range: Mesozoic to Present.

Common genera of Planorbis, Natica, Turritella, Murex, Physa,

gastropods: Viviparus, Platyceras, Trochus, Nerita and Conus.

14.4.3 Morphology
The body of most of the gastropods is made up of a shell, which is secreted by
the mantle. The shell consists of a single valve and hence, it is commonly
named as univalve. Chemically, it is made up of aragonite – a mineral of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). In many gastropods, the shell is in the form of a
spirally-coiled, screw-like long tube, which has an opening at one end and a
tapering point at the other end. Each coil of the shell is known as whorl and
the line between two neighbouring whorls is described as a suture (Fig. 14.8).
The flattened part of each whorl, below the suture is termed as shoulder. The
largest whorl of the shell is known as body whorl (Fig. 14.8). The body whorl
ends in an opening, termed as the aperture that marks the region through
which head and foot emerge (Fig. 14.8). The body whorl is the last fully
developed whorl and marks the basal position of the shell. Combining all
whorls, (except the body whorl) together constitutes the spire (Fig. 14.8). The
pointed top end of the spire is known as the apex of the shell (Fig. 14.8). It is
important to note that shells of many gastropods do not have tapering and
pointed apex, but a flattened apex. The apex forms the posterior margin and
aperture marks the anterior margin of the shell.

Fig. 14.8: Shell of a gastropod showing main morphological features. (Source:

simplified after Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987)

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In some gastropods, the tight coiling of inner parts of whorls fuses with the
vertical axis of the coiling forming a central solid pillar like structure, which is
termed as columella (Fig. 14.9). However, in some other forms, the inner
parts of the whorls do not coalesce to form a solid columella and instead they
are coiled around a hollow axial cone, which opens at the base of the shell
and is termed as umbilicus (Fig. 14.8). Gastropod shells with columella are
described as imperforate while those with umbilicus are known as perforate.

Fig. 14.9: Internal section of a gastropod shell showing the morphological

features.

As you now know that most of the shells are coiled, and this coiling can be
either dextral or sinistral. To know whether a shell is sinistral or dextral, it is
important to orient the shell in such a way that its apex faces upward and
aperture is visible to you. In this position, if the shell is coiled in anticlockwise
direction and the aperture appears on the left hand side, then the shell is
sinistral (Fig. 14.10a). In the same position, if the shell is coiled in clockwise
direction and an aperture appears on the right hand side, then the shell is said
to be dextral (Fig. 14.10b). In gastropods, dextrally coiled shells are more
common, while sinistrally coiled shells are rare.

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.10: Shells of gastropods showing morphological features: a) Sinistral;

and b) Dextral shells.

The outline of an aperture may be simple, circular, oval, elliptical, crescentic or

slit-like. The margin of the aperture is known as peristome (Fig. 14.8). The
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peristome is divided into two parts – inner lip and outer lip (Fig. 14.8). The
margin of aperture lying towards the inner side of the last whorl close to the
columella is the inner lip and the opposite margin is the outer lip. The outer
lip may be sharp, thin or thickened and sometimes it may be curved inwards or
outwards. When the outer lip is curved inwards, it is termed as inflected,
when it is curved outwards, then it is described as reflected. Sometimes an
outer lip shows a notch or siphonal canal, which is a semi-tubular extension
of the aperture that holds the siphon (Figs. 14.8 and 14.9). Siphon is a soft
inhalant tube that takes water into the mantle cavity when the animal is active.
The peristome with siphonal notches is known as siphonostomatous and
those without notches are described as holostomatous. Some gastropods
have a shelly deposit termed as callus (Fig. 14.8), which is secreted by the
mantle and commonly found near the inner lip of the aperture adjacent to the
last whorl. This shelly callus sometimes closes the umbilicus of the shell. The
aperture of many shells is sealed or closed by means of a calcareous disc or
lid which is known as operculum. The operculum is attached to the upper part
of the foot and it closes the aperture when the soft parts of the animal are
withdrawn completely into the shell and hence, it provides protection to the
animal (Fig. 14.7).
Turning towards the top of the shell, the shape of the apex of the shell is
determined by the spiral angle. Spiral angle is measured by drawing two
straight lines, in which each line is a tangent from the apex to the last two
whorls on opposite sides and the angle subtended between them is the spiral
angle (Fig. 14.10). In a high-spired shell, the spiral angle is an acute angle
whereas it can be an obtuse angle in a low-spired shell. The first-formed or
embryonic shell, which is found at the apex, is termed as protoconch. It is
present in the larval shell and consists of several whorls which can be
differentiated from later whorls by change of sculpture of the shell. The apex is
the first-formed part and therefore, represents the oldest part of the shell.
You have learnt earlier that shells of gastropods exhibit spirally coiled
structure, which is broadly of two types – conispiral and planispiral. Conispiral
shells are coiled along an erect cone (Fig. 14.11a). The planispiral shells are
those in which coiling is arranged symmetrically in a single plane (Fig. 14.11b).
Most of the conispiral shells are dextral, but a few are sinistral. The coiled
shells of gastropods display a number of forms. Some of the common forms
are discoidal, conical, fusiform, evolute and convolute. In discoidal shells, all
whorls are arranged in a single plane (Fig. 14.11c), while the conical shells
have flat bases (Fig. 14.11d). Fusiform shells are spindle-shaped, being
thickest in the middle and sharp-pointed at both ends (Fig. 14.11e). In normal
situations, when all whorls are visible it is said to be evolute form (Fig. 14.11f).
Some planispiral shells have a large last whorl which partially covers all the
preceding whorls, such forms are called convolute (Fig. 14.11g).
The external or outer surface of shells may be smooth or ornamented by
surface sculpture such as growth lines, ribs, spines, costae, knobs, and so on.
Growth lines are the markings on the shell, which are parallel to apertural
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margin. Coaste are the thread-like thickenings of the shell, which run parallel
to the spire (Fig. 14.8) and ribs are elevations on the surface of the shell that
run parallel to the suture.

Fig. 14.11: Forms of gastropod shells: a) Conispiral; b) Planispiral; c) Discoidal;

d) Conical; e) Fusiform; f) Evolute; and g) Convolute. (Source:
simplified after Moore et al., 1997)

Key morphological features of the gastropods: univalve, whorl, spire,

suture, body whorl, aperture, columella, umbilicus, peristome, siphonal canal,
outer lip, inner lip, siphonostomatous, holostomatous, operculum, spiral angle
and protoconch.
14.4.4 Geological History
The geological range of gastropods is from Cambrian to Recent (Fig. 14.12).
The first gastropods appeared in the early Cambrian. These have simple, low
and cup-shaped shells. They diversified during the Ordovician and colonised
in the sea, freshwater and land during the Carboniferous. The oldest known
pulmonate gastropods have been reported from the late Carboniferous. During
the Palaeozoic, the holostomatous gastropods, belonging to the subclass
Prosobranchiata were dominant. It is equally important to note that gastropods
suffered from diversity loss during the late Palaeozoic, particularly in late
Ordovician, late Devonian and late Permian.
During the Mesozoic, gastropods underwent the second phase of
diversification (Fig. 14.12). As a result, siphonotomatous forms appeared in
Triassic and became abundant in the late Jurassic. In the Mesozoic, land
forms diversified dramatically during the late Jurassic and late Cretaceous,
whereas marine forms diversified during the mid Cretaceous. Cenozoic
witnessed the last phase of gastropod diversification. Presently, gastropods
are widely distributed all over the globe. During the Meso-Cenozoic times,
gastropods witnessed minor losses in their diversity (Jones, 2011). In the
Cenozoic, the siphonostomatous forms were dominant and the pulmonate
gastropods reached the peak of their diversity. At present, the gastropods are
widely distributed in sea as well as on land and are adapted to a variety of
habits and habitats.
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Fig. 10.12: Geological history of gastropods. Width of column represents the

abundance of gastropods in a particular period/era.

SAQ 2
a) What are gastropods?
b) The shell of the gastropod is univalve. Yes/No
c) Define the terms: suture, body whorl, aperture and spire.
d) When do the pulmonate gastropods appear in the fossil record?
e) Name the three phases of gastropods diversitfication.
f) Match the following:
a. Operculum i. Cambrian to present
b. Dextral shell ii. Terrestrial
c. Peristome iii. A calcareous disc or lid that is attached
on the upper part of the foot
d. Pulmonate gastropods iv. Outer margin of the aperture
e. Age of gastropods v. Shell coiling clockwise and aperture
appearing on the right hand side
14.5 ACTIVITY
In this unit, you have learnt about two groups of molluscs – bivalves and
gastropods. Both these groups differ in a number of morphological features.

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Illustrated below are two mollusc shells (Fig. 14.13). Determine the number of
valves that each shell has and accordingly, identify the group.

Fig. 14.13: Shells of molluscs.

14.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt the following:
 Molluscs possess a hard external shell (i.e., exoskeleton), which encloses
their soft body parts such as head, muscular foot, mantle, gill and visceral
mass.
 Bivaliva, Gastropoda and Cephalopoda are the major classes of the Phylum
Mollusca that have a fossil record.
 Shell of bivalves is made up of two valves, namely, right valve and left
valve.
 Right valve, left valve, beak, umbo, adductor scars, pallial line, pallial sinus,
hinge line, lunule, escutcheon, teeth, sockets, growth lines and dentition are
the major morphological features of bivalves.
 Shell of gastropods is made up of a single piece valve, known as univalve.
All gastropods do not have hard shell.
 Whorls, suture, body whorl, spire, aperture, spiral angle, columella,
umbilicus, peristome, siphonal canal, holostomatous, siphonostomatous,
operculum, protoconch, growth lines, dextral, sinistral, planispiral coiling
and conispiral coiling are the major morphological features of gastropods.
 Geological age of both bivalves and gastropods ranges from Cambrian to
Recent. Bivalves diversified during the Ordovician period and Mesozoic era.
Whereas, gastropods diversified during the Ordovician period and Mesozoic
and Cenozoic eras.
 Bivalves are marine and fresh water animals while gastropods are marine,
freshwater and land animals.

14.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe and classify molluscs.
2. What are bivalves? Discuss the morphology of a bivalve.

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3. How can you differentiate bivalves from brachiopods?
4. Describe the geological history of bivalves and gastropods.
5. Define the following morphological features of gastropods:
columella, umbilicus, spiral angle, operculum, protoconch,
holostomatous, siphonostomatous, dextral and sinistral.
14.8 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and
the Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Clarkson, E.N.K. 1998, Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution. Blackwell
Science Ltd, USA.
 Jackson, P.N.W. (2010) Introducing Palaeontology – A Guide To Ancient
Life, Dunedin Academic Press Ltd, Scotland.
 Jones, R.W. (2011) Applications of Palaeontology. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
 Moore, R.C., Lalicker, C.G. and Fischer, A. G. (1997) Invertebrate Fossils,
CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Shrock, R.R. and Twenhofel, W.H. (1987) Principles of Invertebrate
Paleontology. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

14.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ray, A. K. (2008) Fossils in Earth Sciences, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi.
 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.

