ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

Cell’s Organells
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lessons, student will be able to:
• Define cells
• Identify the cell’s organelles and its functions
• Understand the concept of transcription and
translation
• Understand the mechanisms of mitosis and
meiosis
• Understand types of cell’s transportation
 Cells

• Cells are the smallest living things

• Cells are the structural and functional subunits
of all of our body systems

• Cell Biology is the study of cells, their internal

structures, and the chemical reactions that
occur within them
 Cells

 Every cell has 3 principal parts:

 The plasma membrane is the flexible outer
surface of the cell
 The cytoplasm contains numerous
organelles surrounded by cytosol
 The nucleus is a large organelle that
contains the cells chromosomes
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Plasma Membrane
o The plasma membrane @plasmalemma is a strong but
flexible barrier between the interior of a cell and the
outside world

o The fluid mosaic model describes membrane structure:

o A bilayer of phospholipids provides a structural
foundation
o A variety of membrane proteins interact with the lipids
o All lipids and many proteins are able to move about
freely

o The plasma membrane is the major means that cells use to

communicate with other cells and with the environment
• Plasma Membrane
1) Physical isolation The cell membrane is a physical
barrier that separates the inside
of the cell from the surrounding
extracellular fluid.
2) Regulation of exchange with The cell membrane controls the
the environment entry of ions and nutrients, such
as glucose; the elimination of
wastes; and the release of
secretions.
3) Sensitivity to the environment The cell membrane is the 1st part
of the cell affected by changes in
the composition, concentration,
or pH of the extracellular fluid.
4) Structural support Specialized connections between
cell membrane , or between
membranes and extracellular
materials, give tissues stability.
 Membrane Lipids
 Lipids form most of the surface area of the cell
membrane (but they account only about 42% of its
weight).
 Phospholipid bilayer?? Why??
- The phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane
form two layers.
- Phospholipid has both a hydrophilic end (the
phosphate portion - at the membrane surface) and a
hydrophobic end (the lipid portion – on the inside).
- Contains cholesterol and small quantities of other
lipids.
 Membrane Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates account for roughly 3% of the weight of

a cell membrane.
 They are components of complex molecules such as
proteoglycans, glycolipids and glycoproteins.
 Forming a layer known as glycocalyx.
 Important functions of glycocalyx:
i) Lubrication and protection
-form a viscous layer that lubricates
and protects the CM.
• ii) Anchoring and locomotion
• -can help anchor the cell in place because the
components are sticky.
• -it also participates in the locomotion of
specialized cells.
• iii) Specificity binding
• -Glycoprotein and Glycolipid can function as
receptors, binding specific extracellular
• compounds, such binding can alter the
properties of the cell surface
• and indirectly affect the cell’s behavior.
• iv) Recognition
• - Glycoprotein and Glycolipid are recognize as
normal and abnormal by cells involved with the
immune response.
Membrane Carbohydrates
 Membrane Proteins
 Proteins are much denser than lipids (account for roughly 55% of
the weight of a cell membrane).
 Structural classes of membrane proteins:
i) Integral protein
-cannot be removed without damaging or destroying the
membrane.
-also known as transmembrane protein because it span the width
of
the membrane one or more times.
ii) Peripheral protein
-bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane and easily
separated from it.
 Membrane Proteins -Functions & Structures
-MP may have a variety of specialized functions

Channels
-Some IP contain a central pore/channel
-The channel permits the movement of water
and small solutes across the CM.

Carrier proteins
-Bind solutes and transport across the CM
-The transport process involves a change in
shape of the carrier protein when solute
binding occurs,
-may require ATP as energy source.

Receptor proteins
-receptor are sensitive to the presence of
specific extracellular molecules (ligands).
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. -Binding of receptor protein with ligands may
trigger changes in the activity of the cell
 Membrane Proteins -Functions & Structures
-MP may have a variety of specialized functions

Enzymes
-Enzymes in CM may be integral or peripheral
proteins.
-The catalyze reactions in the extracellular
fluid/cytosol, depending on the location of the
protein and its active site.