14.10 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) The twin-valved shell is a characteristic feature of bivalves. The two
valves are laterally compressed and are essentially mirror images of
each other and united together dorsally by means of ligament, teeth and
sockets.
b) Bivalves use ligament, teeth and sockets to open and close their valves.
Ligament, teeth and sockets occur on the dorsal margin of the shell.
c)
Beak Umbo
Beak is the nose-like pointed tip on Umbo is the region of
each valve and represents the oldest maximum curvature of each
part of the shell. It usually curves valve close to the beak and
toward the anterior (i.e., front) end of situated on the dorsal margin
the valve. of the shell.

d) Cambrian to Present (Holocene/Recent).

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2 a) Gastropods are the largest, diverse and most successful class of the
phylum Mollusca. This class includes animals having a single valve
(commonly known as univalve) shell like snails, limpets; however, in
some other cases, it also includes forms which have no hard shell, for
example, slugs.
b) Yes.
c) Suture is the spiral line that joins the surfaces of any two adjacent
whorls of a gastropod shell. Body whorl is the last and largest whorl of
the shell and it occurs near the basal margin of the shell. Aperture is an
opening of the body whorl and spire is a combination of all whorls
excluding the body whorl.
d) Carboniferous period.
e) The three phase of gastropods diversification are: 1) Ordovician
diversification, 2) Mesozoic diversification and 3) Cenozoic
diversification.
f) a. - iii., b. - v., c. - iv., d. - ii. and e. - i.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to the 14.2.
2. Refer to the subsections 14.3.1 and 14.3.3.
3. Refer to the subsection 14.3.3
4. Refer to the subsections 14.3.4 and 14.4.4.
5. Refer to the subsection 14.4.3.

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 UNIT 15

MOLLUSCS – CEPHALOPOD

Structure___________________________________________________
15.1 Introduction 15.5 Differences between Nautiloids and Ammonoids
Expected Learning Outcomes 15.6 Functional adaptations in Ammonoids
15.2 Cephalopods 15.7 Activity
15.3 Nautiloids 15.8 Summary
Systematic Palaeonotology 15.9 Terminal Questions
Morphology 15.10 References
Geological History 15.11 Further/Suggested Readings
15.4 Ammonoids 15.12 Answers
Systematic Palaeonotology

Morphology

Geological History

15.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous units (Unit 13 and 14), we have described four groups of invertebrates, namely, corals,
brachiopods, bivalves and gastropods. These are either sessile or very slow moving animals.
Among these, bivalves and gastropods belong to the phylum Mollusca and were described in Unit
14. Both these groups appeared in the Cambrian and some of them have persisted to the present.
In this unit, we shall deal with another intriguing and diverse group of molluscs – the
Cephalopoda. Cephalopods are marine animals. They are more active, quick movers, intelligent
carnivorous predators with varied shell morphology and highly developed nervous and visual
systems. In these respects, they differ greatly from other molluscs. The Class Cephalopoda
consists of three subclasses, among which Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea are commonly found
asfossils. Coleoidea, the third subclasses, comprises primarily soft bodied animals. We will, very
briefly, describe the basic organisation and classification of cephalopods and concentrate on the
shell morphology and geological history of nautiloids and ammonoids in this unit. We will also
discuss the functional adaptations in ammonoids in the latter part of the unit.
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Expected Learning Outcomes______________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define and classify cephalopod molluscs;
 describe the shell morphology of nautiloids and ammonoids;
 discuss the geological history of nautiloids and ammonoids;
 differentiate nautiloids from ammonoids; and
 explain the functional adaptations in ammonoids.

15.2 CEPHALOPODS
Cephalopods are a diverse, highly evolved and morphologically complex class
of molluscs. They are exclusively marine animals that occupy the same
ecological niche as fishes. This class includes extinct ammonoids and
belemnites, and modern forms such as cuttlefish, squids, octopuses and
nautilus. Like fishes, cephalopods are equipped with highly developed eyes
and sensory organs. In addition, they are adapted to fast swimming and have
developed more efficient mechanisms to locate their prey, detect predators
and to escape from them. As a consequence, they live largely as marine
predators. They have also been among the dominant group of predators in the
sea at various times in geological history. Cephalopods comprise the largest
invertebrates known and include some forms, which attained a length of about
16 m (Moore and others, 1997). It is important to note that many present day
cephalopods like squids, cuttlefish and octopuses do not have an external
shell (exo-skeleton). However, some of them have an internal shell (endo-
skeleton). Nautilus is the only living cephalopod that has an external shell. The
genus Nautilus is the only survivor among the nautiloids, which is a very
ancient group of cephalopods.
You have read above that Nautilus is the single living genus of cephalopods
that retains an external shell. This coiled calcareous (CaCO3) shell provides an
excellent opportunity to the palaeontologists to understand the soft anatomy of
shelled cephalopods. Therefore, we will use the genus Nautilus to describe the
soft anatomy of cephalopods. The soft parts of Nautilus show bilateral
symmetry and consist of visceral mass, mantle cavity, well-defined head and
foot (Fig. 15.1). The visceral mass is located in the rear body (living)
chamber. The head and foot are fused closely together; head bears mouth
and a pair of eyes. Foot is modified into many tentacles, which are used
mainly for locomotion and catching the prey. Above the head, there is a tough
fleshy fold termed as hood. When an animal withdraws into the living chamber
of the shell, the hood acts as an operculum and closes the aperture of the
living chamber. Mouth of Nautilus is equipped with radula and two parrot’s
beak shaped jaws that open inside the circle of tentacles. Below the tentacles
is hyponome or funnel (Fig. 15.1). Hyponome is a muscular organ modified
from the foot and it can be turned in any direction. It provides an opening to
the mantle cavity that contains gills and anus. When water enters the mantle
cavity and passes over the gills and if the water is forcibly ejected back from
the mantle cavity, the hyponome acts as a jet to propel the animal backward or

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forward depending upon the direction of the hyponome. In this way, the animal
moves backward and forward. The soft parts of Nautilus are fully enclosed by
the mantle and the mantle is enclosed by the external shell.

Fig. 15.1: Schematic diagram of living Nautilus showing main morphological

features. (Source: simplified from Clarkson, 2007; Milsom and Rigby, 2010)

15.2.1 Classification of Cephalopods

The classification of cephalopods is still a debated issue. Biologists classified
cephalopods on the basis of number of gills, but this classification is not
accepted by the palaeontologists, because a majority of cephalopods are
extinct and no one knows how many gills those extinct forms had.
Palaeontologists classify cephalopods into three subclasses on the basis of
their shell morphology (Table 15.1).
Table 15.1: Classification of cephalopods. (Source: simplified from
Clarkson, 2007; Benton and Harper, 2009).

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Subclass Nautiloidea
Characteristic features: Straight, curved or coiled external shell
with simple suture; simple surface sculpture. Four gills are
present.
Example – Nautilus
Age range – Late Cambrian to Present

Subclass Ammonoidea
Characteristic features: Coiled external shell with complex
surface sutures; complex surface sculpture. Gill count is
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unknown. It is an extinct subclass of cephalopods
Example - Ammonites
Age range – Early Devonian to Late Cretaceous

Subclass Coleoidea
Characteristic features: Straight or coiled internal shell and two
gills are present.
Examples – squid, cuttlefish, octopus and extinct Belemnites.
Age range – Carboniferous to Present.

Shells of cephalopods are borne either internally or externally. Nautiloidea and

Ammonoidea have external shells while some members of the subclass
Coleoidea have internal shells. However, the main elements of cephalopod
shell architecture are the same in both external and internal shells (Nield and
Tucker, 1985).

Generally, shells of cephalopods are chambered and each chamber is

separated by a wall known as septum (Fig. 15.1). Chambers are produced as
the animal grows and expands. As the animal grows, it also seals off the older
chambers in the shell which are filled with gas, making the shell buoyant and
helping the animal to swim. The animal always sits in the last chamber known
as body or living chamber (Fig. 15.1). The animal living in the body chamber
maintains contact with the others chambers by siphuncle (Fig. 15.1). The term
phragmocone is used to describe other chambers except the body chamber.
Siphuncle is a tube that passes through the centre of each septum (plural
septa) and connects the chambers. Siphuncle helps the animal to maintain the
gas pressure in each chamber and control its buoyancy. The nature of the
septa and siphuncle is very important for identifying whether the shell belongs
to nautiloids or ammonoids. We will now discuss the nautiloids and
ammonoids separately in the following sections.

15.3 NAUTILOIDS

Nautiloids are a large and diverse group of cephalopods (Fig. 15.2). They
belong to the subclass Nautiloidea. They are marine, first appeared in the late
Cambrian and are considered as the probable ancestral stock from which all
other cephalopods have evolved. Around 2500 fossil species of nautiloids are
known, but, today they are represented by a single living genus – Nautilus.
The study Nautilus helps the palaeontologists to understand the relationship of
the hard parts to the behaviour of the nautiloids. The studies on Nautilus show
that it pursues a nocturnal mode of life both as a predator and scavenger.
Nautiloids are characterised by the presence of an external shell. Since
Nautilus has four gills by analogy, it is assumed that extinct nautiloids probably
also had four gills. Nautiloids range in size from a few centimeters to several
meters in length. The largest nautiloid fossil recorded, so far, is 4 m in length.

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Fig. 15.2: Shell of a nautiloid. (Source: Prof. R. Nagendra, Anna University)

15.3.1 Systematic Palaeonotology

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cepalopoda
Subclass Nautiloidea
Common genera of nautiloids: Nautilus, Centroceras, Oncoceras,
Endoceras, Piloceras, Actinoceras and Discosorus.
15.3.2 Morphology
Nautiloids have a chambered external shell, which is secreted by the mantle
and made up of aragonite, which is a mineral of calcium carbonate. The shell
is tabular in form and may be straight, curved or spirally coiled. It is a hollow
cone with two main parts – body or living chamber and phragmocone (Fig.
15.3a). As stated earlier, shells of nautiloids are generally chambered, in
which each chamber is formed when an animal living in the body chamber
grows and widens the shell, and moves forward towards the ever-growing
aperture. Each time this process leaves a space behind the body, which is
repeatedly walled off by a septum thus forming a series of chambers (Nield
and Tucker, 1985). Shell consists of a tube, which is open at the larger end
and closed at the smaller end. The opening present on the larger end is
termed as aperture and the tip of the smaller end is the apex of the shell
(Fig.15.3a). The aperture has a small notch cut on its ventral margin, which
provides greater flexibility of movement to hyponome, which is known as
hyponomic sinus (Fig. 15.3a).
Normally, the shell chambers increase in size from the apex (for embryonic
shells, it is termed as protoconch) towards the aperture. As a result, the inner
whorls are partly or fully covered by the outer whorls (Fig. 15.3a). Whorl is a
single complete turn of the shell coiling and shells may have several whorls.
The space enclosed on both sides by the last whorl is described as umbilicus
(Fig. 15.3a). In spirally coiled forms, the whorls may be separate and loosely

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or tightly touching each other. The gap between two successive whorls is
termed as whorl gap.
Orientation of the shell: The margin of the shell towards aperture is anterior
and towards the apex is posterior. The side of the shell near the mouth and
hyponome is ventral and opposite side is dorsal. Dorsum is the dorsal side
and venter is the ventral side of the shell.

Fig. 15.3: Shell of a nautiloid: a) showing internal morphology; and b) enlarged

part showing the suture lines.

Turning to the interior or internal surface of the shell, you can see that the shell
is divided into a number of chambers or camerae by transverse partitions
known as septa (Fig. 15.3a). The chambered portion (except last chamber) of
the shell is known as phragmocone (Fig. 15.3a). In fact, phragmocone is the
only part of the shell which is commonly preserved as fossil. The last chamber,
which is the largest and occupied by the animal, is termed as living or body
chamber. All chambers except the body chamber are filled with gas and they
are also known as gas chambers. A thin calcareous tube which runs through
the centre of each septum and connects all chambers is known as siphuncle
(Fig. 15.3a). The siphuncle allows the exchange of gas between the living
animal which resides in the body chamber and previously formed chambers.
Siphuncle is composed of septal necks and connecting rings (Fig. 15.3a).
Septal necks are short funnel-like structures, which are developed around the
opening in each septum. Connecting rings are the shelly tabular structures,
which connect the septal necks. The line where each septum joins the external
surface of the shell is termed as suture line (Fig. 15.3b). In nautiloids, the
suture lines are either straight or slightly curved (Fig.15.8a). The simple suture
of nautiloids is also known as nautiloid suture. You can see suture lines only
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after the removal of the shell wall or in well preserved casts of nautiloids. It is
important to note that siphuncle, suture line and septal necks are important
morphological features, which distinguish nautiloids from ammonoids. In
nautiloids, siphuncle passes through the centre of each septum, suture line is
usually simple or sometimes, it may be straight or undulating and septal neck
lies on the convex side of each septum and is projected towards the apex
(protoconch) of the shell. Nautiloids generally have additional skeletal material
on the bottom of chambers called cameral deposits. These deposits help the
animal to keep itself perfectly oriented in marine waters. In the absence of
cameral deposits, it would be difficult for the animal to stay in the right position
(Jackson, 2010).
Key morphological features of nautiloids: body chamber, phragmocone,
septa, aperture, siphuncle, suture, septal necks, connecting rings, whorls and
cameral deposits.
The shells of nautiloids display a variety of forms. A straight conical shell is
known as orthoceracone (Fig. 15.4a). Slightly curved shells are described as
cyrtoceracones (Fig. 15.4b), loosely coiled shells are termed as
gyroceracones (Fig. 15.4c) and shells having all whorls in contact are
traphyceracones (Fig. 15.4d). Eccentric coiled shells are known as
trochoceracones (Fig. 15.4e) and when the body whorl covers all other
whorls, the shell is known as involute nautilicone (Fig. 15.4f) and in evolute
nautilicone shells, the earlier formed or older whorls are all visible (Fig.
15.4g). A curved or straight shell is said to be exogastric if the ventral side is
convex (curve outside) and dorsum is on the inside (Fig. 15.4h). A shell is said
to be endogastric if the dorsal side is convex (curve outside) and venter is on
the inside (Fig. 15.4i).

Fig. 15.4: Shells of a nautiloids showing various shell forms: a) Orthoceracone

with main shell features; b) Cytoceracone showing the ventral, dorsal,
anterior and posterior margins; c) Gyroceracone; d) Traphyceracone;
e) Trochoceracone; f) Involute nautilicone; g) Evolute nautilicone; h)
Exogastric; and i) Endogastric shell forms. Note that figures 15.4h and
15.4i are similar to figures 15.9g and 15.9h; the position of siphuncle
helps us to determine whether the shell belongs to nautiloid or
ammonoid. (Redrawn after Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987)
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Turning to the outside surface of the nautiloid shells, you can see that some
shells may be smooth or unornamented (e.g., Nautilus) while others, have only
a feeble ornamentation in the form of growth lines, which is the most common
surface feature.
15.3.3 Geological History
It is worth noting that the subclass Nautiloidea comprises about 300 genera
and 2500 species, all of which are extinct and the subclass is now represented
by a single genus Nautilus (Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987). There are a very
few species, which represent the genus Nautilus. The nautiloids include the
oldest known cephalopods. They first appeared in the fossil record during the
late Cambrian having a simple curved shell. They rapidly diversified during the
Ordovician and most of the groups arose during this time. Ordovician
nautiloids are marked by the presence of straight or curved shells, which are
much larger than the Cambrian nautiloids. It should be noted that the order
Nautilida, in which the living genus Nautilus falls, appeared in late Silurian or
early Devonian times. Nautiloids remained abundant and were a widespread
component of the marine biota during the early Palaeozoic (Fig. 15.5a). They
were also the primary predators of the Palaeozoic seas and their shells have a
wide variety of forms ranging from straight to curved as well as spirally coiled.

Fig. 15.5: Stratigraphic distribution of cephalopods: a) Nautiloids; and b)

Ammonoids. (Source: modified after, Milson and Rigby, 2010). Width of
column represents the abundance of nautiloids and ammoniods in a
particular period/era.
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Nautiloids began to decline during the late Palaeozoic (Fig. 15.5a). Studies
suggest that nautiloids are the probable stocks from which other cephalopods
such as ammonoids and coleoids originated during the late Palaeozoic. The
competition of nautiloids with their close relatives, like ammonoids and
coleoids, is considered as one of the reasons behind their late Palaeozoic
decline. Most of the Palaeozoic nautiloids became extinct by the end of
Permian and only the order Nautilida having coiled shell, survived from
Mesozoic to the present (Fig. 15.5a). Therefore, Nautilus is well known as a
“living fossil” that typically belongs to a group with an old rich fossil history and
which has not changed much morphologically over the long geological time.

SAQ 1
a) What is phragmocone?
b) Shells of nautiloids are composed of ……………. . (Aragonite/Calcite)
c) How can you differentiate between exogastric and endogastric shells?
d) Write the diagnostic morphological features of nautiloids.

15.4 AMMONOIDS
Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine cephalopod molluscs. They belong
to the subclass Ammonidea and class Cephalopoda of the Phylum Mollusca.
Ammonoids constitute the largest and one of the most important subclasses of
Cephalopods. They lived in all the oceans of the world from early Devonian to
late Cretaceous. It is generally accepted that ammonoids evolved from the
genus Bactrites, which has a more or less straight shell and belongs to
suborder Bactritina of the subclass Ammonoidea (Clarkson, 2007). As
mentioned above Ammonoidea is an extinct class of cephalopods and very
little is known about its soft parts morphology. It is considered that the soft
parts of ammonoids must have been similar to those of nautiloids. However, it
is also found that the biological affinities of ammonoids are more similar to
those of coleoids than to Nautilus. Coleoidea is one of the subclasses of
cephalopods, which include forms such as squids, cuttlefish, octopuses and
extinct Belemnites, that have either no shell or an internal shell. There are
some key features, such as the presence of seven teeth on radula, upper jaws
that are very similar to the jaws of living octopuses and presence of ink sacs in
fossil ammonoids, which place ammonoids closer to the coleoids than
nautiloids (Clarkson, 2007).
Do you know?
In Indian mythology, the local people of Himalayan regions see ammonoids as
the symbols of Lord Vishnu, the supreme God of the Hindus and are referred
them to as Saligrams. Many living cephalopods have an ink sac, which is a
muscular bag that contains dark ink. When in danger, the animal releases ink
into the water, forming a dark cloud. This enables the animals to confuse the
predators enabling it to escape. All cephalopods, except Nautilus and
octopuses, are able to release ink. Fossil ammonoid shells also show
preserved sites where ink sacs occurred.

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Ammonoids had an external chambered shell (Fig. 15.6), which usually shows
planispiral coiling, but there are some forms which exhibit either helically-
spiraled coiling or no coiling. It is worth noting that most ammonoids had coiled
shells of a similar form and look very similar to the living Nautilus. The spirally
coiled nature of the shell is responsible for the derivation of the subclass’s
name Ammonoidea.

Fig. 15.6: Shell of an ammonite.

The diameter of ammonoids, ranges from less than 3 mm to more than 3 m.

Ammonoids with 2 m diameter are known from the Upper Cretaceous
sediments of the Cauvery Basin, Tamil Nadu, south India. It has been
observed that sexual dimorphism was common in ammonoids. Based on the
sexual dimorphism, ammonoids shells are classified into two types –
macroconchs and microconchs. Macroconchs are larger shells and usually
belong to females, whereas microconchs are small shells, which belong to
males. It should be noted that number, size and morphology of whorls is an
important criteria to differentiate macroconchs and microconchs.
15.4.1 Systematic Palaeonotology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Mollusca
Class Cepalopoda
Subclass Ammonoidea
Common genera of ammonoids: Bactrites, Goniatites, Discoclymenia,
Calliphylloceras, Katroliceras, Ataxioceras and Ptychophylloceras.
15.4.2 Morphology
It is very important to note that the morphology of ammonoids is very similar to
that of nautiloids. However, ammonoids can easily be differentiated from
nautiloids on the basis of location of siphuncle, suture patterns and nature of
septal necks. The ammonoid shells are either tightly coiled on a single plane

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(i.e., planisprial) or open helical and irregular coiled as well as straight. The
planisprial coiled shells are known as homomorph ammonoids (Fig. 15.7)
whereas straight, helical or irregular coiled shells are known as heteromorph
ammonoids (Fig. 15.9a-c).
All ammoniods had an external chambered shell, which is divisible into three
parts, namely, a) protoconch, b) phragmocone and c) body or living chamber.
The earliest or the first formed chamber, located usually in the centre of the
shell, is termed protoconch (Fig. 15.7). The term protoconch is used for
embryonic forms and shell is applied for adult forms. The chambered portion
of the shell is known as phragmocone (Fig. 15.7). The last chamber, which is
the largest and occupied by the animal, is described as living or body
chamber (Fig. 15.7). The opening present on the body chamber is termed
aperture. The margin of the aperture is described as the peristome (Fig.
15.7). A single complete turn of the shell coiling is called a whorl and
ammonoid shells may have several whorls. The hollow cone shaped space
enclosed on both sides by the last whorl is described as umbilicus (Fig. 15.7).
In spirally coiled forms, the whorls may be separate and loosely or tightly
touching each other. The gap between the two successive whorls is termed
whorl gap.

Fig. 15.7: Shell of an ammonoid showing morphological features (Source:

simplified after Wood, 2004.