Anchoring proteins
-AP attach the CM to other structure and
stabilize its position.
-e.g inside-cytoskeleton, outside – attach to
another cell.

Recognition protein/Identifiers
-the cells of the immune system recognize other
cells as normal
Copyrightand abnormal
2010, John based on the
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

presence or absence of characteristic

recognition protein
Cytoplasm VS Cytosol
 Cytosol VS Extracellular Fluid (EF)

Differences Cytosol @ IF Extracellular Fluid (EF)

1) Concentration of potassium High Low
ions

2) Concentration of Low High

sodium ions

3) Suspended proteins Higher concentration Lower concentration

4) Carbohydrates Small quantities Medium quantities
5) Amino acids and lipids Small reserves No reserves
6) Masses of insolubles Same (e.g. pigment granules, glycogen granules)
materials
 The Organells
• Organelles are structures that each perform specific
functions for the cell.
• Perform the tasks that keep a cell alive and functioning
normally.
• ..specific functions related to cell structure, growth,
maintenance & metabolism.
• 2 categories of cellular organelles:
1) Non membranous organelles
2) Membranous organelles
1) Non membranous organelles
-are not completely enclosed by membranes.
-all of the components are in direct contact
with the cytosol.
-cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia,
ribosomes & proteasomes.
2) Membranous organelles
-isolated from the cytosol by phospholipid
membranes.
-endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
mitochondria & nucleus.
 The Cytoskeleton
• Functions as the cell’s skeleton.
• Provides an internal protein framework that gives the cytoplasm
strength and stability.
• Includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.
• Major functions:
• Determining cell shape
• Plays a role in cell metabolic functions
• Organizing the specific protein synthesis
• Organizing the contents of the cell
• Moving organelles
• Moving chromosomes during cell division
• Creating and moving membrane vesicles (in phagocytosis etc.)
 Microfilaments
• The smallest of the cytoskeletal elements are the
microfilaments.
• Less than 6 nm in diameter, composed of the protein
ACTIN (common in the periphery of the cell and rare in
the region surrounding the nucleus).
• 3 major functions:
i) Anchor the cytoskeleton to integral proteins of the cell
membrane (provide the additional mechanical strength
and attach the cell membrane to the enclosed
cytoplasm).
ii) Interact with other proteins and determine the
consistency of the cytoplasm.
iii) Interact with the protein MYOSIN to produce active
movement and change
the shape of entire cell.
 Microfilaments

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Intermediate Filaments

• The protein composition of IF varies among cell types.

• Range from 7 - 11 nm in diameter, intermediate in size.
• 3 major functions:
i) strengthen the cell and help maintain its shape.
ii) stabilize the position of the organelles.
iii) stabilize the position of the cell with respect to
surrounding cells through
specialized attachment to the cell membrane.
• e.g. the keratin fibers in superficial layers of the
skin are IF that makes these
• layers strong and able to resist stretching,
 Intermediate Filaments

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Microtubules
• All our cells contain microtubules (hollow tubes built from globular
protein TUBULIN, the distribution in the cell change over the time)
• Diameters about 25 nm, extend outward into the periphery of the
cell from a region near the nucleus called the centrosome.
• 4 major functions:
i) Form the primary components of the cytoskeleton (giving the cell
strength,
rigidity and anchoring the position of major organelles).
ii) Provides a mechanism for changing the shape and movement of
the cell.
iii) Serves as a kind of monorail system to move vesicles or other
organelles
within the cell.
iv) Form structural components of organelles such as centrioles and
cilia.
 Microtubules