Turning to the interior or internal surface of the shell, you may find that
phragmocone comprises a number of chambers or camerae (Fig. 15.7). Each
chamber is marked by the successive occupation by the animal and separated
by a septum (plural septa) (Fig. 15.7). You may recall that septa are the
transverse partitions present between the chambers. Like Nautilus, when
ammonoids grew, they also moved forward in the body chamber and secreted
a septum at the back of the mantle and created a series of chambers. The
chambers of ammonoids were formed in such a way that the gas filled in them
creates a near neutral buoyancy similar to the chambers of nautoloids. A thin
calcareous tube running through the ventral margin of septum and connects all
chambers is known as siphuncle (Fig. 15.7). The siphuncle allowed the
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exchange of gas between the living animal, which sat in the body chamber
and the previously formed chambers. In addition, animals may have used the
siphuncle to pump water in or out of the chambers in order to alter the
buoyancy of the shell. Siphuncle is composed of two parts, namely, septal
necks and connecting rings (Fig. 15.7). Septal necks are short funnel-like
structures developed around the opening in each septum whereas
connecting rings are the shelly tabular structures, which connect the septal
necks. In ammonoids, the septal necks are directed towards the aperture of
the shells and connecting rings are placed towards the outer margin of the
shell.
The line where a septum joins the external surface of the shell is termed as
suture line (Fig. 15.8). The suture pattern is very complex in ammonoids. As
a result, it forms one of the most important characteristic features on the basis
of which one can differentiate ammonoids from nautiloids. If you remember
what type of suture nautiloids have from the previous section, then it will be
easy for you to understand the suture pattern of ammonoids. The nautiloids
have a very simple suture without having any ridges (saddles) and grooves
(lobes), whereas ammonoids have a complex suture pattern, in which suture
line is composed of ridges and grooves (Fig. 15.8). The ridges pointing
upwards (i.e., towards the aperture) are known as saddles and grooves
pointing downwards (i.e., opposite direction of the saddles) are described as
lobes. Three important types of sutures are recognised in the ammonoids,
which are: a) Goniatitic, b) Ceratitic and c) ammonitic sutures. Now, we will
discuss each one by one.
a) Goniatitic Suture line: It is characterised by rounded saddles and angular
or sharp lobes (Fig. 15.8b). It is commonly found in ammonoids of the late
Devonian to Permian age.
b) Ceratitic Suture Line: This suture line is characterised by smooth
rounded saddles and finely divided to undivided lobes (Fig. 15.8c). It is
found in ammonoids of Triassic age.
c) Ammonitic Suture Line: It is marked by complex and finely subdivided
saddles and lobes (Fig. 15.8d). Ammonoids of Jurassic and Cretaceous
age show ammonitic sutures.
Some shells of ammonoids have either a single horny plate or two equal sized
calcareous plates, which are commonly found near the opening (i.e., aperture)
of the shells. If the shell has a single horny plate, it is known as anaptychus
and if it has two calcareous plates, it is termed as aptychus. Initially, it was
argued that animal used such plate/s to shut the aperture as the gastropods
use the operculum. Later, it was suggested that it is a part of a jaw apparatus.
Majority of ammonoid shells show bilateral symmetry, which is a characteristic
feature of those ammonoids that live with the median plane of the body in a
vertical position. It is generally, believed that bilateral symmetry and vertical
position were more likely to be retained by the swimming molluscs (Woods,
2004).
Key morphological features of ammonoids: body chamber, phragmocone,
septa, aperture, ventral siphuncle, goniatitic suture, ceratitic suture, ammonitic
suture, septal necks, connecting rings, whorls, anaptychus and aptychus.
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The ammonoid shells display a variety of forms. Some common shell forms
are described below:

Fig. 11.8: Suture patterns in nautiloid and ammonoid cepahlopods: a) Simple

suture line also known as nautiloid suture (b-d) are complex sutures,
which are commonly present in ammonoids; b) Goniatitic suture; c)
Ceratitic suture; and d) Ammonitic suture. (Source: Shrock and
Twenhofel, 1987; Benton, and Harper, 2009)

Bactriticone is a straight conical shell (Fig. 15.9a); gyroceratiticones are

loosely coiled shells (Fig. 15.9b); dactylioceracones have shells having all
whorls in contact (Fig. 15.9c); turriliticones are eccentric coiled shells (Fig.
15.9d); involute ammoniticones have all whorls covered by the body whorl
(Fig. 15.9e); evolute ammoniticone shells all the earlier formed or older
whorls are visible (Fig. 15.9f). A curved or straight shell is said to be
exogastric if the ventral side is convex (curve outside) and dorsum is curved
on the inside (Fig. 15.9g). A shell is said to be endogastric if the dorsal side is
convex (curved outside) and venter is curved on the inside (Fig. 15.9h).

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Fig. 15.9: Shells of ammonoids showing various shell forms: a) Bactriticone; b)

Gyroceratiticone; c) Dactylioceracone; d) Turriliticone; e) Involute
ammoniticone; f) Evolute ammoniticone; g) Exogastric; and h)
Endogastric shell forms. (Source: redrawn after Shrock and Twenhofel,
1987)

Turning to the outside surface of ammonoid shells, you can see that shells
show various kinds of ornamentation such as growth lines, ribs, knobs, spines,
tubercles and keels. Growth lines are the concentric lines, in which each line
represents the former position of the peristome. Ribs are usually radial folds
that run across the whorls and knobs are spherical structures that extend from
ribs in places. Spines are the projections that extend from ribs and have a
pointed end. Tubercles are small rounded projections that normally extend
from ribs and keels are the raised longitudinal ridges on the ventral margin.
15.4.3 Geological History
It is commonly accepted that the first ammonoids evolved probably from the
bactritid cephalopods during the early Devonian. It is also proposed that
bactritid must have evolved from orthoceracone nautiloids. During the early
Devonian, ammonoids with goniatitic suture appeared and underwent rapid
diversification in the Devonian and Carboniferous (Fig. 15.5b). They became
nearly extinct at the end of the Permian. In the Carboniferous, the ammonoids
with ceratitic suture appeared and they became common in Permian. They
diversified during the Triassic and reached their peak during the late Triassic.
Ammonoids with ammonite suture appeared at the close of Permian or at the
start of Triassic. They were well-established in the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods. At the end of Cretaceous all ammonoids became extinct along with
the dinosaurs (Fig. 15.5b).
During the Mesozoic, ammonoids developed a variety of shell shapes known
as heteromorph ammonoids. Some shapes include uncoiled, partly uncoiled,
U-bends and connected U-bends (Benton and Harper, 2009). Ammonoids
were very common in the oceans of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. Their fossil
record shows their global distribution. They had a short geological range (i.e.
Devonian to Cretaceous) and rapid rate of evolution. Therefore, they are
considered as excellent index fossils. They make it possible to correlate
sedimentary rocks in which they are found to specific geological time period.

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15.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NAUTILOIDS AND
AMMONOIDS
If you compare the shells of nautiloids and ammonoids, you will find that both
are similar in their outer or external appearance. This is because the nautiloid
shell is flat and spirally coiled like the ammonids shell, so it is easy to get
confused between the two. However, there are certain differences between
these two groups of cephalopods, which are very significant and found on
internal surfaces of their shells. These differences are given in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2: Differences between nautiloids and ammonoids.
Features Nautiloids Ammonoids
Coiling Straight or spiral Usually spiral
Siphuncle
Central through the septa Ventral margin of septa
position
Suture line Simple Complex (e.g., goniatitic,
ceratitic and ammonitic
sutures lines)
Septa Simple Complex
Nature of Septal neck lies on the Septal necks are directed
septal necks convex side of each septum towards the aperture of
and is projected towards the the shells
apex (protoconch) of the shell

15.6 FUNCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS IN

AMMONOIDS
Adaptations are a set of special characteristics of organisms that improve their
functions and enable them to survive and reproduce successfully in an
ecosystem. Adaptations may be categorised into functional and reproductive
types. The functional adaptations include changes in morphological features of
an organism that help it to survive in a better way. Reproductive adaptations
help the organism to reproduce successfully. It is important to note that natural
selection is the only mechanism known to cause the evolution of adaptations.
For example, in most terrestrial vertebrates the skull bones are immovably
joined to each other, but in snakes they are loosely joined, which enables
them to swallow prey much larger than their head size. This is an adaptation
that has evolved by modification of the same skull bones that are rigid in other
vertebrates.
In ammonids, studies have been made to understand the function of three
morphological features, namely, complex suture pattern, shell forms and
complex external surface ornamentations. It is believed that the complex
sutures were adaptations developed in response to shell geometry and to
adjust the ambient hydrostatic pressure. The complex sutures also strengthen
the shells of ammonoids and provide them efficient buoyancy control. The
planispiral coiling in ammonoids helped them to move through the water
quickly. Further, it indicates that the planispiral coiled ammonoids were active
animals that usually lived a pelagic life style. The wider and more open shell

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forms of ammonoids were slow movers and lived near the ocean floor. As you
know that external surface of ammonoid shells show an enormous diversity of
ornamentation ranging from smooth to polished shells bearing growth lines,
ribs, nodes, keels or tubercles. Many studies have proposed that the complex
ornamentation on ammonoid shells were developed as a defense mechanism
against the predators.

SAQ 2
a) What are ammonoids?
b) As you know that Nautilus is a living genus of nautiloids. Do ammonoids
have any living genus?
c) List the characteristic morphological features by which you can
differentiate ammonoids from nautiloids?
d) Ammonoids probably evolved from ---------------------

15.7 ACTIVITY
Illustrated below is a shell of a cephalopod mollusc. Label its various
morphological parts and identify the type or subclass it belongs to.

Fig. 15.10: Shell of a cephalopod mollusk.

15.8 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt the following:
 Almost all cephalopod molluscs are marine animals. They are more active,
quick movers, intelligent carnivorous predators and have varied shell
morphologies.
 The Class Cephalopoda consists of three subclasses, namely, Nautiloidea,
Ammonoidea and Coleoidea. Of these, fossils of Nautiloidea and
Ammonoidea are commonly found.
 Nautoloids are found in today’s oceans and are represented by a single
living genus Nautilus, whereas, ammonoids are all extinct.
 Body chamber, phragmocone, septa, aperture, central siphuncle, suture,
septal necks, connecting rings, whorls and cameral deposits are the main
morphological features of the nautiloid shells.
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 Body chamber, phragmocone, septa, aperture, ventral siphuncle, goniatitic
suture, ceratitic suture, ammonitic suture, septal necks, connecting rings,
whorls, anaptychus and aptychus are the important morphological features
of the ammonoid shells.
 Position of siphuncle, suture patterns and nature of septa are diagnostic
features, by which you can differentiate nautiloids from ammonoids.
 Geological range of nautiloids is from Devonian to Present and Devonian to
Cretaceous for ammonoids.
 The short geological age (i.e., Devonian to Cretaceous), rapid evolutionary
history and wide geographical distribution of ammonoids make them
excellent index fossils for dating the sedimentary rocks.

15.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a short note on cephalopod molluscs.
2. Explain the morphology of a nautiloid shell.
3. Give a concise account of geological history of nautiloids.
4. On what basis are ammonoids differentiated from nautiloids?
5. Describe the hard part morphology of ammonoids.
6. Discuss the geological distribution of ammonoids.

15.10 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and
the Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Clarkson, E.N.K. (1998) Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution,
Blackwell Science Ltd, USA.
 Jackson, P.N.W. (2010) Introducing Palaeontology – A Guide To Ancent
Life, Dunedin Academic Press Ltd, Scotland.
 Milsom, C. and Rigby, S. (2010) Fossils at a Glance, Wiley-Blackwell, West
Sussex.
 Moore, R.C., Lalicker, C.G. and Fischer, A. G. (1997) Invertebrate Fossils,
CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Nield, E.W. and Tucker, V.C.T. (1985) Palaeontology – An Introduction,
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
 Shrock, R.R. and Twenhofel, W.H. (1987) Principles of Invertebrate
Palaeontology, CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (First
Indian edition)
 Woods, H. (2004) Palaeontology Invertebrate, (Reprinted) CBS Publishers
and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

15.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ray, A. K. (2008) Fossils in Earth Sciences, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi.

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 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.

15.10 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) Phragmocone is the chambered portion of a nautiloid shell. The
chambered portion of an ammonoid shell is also called phragmocone.
b) Aragonite
c) Difference between exogastric and endogstric shells

Exogastric shell Endogastric shell

It is curved or straight shell It is curved or straight shell with

with convex ventral side and dorsal side convex and venter
dorsum located inside the shell located inside.

d) The diagnostic morphological features of nautiloids include simple septa

and suture, and centrally placed siphuncle.
2 a) Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine cephalopod molluscs. They
belong to the Subclass Ammonidea and Class Cephalopoda of the
Phylum Mollusca. They constitute the largest and one of the most
important subclasses of cephalopods and lived from early Devonian to
late Cretaceous. It is generally accepted that ammonoids were evolved
from the genus Bactrites. The ammonoids shells are either tightly coiled
on a single plane (i.e., planisprial) or open helical and irregularly coiled
as well as straight and much similar to the shells of nautiloids in external
surface morphology.
b) Yes, Nautilus is a living genus of nautiloids. The ammonoids, appeared
in early Devonian and became extinct at the end of Cretaceous. Hence,
they do not have any living representative. In fact, their fossils are very
useful for startigraphic correlation.
c) The external surface appearance of both ammonoids and
nautloids has remarkable similarity. However, there are some
characteristic morphological features, which are found inside the
shells of ammonoids on the basis of which we can differentiate
ammonoids from nautiloids. These features are ventral position of
siphuncle, complex pattern of suture (e.g., goniatitic, ceratitic and
ammonitic) lines and complex nature of septa.
d) Bactrites
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 15.2.
2. Refer to subsection 15.3.2.
3. Refer to subsection 15.3.3.
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4. Refer to section 15.5.
5. Refer to subsection 15.4.2.
6. Refer to subsection 15.4.3.

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150
 UNIT 16

TRILOBITES AND ECHINODERMS

Structure___________________________________________________
16.1 Introduction 16.5 Crinoids
Expected Learning Outcomes Systematic Palaeonotology

16.2 Trilobites Morphology

What are Trilobites? Geological History

Systematic Palaeonotology 16.6 Activity

Morphology 16.7 Summary
Geological History 16.8 Terminal Questions
16.3 Echinoderms 16.9 References
16.4 Echinoids 16.10 Further/Suggested Readings
Systematic Palaeonotology 16.11 Answers
Morphology

Geological History

16.1 INTRODUCTION
In units 13 to 15 of this block, we have discussed some important groups of invertebrate fossils,
namely corals, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods. They appeared in the
Cambrian and are still alive today except ammonoid cephalopods. Ammonoid cephalopods are an
extinct group of marine molluscs, which first appeared in the Devonian and became extinct at the
end of the Cretaceous. They are now used as index fossils for dating of sedimentary rocks.
Lingula and Nautilus are living fossils of brachiopods and nautiloid cephalopods, respectively,
which provide living samples to the palaeontologists for understanding the soft parts anatomy of
their fossil relatives.
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We shall now turn to the remaining two major groups of invertebrates, which
are trilobites and echinoderms. Like ammonoids, trilobites are also extinct, but
an important fossil group for palaeontologists. Echinoderms, however, have
living representatives and are also entirely marine. They have a rigid skeleton
and their two classes, namely, echinoids and crinoids are useful for
palaeontological study. In this unit, we will discuss the morphology, systematic
and geological history of trilobites, echinoids and crinoids.

Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define trilobites and echinoderms;
 describe the skeletal morphology of trilobites;
 classify echinoderms;
 describe the test morphology of echinoids and crinoids; and
 discuss the geological history of trilobites, echinoids and crinoids.

16.2 TRILOBITES

Trilobites are an extinct group that belongs to a very large phylum of

invertebrates called Arthropoda. It is morphologically a diverse group and
includes a great variety of invertebrates such as insects, spiders, scorpions,
centipedes, millipedes, crabs, ostracods and their fossil relatives like
eurypterids and trilobites. This phylum alone constitutes about 40% of total life
on the planet Earth. Arthropods are found everywhere, for example, in sea
water, freshwater and on land. They have segmented bodies with six or more
jointed legs and a hard protective external skeleton (i.e., exo-skeleton), which
needs to moult or shed as the animal grows. The exo-skeleton of arthropods is
composed of organic material chitin and proteins. Arthropods are generally
small-sized with many forms less than 1 cm long, but a few others are over 3.2
m long.

16.2.1 What are Trilobites?

Trilobites are an extinct group of marine Palaeozoic arthropods. They belong
to the Class Trilobita and the Subphylum Trilobitomorpha. The name Trilobite
is derived from the two Greek words Tri meaning three and Lobos meaning
lobes, referring to three lobes or trilobation of trilobite’s skeleton. It is believed
that they are the primitive arthropods. Trilobites are one of the most diverse
classes of extinct invertebrates, comprising more than 20,000 species. Like
other arthropods, the exo-skeleton of trilobites has numerous segments and
paired appendages (Fig. 16.1). It is mainly chitinous in composition and is
made up of three lobes. The size range of average trilobites is 50 to 75 mm in
length. The smallest known trilobite is about 1 mm long, while the longest
known is 70 cm.

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(a) (b)

Fig. 16.1: Photographs of trilobites: a) Simple photograph; and b) High

resolution photograph. (Source: Dr. S.K. Pracha for b)

16.2.2 Systematic Palaeontology

Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
Class Trilobita
Order Agnostida
Polymerida
Important genera of trilobites: Olenellus, Agnostus, Phacops, Paradoxides,
Redlichia, Olenus, Illaenus and Calymene.

Do you know?
Trilobites leave their exo-skeleton to be fossilised, not only once when they
died, but also at their numerous stages of moulting, which provided plentiful
skeletons for fossilisation. Molting is a process of discarding an old skeleton
and developing a new one when an animal grows.

16.2.3 Morphology
Trilobites had a hard external skeleton composed of organic material chitin
which further strengthened with crystals of calcite. Since trilobite is an extinct
group of animals, very little is known about its soft part morphology. It may be
noted that the dorsal side (also known as dorsal shield) of a trilobite is the only
part of its exo-skeleton which is commonly preserved as fossils. Therefore, we
will focus mainly on the dorsal morphology of trilobites.
The exo-skeleton of trilobites is divisible into three parts both longitudinally and
transversely. In longitudinal position or along the body, the skeleton is divided
into one axial lobe and two pleural or lateral lobes. The central lobe is known
as axial lobe (Fig. 16.2a) where as pleural lobes are situated on either side
of the skeleton. The pleural lobe on the right side is described as right pleural
lobe and that on the left side is left pleural lobe (Fig. 16.2a).
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(a) (b)
Fig. 16.2: Trilobation of a trilobite skeleton: a) Longitudinal; and b) Transversal.

The exo-skeleton of trilobites is also divided transversely or across the body

into following three parts (Fig. 16.2b): -
i. Cephalon or head shield
ii. Thorax
iii. Pygidium or tail
The cephalon and pygidium which lie on anterior and posterior margins of the
skeleton, respectively, have fused segments. On the other hand, thorax that
lies between cephalon and pygidium has numerous unfused segments which
are attached to each other (Fig. 16.2b). Let us now discuss each part of a
trilobite skeleton in the same order as given above one by one in the following
section.
Orientation of trilobite skeleton: In a trilobite skeleton, the commonly
preserved surface is the dorsal side, which is the upper or back side of the
animal; the underside or belly portion is referred to as ventral side; cephalon
region is known as its anterior side and pygidium end is the posterior side.
i. Cephalon or Head Shield
The dorsal part of the trilobite skeleton that covers the head is known as
cephalon or head shield. It lies on the anterior margin of the skeleton, has a
semi-circular outline and is formed by fusion of five to seven segments. It is
made up of glabella and cheeks. The raised axial (central) area of cephalon is
called glabella, whereas the portion of cephalon that surrounds glabella
comprises cheeks (Fig. 16.3). There are two axial furrows which separate
glabella from cheeks. Glabella is divided by short transverse furrows into an
anterior lobe and lateral glabellar lobes. Transverse or lateral furrows are
basically the segments present on the left and right margins of the glabella. In
some forms, transverse furrows do not join each other across the median line
and form a median lobe. The last fused segment of glabella close to the
posterior margin of cephalon is known as occipital lobe and is separated from
the rest of glabella by an occipital furrow (Fig. 16.3). It may be noted that
cheeks comprise the portions on either side of the glabella and are divided
along a facial suture into free cheek and fixed cheek. Some trilobites were
eyeless and others had a pair of compound eyes. The compound eyes situate
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at the outer edges of the fixed cheeks on both sides of the glabella, adjacent
to the facial sutures.

Fig. 16.3: Line drawing of a trilobite showing the various morphological

features. (Source: simplified after, Shrock and Twenhofel, 1987; Moore et
al., 1997; Benton and Harper, 2009)

Facial sutures are lines of weakness present on the cheeks. The part of
cheek which is in contact with glabella is termed as fixed cheek and the one
on the outer side is known as free cheek. The combined central portion of
cephalon bounded by glabella and two fixed cheeks (on both sides of the
glabella) is known as cranidium. The angle formed by meeting the lateral and
posterior margins of cephalon is known as genal angle. In some forms, genal
angle is very acute and produces a posterior lateral extension in the form of a
spine, which is described as a genal spine (Fig.16.3). It is interesting to note
that trilobites commonly split their exo-skeleton during molting along the facial
sutures that can be divided into four types with respect to their position at
cephalon’s edge relative to the genal angle as given below and shown in Fig
16.4.
a. Proparian Facial Suture: It cuts margin in front of the genal angle.
b. Opisthoparian Facial Suture: It cuts margin at the genal angle.
c. Gonatoparian Facial Suture: This suture cuts margin behind the genal
angle.
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(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 16.4: Cephalons of trilobites showing various types of facial sutures: a)
Proparian; b) Opisthoparian; and c) Gonatoparian. (Source: simplified
after Nield and Tucker, 1985)

ii. Thorax
Thorax is the central portion of a trilobite’s skeleton, which lies in between
cephalon and pygidium. It is made up of a series of nearly identical segments,
which are usually two to forty two in number and not fused together. The
segments are movable. It may be noted that transversely, each segment is a
single piece, but it is easily divisible into three lobes such as an axial lobe and
two pleural lobes by two axial furrows. The median or central portion of each
segment is known as axial lobe and its lateral lobes lying on either side of the
axial lobe are termed as pleura or pleural lobes (singular, pleuron) (Fig.
16.3). Each pleuron at some distance from the axial lobe is curved forming a
fulcrum. The lateral end of each pleuron may be rounded or produced. If the
end is rounded then it gives rise to an angle known as pleural angle; on the
other, if it is produced then it is termed as pleural spine. The horizontal
grooves present on external surfaces of segments are known as pleural
furrows (Fig. 16.3).
iii. Pygidium
Pygidium is a tail piece, which lies at the posterior margin of trilobite. It is
triangular to semi-triangular in shape and composed of a variable number of
segments, which are fused together, immovable and may be one to thirty in
number. Pygidium may be larger or smaller than the cephalon. Like the
segments of thorax, it is also divided into an axial lobe and two pleural lobes.
In some forms, the posterior end of pygidium has an extension of an axial
spine, which is termed as telson. The spines occurring in the pygidium region
are known as pygidial spines (Fig.16.3).
Based on the size of pygidium, trilobites may be defined as given below and
shown in Fig. 12.5:
a. Micropygous: When pygidium is small.
b. Macropygous: When pygidium is larger than cephalon.
c. Isopygous: Pygidium and cephalon are equal in size.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 16.5: Schematics of trilobites showing: a) Micropygous; b) Macropygous;
and c) Isopygous trilobites.

Key morphological features of trilobites: cephalon or head shield, thorax,

pygidium or tail, glabella, cheeks, genal angle, genal spine, axial furrows,
pleural angle, pleural spine, pleural lobes and telson.
16.2.4 Geological History
Trilobites first appeared in the early Cambrian. During the middle Cambrian
and Ordovician, they underwent a dramatic diversification, which led to the
appearance of many new forms. During these periods, Olenellus, Agnostus,
Paradoxides, Redlichia, Olenus, Illaenus and Calymene were the common
genera of trilobites. After the end of Ordovician, trilobites began to decline
during Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous and completely disappeared at
the end of Permian (Fig. 16.6).

Fig. 16.6: Stratigraphic distribution of trilobites. Width of the column represents

the abundance of trilobites in the Palaeozoic. (Source: simplified after
Milsom and Rigby, 2010)
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It is reasonable to conclude that trilobites were a dominant group of
invertebrates during the early Palaeozoic, as maximum numbers of species
were present in the Cambrian and Ordovician. After that they became less
dominant and vanished at the close of Palaeozoic.

SAQ 1
a) Trilobites were ……… animals.
i) Fresh water ii) Marine iii) Terrestrial
b) Describe transverse and longitudinal divisions of a trilobite skeleton.
c) What is a cephalon?
d) Trilobites belong to the phylum:
i) Echinodermata ii) Mollusca iii) Arthropoda iv) Brachiopoda
e) Geological age range of trilobites is:
i) Cambrian – Cretaceous ii) Cambrian – Carboniferous iii) Cambrian –
Permian

16.3 ECHINODERMS
Like cephalopod molluscs, echinoderms are exclusively marine animals and
did not occur on land or in fresh water. They form a large and successful
phylum of invertebrates. The Phylum Echinodermata (e-KI-no-der-MA-ta)
includes living forms such as sea urchins (echinoids), starfish, brittle stars, sea
lilies (crinoids), sea cucumbers and extinct forms like cystoids and blastoids.
The name Echinodermata is derived from two Greek words Echinos meaning
spiny and Derma meaning skin, referring the spiny-skinned nature of animals.
All echinoderms have a very different body plan, which stands apart from other
invertebrate groups. The echinoderms are spiny-skinned animals and
commonly possess the following three unique body features:
 rigid mesodermal skeleton made of interlocking plates and spines of calcite,
 five-fold or pentameral radial symmetry in adults (Fig. 16.7), which may be
superimposed by a bilateral symmetry, and
 water vascular system used for locomotion, sensing and food gathering.

16.7: Star-fish showing five-fold or pentameral radial symmetry. (Source: Dr. S.N.
Kundal)
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Phylum Echinodermata is divisible into two groups on the basis of their habitat.
1. Eleutherozoans: They are characterised by the absence of stem and are
free and mobile.
Example – echinoids.
2. Pelmatozoans: They have a stem that is attached to the ocean floor.
Typical
Example – crinoids.
It may be noted that echinoids and crinoids are the most significant classes of
echinoderms palaeontologically. Therefore, we will discuss these two classes
in succeeding sections of this unit.

16.4 ECHINOIDS
The echinoids are marine animals and belong to the Class Echinoidea. The
name Echinoidea is derived from two Greek words Echinos meaning spines
and Oidea meaning test, signifying the test covered with spines. They include
sea urchins, heart urchins and sand dollars. The soft parts of the animal are
enclosed inside a rigid calcareous skeleton, which is composed of many
closely fitting plates of calcite. The skeleton of echinoids is also known as test
(Fig. 16.8). The tests may be spherical, globular, discoidal or heart-shaped
and covered with spines. Most of the echinoids show pentameral (five-fold)
radial symmetry whereas a few others show bilateral symmetry. The tests of
echinoids range in size from 3 to 10 cm in diameter or length.

Fig. 16.8: Test of an echinoid. (Source: Dr. V.K. Sharma, Govt. Holkar Science
College, Indore)

Echinoids can be divided into two main groups: regular and irregular.
 Regular or Endocyclic Echinoids: They have five-fold (pentameral) radial
symmetry and spherical to circular body.
 Irregular or Exocyclic Echinoids: They have bilateral symmetry and a
heart-shaped body.
16.4.1 Systematic Palaeonotology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Echinodermata

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Class Echinoidea
Order Regularia
Irregularia
Common genera of echinoids: Echinus, Hemiaster, Micraster, Cidaris,
Cyphosoma, Discoidea, Holaster and Conulus.
16.4.2 Morphology
The tests of most of the echinoids are hemispherical in shape and covered
with spines. A typical test has two poles, namely, oral and aboral. The lower
side of the test is known as oral pole and it is normally flattened. On the other
hand, the upper side, which is usually convex, is termed as aboral pole (Fig.
16.9). The mouth of the animal is situated at the oral pole and anus at the
aboral pole. It is important to note that the terms oral and aboral are used to
describe the position of poles of an echinoid’s test instead of using ventral and
dorsal. The side of the pole where the mouth lies is known as the oral (or
ventral) side and the opposite side where anus lies is referred to as aboral (or
dorsal) side.
A test consists of many interlocking calcitic plates. The plates surrounding the
mouth are collectively described as peristome, whereas those encircling the
anus are termed as periproct. Morphologically, a test of an echinoid may be
divided into three parts:
I. Apical system or disc
II. Corona
III. Peristome

Fig. 16.9: Schematic of an echinoid showing the main divisions of the test.

I. Apical System or Apical Disc: It is a small area lying at the apex or

summit of the aboral surface (Fig. 16.9). It is composed of ten plates which
form a ring around the periproct. Out of these ten plates, five are known as
genital plates and the rest are ocular plates. The genital plates are larger
and hexagonal in outline and form the inner part of the ring. One of the
genital plates is larger than other genital plates, has many small pores,
and is known as madreporite or porous plate (Fig. 16.10). The ocular

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plates are smaller than genital plates and triangular to pentagonal in
outline. Each of the genital and ocular plates is perforated by a pore. It
may be noted that to complete a ring of ten plates around the periproct,
both genital and ocular plates are attached alternatively with each other
and in many cases ocular plates partially form the outer part of the ring. In
such cases, ocular plates do not touch the periproct and this condition of
the test is termed as exsert (Fig. 16.11a). However, in other cases, ocular
plates separate the genital plates and touch the periproct, this condition is
known as insert (Fig. 16.11b). It may be noted that in irregular echinoids,
the apical disc is small and does not encircle the periproct.

Fig. 16.10: Line drawing of the aboral view of an echinoid showing the apical
system. Note: 1 to 5 are ambulacral plates and I to V are the inter-
ambulacral plates.

(a) (b)
Fig.16.11: View of the apical systems of echinoids showing: a) exsert; and b)
insert tests.

II. Corona: It is the main part of the test, which starts from the apical disc and
ends at the peristome. It is composed of ten pairs of columns of plates,
which are collectively described as the coronal plates. Out of these ten
pairs, five double columns which carry tube feet are known as ambulacral
plates and the other five with no tube feet are termed as the inter-
ambulacral plates (Fig. 16.10). Tube feet are small fleshy suckers which
come up from the water-vascular system of the animal through pores in
the test to capture food. The five double columns of ambulacral plates are
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separated by five double columns of inter-ambulacral plates, in which each
double column is described as an area. The area of ambulacral plate is
termed ambulacral area and area of an inter-ambulacral plate is known as
inter-ambulacral area (Fig. 16.10). In each area, plates are fixed
alternatively. Each pair of both ambulacral and inter-ambulacral columns is
composed of two rows of elongated plates, which meet along a central
suture in a zig-zag pattern. The ambulacral plates are small in size, larger
in number, perforated by pores and in contact with ocular plates of the
apical disc. The inter-ambulacral plates are larger in size, small in number
as compared to ambulacral plates, bear spines and terminate against the
genital plates of the apical disc. Ambulacral plates are said to be simple
ambulacral plates if they are made up of only a single piece and said to
be compound plates when they are made up of two or more smaller
plates. In some form of echinoids, the ambulacral plates look-like a petal
and all ambulacral plates together show a flower-like structure, which is
termed as petaloid. It should be noted that ambulacral and inter-
ambulacral plates lie alternatively and run vertically between periproct and
peristome. The coronal plates may be covered by spines and tubercles.
Tests of regular ehinoids possess the larger spines and tubercles whereas
smaller spines and tubercles are found on tests of irregular ehinoids.
III. Peristome: It lies on the oral side of the test. Peristome is an opening in
the test associated with the mouth and is circular to polygonal in outline
(Fig. 16.12). The mouth of an animal occurs at the centre of the peristome
and represents a region where ambulacral and inter-ambulacral plates
converge. It would be of interest to you to note that both periproct (an
opening associated with anus) and peristome are generally not preserved
in fossils.

Fig. 16.12: Oral view of an echinoid showing the peristome.

Key morphological features of echinoids: genital plates, ocular plates,

madreporite, ambulacral plates, inter- ambulacral plates, periproct and
peristome.
16.4.3 Geological History
The earliest echinoids are known from the Ordovician. They diversified during
the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Permian periods of the Palaeozoic era
During the Carboniferous, they suffered considerable loss in their diversity

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(Fig. 12.13). However, they did not emerge as a dominant group of
echinoderms during the Palaeozoic times. The complete fossils of echinoids
from the Palaeozoic are rare and we may find their fragmentary remains
consisting of isolated spines and pieces of test. It is interesting to note that the
majority of the Palaeozoic echinoids belong to the order Regularia.
In Mesozoic, echinoids underwent a dramatic diversification and became a
dominant group of the phylum Echinodermata. Irregular echinoids first
appeared in the Mesozoic and most of the Mesozoic echinoids belong to order
Irregularia. During the Mesozoic, echinoids emerged as a significant element
of marine fauna. During the Cenozoic they became less important but they
diversified during the late Cenozoic. In Cenozoic, irregular echinoids became
more important while the regular echinoids became less abundant. At present
there are more than 900 species of echinoids living in various oceans and
seas. Echinoids are entirely marine and their fossils are good indicators of
marine environment.

Fig. 16.13: Stratigraphic distribution of echinoids. Width of column represents

the abundance of echinoids in a particular period/era. (source:
simplified after Jones, 2011)

SAQ 2
a) What are the three characteristic features of echinoderms?
b) Write three parts of an echinoid test.
c) Apical disc of the echinoid is made up of ----------------------- plates.
d) Echinoderms live:
i) in fresh water ii) in ocean iii) on land
e) Give the geological age range of echinoids.

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16.5 CRINOIDS
Crinoids are popularly known as sea lilies because older forms look more like
plants than animals. The modern forms are known as feather stars. They are,
indeed, animals and closely related to other echinoderms particularly sea
urchins and starfish. The name Crinoid is derived from two Greek words
Krinoni meaning lily and Oid meaning like, referring to lily-like appearance of
the animal. Crinoids belong to the Class Crinoidea of the Phylum
Echinodermata. They are generally flower-like animals, which occur mostly
attached to the sea bottom by means of a stem, for example, as sea lilies
whereas others are stemless movable forms, for example, feather stars. Most
of the living or modern crinoids are stemless feather stars. The sea lilies occur
in the deep ocean whereas feather stars occupy shallow waters. It may be
noted that the stemless crinoids are also attached to the sea bed by a stem
during their early growth stage, but in the adult stage they break their stems
from the sea bed and become free-swimming forms. They possess an
attachment mechanism known as cirri so that whenever required they could
attach themselves temporarily to the sea bed.
Crinoids possess pentameral (five-fold) symmetry and their body consists of a
stem, a calyx and movable arms. The body size of crinoids ranges from 1 mm
to 18 m in length. Most living stemless crinoids are less than 25 cm in length
(Moore et al., 1997).
16.5.1 Systematic Palaeonotology
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Echinodermata
Class Crinoidea
Subclass Inadunata
Flexibilia
Camerata
Articulata
Key genera of crinoids: Antedon, Dendrocrinus, Merocrinus, Thenarocrinus,
Cupulocrinus, Encrinus, Apiocrinites and Erisocrinus.
16.5.2 Morphology
The body of a typical crinoid is composed of numerous calcite plates held
together by means of muscle and ligaments. It is divided into three parts from
bottom to top:
 Stem
 Calyx
 Arms
I. Stem: Stem is a more or less flexible part of the animal where its lower
end is commonly attached to the ocean floor and the upper end is fixed to

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the calyx. It is made up of disc-shaped calcareous columnar plates, which
are arranged usually in a single series and termed as ossicles or
columnals (Fig. 16.14). All columnal plates have a central canal and these
canals together form an axial canal. The axial canal is circular in outline,
but in some forms it shows pentameral symmetry. Most columnal plates of
the stem are marked by grooves, which hold the columnal plates together
tightly and produce a rigid stem. While in other cases, columnal plates
have a central ridge, which joins the plates loosely and produces a flexible
stem.
The root-like structure, which fixes the lower part of the stem to the ocean
floor permanently, is known as holdfast. The free-swimming forms of
crinoids can attach temporarily their stems to the ocean floor by a root-like
structure known as cirri.
II. Calyx: It is located between the stem and arms, and houses the vital
organs of animal-like digestive and reproductive organs. It is generally
made up of two rings of calcareous plates, namely, basals and radials (Fig.
16.14). Basal plates are five in number and located in the region where
the top most part of the stem meets the lowermost part of calyx. In a few
crinoids, three extra plates occur between the stem and basal plates,
which are termed as infra-basals. Radial plates are also five in number
and are situated above the basal plates. On the basis of basals, radials
and infra-basals crinoids are morphologically classified into:
 Monocyclic crinoids: These possess only basal and radials.
 Dicyclic crinoids: These possess the basals, radials and infra-basals.
It is reasonable to note that the part of the calyx above the arm bases is
the ventral or oral surface and is known as tegmen. The part of the calyx
below the arm bases is the dorsal or aboral surface. The mouth of an
animal is situated in the centre of the ventral or oral surface and anus is
located peripheral to it. A combination of calyx and the arms is known as
the crown.
III. Arms: Arms are the topmost part of the body. They are present on all
crinoids, radiating off from the radials of the calyx. The arms, usually five in
number or multiples of five, are a more flexible feature of the crinoid body.
Hence, they are free to move in any direction. Each arm is made up of a
number of calcareous ossicles or plates known as brachial or arm (Fig.
16.14). The brachial plates may be either in a single row or in two rows
and are described as uni-serial and bi-serial, respectively. The brachials
may bear fine unbranched extensions like the leaves of a fern known as
pinnules, which give feathery appearance to the arms. It may be noted
that the main function of arms is to capture the food particles and supply
them to the mouth, which is located in the centre of calyx. Anal tube is an
elongate chimney-like extension from the centre of tegmen. It has an anal
opening at the top.
Key morphological features of crinoids: Stem calyx, arms, columnals,
axial canal, holdfast, cirri, basals, radials, pinnules and anal tube.

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Fig. 16.14: Line drawing of a crinoid showing its basic morphological

characters. (Source: modified after Nield, 1987)

16.5.3 Geological History

Crinoids first appeared in the Ordovician. They diversified during the
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian of the Palaeozoic.
However, they also sustained a significant loss in diversity during the late
Devonian and late Permian (Fig. 16.15). A majority of crinoids appeared in the
Paleozoic. Most of the Palaeozoic crinoids were permanently fixed to the
ocean floor by stems and free-swimming forms did not appear in this era.
Crinoids formed an important component of marine fauna from Ordovician to
Permian in the Palaeozoic era. At the end of Palaeozoic, most crinoids died
out and only a single form survived into the Mesozoic.
The stemless crinoids first appeared in the Triassic. Both stemed and
stemless crinoids were present in the Mesozoic, but they did not emerge as a
dominant group of echinoderms. From Mesozoic to present, crinoids have

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Unit 16
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....… Trilobites and Echinoderms
continuously been persisting in marine environments and stemless forms have
increased their dominance over the stemed crinoids.

Fig. 16.15: Stratigraphic distribution of crinoids. Width of column represents the

abundance of crinoids in a particular period/era. (Source: simplified
after Jones, 2011)

SAQ 3
a) Echinoids and crinoids belong to the phylum:
a) Brachiopoda b) Mollusca c) Echinodermata d) Echinoidea
b) Crinoids are:
a) Invertebrates b) Plants c) Vertebrates
c) List the major hard parts of a crinoid’s body.
d) What is the geological age range of crinoids?

16.6 ACTIVITY
In subsection 16.2.3, you have learnt about the various morphological features
of trilobites. Below is a line drawing of a trilobite (Fig. 16.16). Try to identify the
following morphological features: cephalon or head shield, thorax, pygidium or
tail, glabella, cheeks, facial suture, axial furrows, occipital lobe, pleural furrow,
pleural lobes and telson, and label them.

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Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology
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Fig. 16.16: Line drawing of a trilobite.

16.7 SUMMARY
Let us quickly summarise what you have read in this unit.
 Trilobites and echinoderms were/are exclusively marine animals.
 Trilobite had an exo-skeleton, which is easily divisible into three parts –
cephalon or head shield, thorax and pygidium or tail.
 Trilobite is an extinct group and its age ranges from Cambrian to Permian.
 The body of most of the echinoderms possesses the five-fold or pentameral
radial symmetry and has an internal or endo-skeleton.
 Skeleton of a typical echinoid is divisible into the apical system, corona and
peristone.
 The geological age range of echinoids is from the Ordovician to the present.
Echinoids were a dominant group of invertebrates during the Mesozoic.
 Skeleton of a crinoid consists of three parts: stem, calyx and arms.
 The geological age range of crinoids is from Ordovician period to present.
Crinoids were a significant group of invertebrates during the Palaeozoic.

16.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe with neat sketches the morphological features of a trilobite.
2. Write major morphological characters of echinoids and crinoids.
3. Give a short account of the geological history of trilobites.
4. Discuss the geological history of echinoids and crinoids.

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Unit 16 Trilobites and Echinoderms
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16.9 REFERENCES
 Benton, M.J. and Harper, D.A.T. (2009) Introduction to Paleobiology and
the Fossil Record, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex.
 Jones, R.W. (2011) Applications of Paleontology – Techniques and Case
Studies, Cambridge University, Cambridge.
 Milsom, C. and Rigby, S. (2010) Fossils at a Glance, Wiley-Blackwell, West
Sussex.
 Moore, R.C., Lalicker, C.G. and Fischer, A. G. (1997) Invertebrate Fossils,
CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 Nield, E.W. (1987) Drawing and Understanding Fossils, Pergamon Press,
Oxford.
 Nield, E.W. and Tucker, V.C.T (1985) Palaeontology – An Introduction,
Pergamon, Press, Oxford.
 Shrock, R.R. and Twenhofel, W.H. (1987) Principles of Invertebrate
Paleontology, CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

16.10 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ray, A. K. (2008) Fossils in Earth Sciences, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi.
 Shah, S.K. (2013) Elements of Palaeontology, Geological Society of India,
Bangalore.

16.11 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 a) ii)
b) Cephalon or head shield, thorax and pygidium or tail are the transverse
divisions of a trilobite skeleton. Longitudinally, the skeleton of a trilobite is
divisible into one central axial lobe and two pleural or lateral lobes.
c) Cephalon or head shield is the dorsal part of a trilobite skeleton covering
the head. It lies on the anterior margin of the skeleton and is semi-
circular in outline. Cephalon is formed by the fusion of five to seven
segments. It is made up of glabella and cheeks. The raised axial
(central) area of cephalon is known as glabella. The portion of cephalon
surrounded by the glabella is termed as cheeks. Cheeks are further
divided into free and fixed cheeks by the facial suture.
d) iii)
e) iii)
2 a) The three characteristic features of echinoderms are:
I. they have a rigid mesodermal skeleton composed of interlocking
plates and spines of calcite,
II. their body have five-fold or pentameral radial symmetry, but some
advanced forms show bilateral symmetry, and
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Block 4 Invertebrate Palaeontology
………………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…........
III. they have a water vascular system.
b) The three parts of a typical echinoid test are: i. apical system or disc, ii.
corona and iii. peristome.
c) ocular and genital plates.
d) b).
e) Geological age range of echinoids is from Ordovician to present.
3 a) iii).
b) i).
c) The major hard parts of a crinoid body are: i) stem, ii. calyx and iii. arms.
d) The geological age range of crinoids is from Ordovician to present.
Terminal Questions
1. Refer to the subsection 16.2.2.
2. Refer to the subsections 16.5.2 and 16.6.2.
3. Refer to the subsection 16.2.3.
4. Refer to the subsections 16.5.3 and 16.6.3.

170
 Glossary
Ammonoid : An extinct group of marine cephalopod molluscs
belonging to the subclass Ammonidea of the phylum
Mollusca. The name Ammonoidea is derived from the
Egyptian God “Ammon”. The God “Ammon” is often
depicted with ram’s horn behind the ears and the tightly
coiled shells of ammonoids resemble ram’s horns,
hence they are known as Ammonoidea. They have a
coiled shell with complex sutures. They first appeared
in early Devonian and became extinct at the end of
Cretaceous.

Sea anemone : Belongs to phylum Cnidaria. It is a close relative of

corals, which lives on the sea floor with its tentacles
pointing upwards.

Aragonite : A mineral form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is

commonly found in the shells of many marine
organisms.

Arthropods : The name Arthropoda is derived from two Greek words

arthron meaning joint and podos meaning leg, which
together referring jointed leg. All arthropods have
bilateral symmetry, a segmented body along with a
hard exo-skeleton.

Apex : Tip or top of the shell.

Beak : A sharp pointed tip of the valve representing the initial

growth of the shell and generally lies near or above the
hinge line.

Belemnites : Belong to an extinct order Belemnitida of the phylum

Mollusca. They existed during the Mesozoic.

Benthos : Marine animals that live on, in, at or near the sea bed.

Bivalves : Belong to the class Bivalvia of the phylum Mollusca.

Bivalves are characterised by their two equal and
hinged valves.

Brachiopods : Marine animals belonging to the phylum Brachiopoda.

They are characterised by having two asymmetrical
valves.

Brittle stars : Marine animals belonging to the phylum Echinodermata

and closely related to starfish.

171
 Buoyancy : The capacity of a shell to float or to rise in the sea
water.

Burrow : A tunnel or hole made into the sediment by an animal

to create a space suitable for habitation or temporary
refuge.

Calcite : A form of the mineral of calcium carbonate (CaCO3),

which is utilised by many organisms to make their
skeleton or shells. Calcite and aragonite are both
carbonate minerals and have the same chemical
composition (CaCo3), but in the two minerals the
packing of carbonate ions is different. The chemical
structure of calcite is more stable, as a result, shells of
invertebrates made up of calcite are chemically stable
and do not get dissolved in the same marine conditions
under which they are formed and have more chances
for their preservation. The structure of aragonite is less
stable so, the shells with aragonite composition usually
get dissolved under the same marine conditions in
which they form, leaving less chance for their
preservation.

Calcium : A chemical compound having chemical formula

carbonate CaCO3. It is found mainly in sedimentary rocks such as
limestone and dolomite, and is also a main component
of shells of marine organisms.

Carnivorous : Flesh or meat-eating organisms.

Cephalopods : Marine animals belonging to the class Cephalopoda of

the phylum Mollusca. They include animals with
chambered shells. The name Cephalopoda is derived
from Greek words Cephalo meaning head and Podos
meaning foot, referring to head and foot, which signifies
that the foot is directly attached to the head.

Chitin : A hard organic material made up of protein. It forms the

exo-skeleton of arthropods and is found in cell walls of
fungi.

Chitons : Marine animals belonging to the class Polyplacophora

of the phylum Mollusca. The shells of chitons consist of
eight hard calcareous plates or valves.

Cirri : A root-like structure of the stemless crinoids.

172
Cladistics : A system to classify organisms based on their
evolutionary history in terms of shared and derived
characters.

Clams : Bivalves that burrow under the sea floor. They belong
to the class Bivalvia of the phylum Mollusca.

Commissure : The line along which the two valves of bivalves and
brachiopods join.

Conch : A shell.

Corallum : A skeleton of a simple coral.

Corallite : A skeleton of each coral polyp in a colony of corals.

Corals : Colourful and flower-like simple sea animals belonging

to class the Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They
generally have a hard exo-skeleton and mostly live in
colonies.

Coral reefs : Underwater hard and consolidated structures formed of

calcium carbonate secreted by corals.

Cuttlefish : Marine animals belonging to the class Cephalopoda of

the phylum Mollusca. A cuttlefish possesses an internal
structure called the cuttlebone and hence its name.
Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but true
molluscs.

Deep marine/sea : Includes the continental slope and abyssal plain. The
floor continental slope is the sloping region between a
continental shelf and a continental rise, i.e., between
200 m to 5 km. The abyssal plain lies at the depth of 3
to 6 km below the sea level.

Dentition : A set of teeth; in molluscs it includes hinge teeth and

sockets.

Dextral shell : A shell with clockwise coiling and aperture on the right
side.

Ecological niche : The way in which an organism interacts with its

environment and community; it is the status of an
organism in its environment.

Endo-skeleton : An internal supporting skeleton originating from

mesodermal cells found in vertebrates and
echinoderms.

173
 Epifaunal : Includes those organisms, which live on the top of
substratum, not within the sediment.

Exo-skeleton : Supporting and protective covering; outside/external

skeleton, e.g., found in arthropods and molluscs.

Extinct animals : Those species which are no longer living.

Foramen : Asmall opening of the shell/bone.

Fossils : Remains of past or ancient life commonly preserved in

sedimentary rocks.

Gastropods : Marine and terrestrial coiled animals belonging to class

Gastropoda of the phylum Mollusca. The term
Gastropoda is derived from two Greek words, Gastro
means stomach (belly) and Pod means foot, (i.e.,
stomach-foot), which signifies the position of foot on
the ventral margin of the animal.

Geological : The story of a changing Earth over billions of years; in

history an organism’s context, it focuses on the origin,
evolution, biogeography, and phases of extinction and
diversification of life.

Globular : The spherical shape.

Growth lines : The lines on the surface of a shell marking the position
of the margin at some stage of growth.

Heart urchins : Burrowing echinoids belonging to the class Echinoidea

of the phylum Echinodermata. The body of a heart
urchin is usually oval or heart-shaped.

Hinge line : An imaginary zone of attachment where two valves of

brachiopods or bivalves open and close.

Holdfast : A root-like structure occurring at the base of crinoid

stems that firmly attaches the animal to the seabed.

Hydrostatic : The pressure coming from the weight of the

pressure liquid/water.

Imperforate shell : A shell with no holes or pores.

Index fossil : A fossil that has short geological range and wide
geographical distribution e.g., ammonoids. These are
used to identify or date geological periods.

174
Infaunal : Includes animals living within the sediment and not on
the top of sediment.

Invertebrates : Animals with no backbone or vertebral column, e.g.,

molluscs, corals, brachiopods.

Jellyfish : Free-swimming marine animals belonging to the

phylum Cnidaria.

Limpets : A group of marine snails belonging to the class

Gastropoda of the phylum Mollusca. They have a
simple and broadly conical shell.

Living chamber : The last developed chamber of a cephalopod shell

where the animal sits.

Living fossil : An organism or species which has retained its original

morphological characters over millions of years, has no
living relatives and represents a sole survivor of the
group. Some examples include the cephalopod
Nautilus, the brachiopod Lingula and the plant Ginkgo.

Lophophore : A feeding and respiratory organ found in brachiopods.

Marine : Pertaining to the oceans.

Marine animals : Include all animals that live in the ocean

Mollusca : A diverse group of animals belonging to the phylum

Mollusca of the kingdom Animalia. Gastropods,
bivalves and cephalopods are its main representatives.
The name Mollusca is derived from the Latin word
molluscus and refers to the soft-bodied animal
enclosed in a shell.

Morphology : Study of the forms and structure of organisms.

Mussels : Marine to fresh water animals belonging to the class

Bivalvia of the phylum Mollusca and their shells are
elongated and asymmetrical in outline.

Nautiluses : Marine animals belonging to the class Cephalopoda of

the phylum Mollusca. They have an external coiled
shell. Nautiluses include living genus Nautilus.

Nekton : A swimming animal that live in an open ocean.

Nocturnal : Includes those animals that are active in night.

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 Nudibranchs : Sea snails having no shell and belong to the Phylum
Mollusca.

Ocean bottom : The bottom of a sea or ocean.

Ocean floor : A part of the Earth’s surface beneath the seas and the
oceans.

Octopuses : Cephalopod molluscs which belong to the order

Octopoda. They have two eyes and four pairs of arms
with bilateral symmetry and no internal or external
skeleton.

Oysters : Marine bivalves belonging to the class Bivalvia and the

phylum Mollusca.

Palaeontologist : A scientist who studies fossils.

Palp : is an elongated appendage which is found usually near

the mouth of molluscs and its functions include
sensation, locomotion and feeding.

Parasite : An organism that lives on or in a host (another

organism) and gets its food from the host. Equivalent

Pedicle valve : The valve in a brachiopod shell that contains the

pedicle.

Pelagic life : is the life of pelagic zone.

Pelagic zone : The area of the ocean outside of coastal areas and it
contains some of the biggest marine animals.

Pentameral : A five-fold symmetry, a characteristic feature of

symmetry echinoderms.

Perforate shell : A shell with holes or pores.

Periwinkles : Small marine snails belonging to the class Gastropoda

of the phylum Mollusca.

Phragmocone : A chambered part of a cephalopod shell.

Planispiral : The coiling of the shell in one direction.

coiling

Plankton : An organism that floats in the ocean or in lake waters.

Polyp : A single coral animal.

176
Predator : An animal that preys on others.

Protoconch : The first or original shell.

Rudist bivalves : An extinct group of box, tube or ring shaped marine

bivalves. They had two asymmetrical valves with one
valve attached to the sea floor. First appeared during
the Jurassic and became extinct at the end of
Cretaceous. Their fossils are found in the tropics in the
Mediterranean, the Middle East, Caribbean and
Southeast Asia.

Sand dollars : Burrowing sea urchins belonging to the class

Echinoidea of the phylum Echinodermata.

Scavenging : Feeding on dead organisms

Scallops : Marine bivalves.

Sea bed : The bottom of the ocean and is also known as the
seafloor, sea floor, or ocean floor.

Sea anemone : A close relative of corals, which lives on the sea floor
with tentacles pointing upwards.

Sea cucumbers : Marine animals with a leathery skin and elongated

body. They belong to the class Holothuroidea of the
phylum Echinodermata.

Sea fans : Marine animals belonging to the class Anthozoa of the

phylum Cnidaria.

Sea lilies : Plant likes marine animals belonging to the class

Crinoidea of the phylum Echinodermata.

Sea pens : Colonial marine animals belonging to the class

Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria.

Sea urchins : Small, spiny and globular marine animals belonging to

the class Echinoidea of the Echinodermata.

Sessile : Animals that live on the ocean floor and which do not
move.

Star-fishes : Marine animals belonging to the class Asteroidea of the

phylum Echinodermata. They grasp their prey with their
tube feet.

177
 Shell : A hard rigid mainly calcareous covering of an animal.

Shell : Microscopic structure of the shell.

microstructure

Shipworm : A group of unusual marine wood-boring clams

belonging to the class Bivalvia of the phylum Mollusca.
They have long, soft and naked bodies.

Sinistral : A shell with anti-clockwise coiling and aperture on the

left side.

Slugs : Shell-less land gastropods, which belong to the class

Gastropoda of the phylum Mollusca.

Snails : The land gastropods. They have a coiled and conical-

shaped shell.

Squids : Cephalopods, belonging to the class Cephalopoda of

the phylum Mollusca. They have a distinct head, a
mantle, eight arms and two long tentacles. They are
good swimmers.

Systematics : The study of biological diversity and its evolution.

Substratum : A layer of sediments that lies beneath another layer of

sediment.

Surface sculpture : The external ornamentation of the shells.

Tentacles : Flexible, mobile and elongated organs soft parts

present in some invertebrates, e.g., corals,
cephalopods. Animals used tentacles mainly for
grasping and feeding.

Tooth shells : Burrowing marine molluscs belonging to the class

Scaphopoda of the phylum Mollusca. They have a
long, tapering and slightly curved tubular shell.

Tubercles : Small root like extensions from a shell or skeleton.

Umbo : The region of maximum curvature of the valve close to

the beak.

Univalves : Animals with single valves, e.g., gastropods.

Valve : One half of a brachiopod or bivalve shell. Two valves

together make a complete shell.

178
Whelk : A marine snail.

Wood-boring : Include two groups of bivalves such as shipworms

bivalves (family Teredinidae) and giant clams (family
Tridacnidae) which bore wood as a food source.

179
 NOTES

180
NOTES

181
 NOTES

182
NOTES

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Dear Learner,
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