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Microvilli Centrioles

 Small, finger-shaped. • Cylindrical structures composed of

microtubules.
 Increase the surface area that are
actively absorbing materials.
• Intimately associated with the
cytoskeleton.
 Cover the surfaces of the cells
• Forms the mitotic spindle during cell
 Have extensive connections with the division
cytoskeleton
• Associated with the movements of
 Microfilaments helps to stiffen each DNA strands.
microvillus and anchors it to the • Without centrioles, cells are incapable
cytoskeleton of dividing.
 Cilia and Flagella
• Projections of the cell surface that create movement
• Cilia move fluid along the cell surface
• Flagella move cells through the medium
 Ribosomes
• Responsible for protein synthesis
• Ribosomes have two major subunits, that are
normally separate, distinct and made of both
RNA and proteins (both contain special proteins
and ribosomal RNA).

-Small ribosomal subunit

-Large ribosomal subunit

• Before protein synthesis can begin, a small and

large subunit must join together to form complete
functional ribosome.

• 2 types of functional ribosomes:

i) Free ribosomes make proteins used in the
cytosol

ii) Attached/fixed ribosomes make proteins used

in membranes and for export (attached to ER).
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER,SER)
• ER is a network of intracellular membranes connected to
the nuclear envelope (surrounds the nucleus).
(Endo=within, plasm=cytoplasm, reticulum=network).
• The ER has 4 major functions:
i) Synthesis – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids.
ii) Storage – storage synthesize materials without
affecting cellular operations.
iii) Transport – materials can travel in the ER.
iv) Detoxification – drugs or toxins can be absorbed
and then neutralized by the enzymes within it.
 Smooth ER (SER)

• Smooth refer to the fact that no ribosomes are associated with the ER.
• Associated with the synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates
• The SER functions:
i) Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol needed for maintenance and growth of
the CM, nuclear membrane, and Golgi apparatus in cells.
ii) Synthesis of steroid hormone such as androgens and estrogens.
iii) Synthesis and storage of glycerides especially triacylglycerides, in liver and fat
cells.
iv) Synthesis and storage of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells.
v) Responsible for the detoxification and inactivation of drugs especially in liver and
kidneys cells.
 Rough ER (RER)

• Functions as a combination workshop and shipping depot.

• Many newly synthesized proteins are chemically modified and packaged for
export to their next destination.
• Types of ribosomes  fixed ribosomes (rough appearance, grainy).
• mRNA provides instructions to ribosomes to synthesize proteins.
• Proteins were then packaged into small membranous sacs (transport vesicles)
before deliver their contents to the Golgi apparatus.
 The Golgi Apparatus

• 3 major functions of the Golgi Apparatus:

i) modifies and packages secretions, such as hormones and enzymes, for release
through exocytosis.
ii) renews or modifies the cell membrane.
iii) packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in the cytosol.
• 3 types of vesicles that carry materials away from the GA:
i) Secretory vesicles – contain secretions that will be discharged from the cell.
ii) Membrane vesicles – can alter the sensitivity and functions of the cell
according to the materials that binds/fuse with it.
iii) Lysosomes – contain digestive enzymes.
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 The GA-Processing and Packaging of Proteins

1) RER synthesized the proteins and packaged it in the vesicles.

2) Transport vesicles will deliver the protein to the entry face of cysternae in GA.
3) Transport vesicles will fuse with GA membrane and emptying their contents.
4) Inside the GA, enzymes will modify the arriving proteins and glycoproteins.
5) Transport vesicles moves the modified materials to the medial and exit cysternae.
6) 3 types of vesicles waiting to transport the exit materials from the GA to PM.
7) Materials exported from cell by exocytosis, some other materials will merge with
the PM.
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
• Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes
used to break down:
• Ingested material
• Worn-out parts of cells
• Destroy the whole cell
• Generate toxic chemicals that
could damage or kill the cell

 Peroxisomes contain oxidative

enzymes important in metabolism.
 Absorb and break down fatty acids
and other organics compounds.
 Protect the cell from the potentially
damaging effects of free radicals
produced during catabolism.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria contain enzymes that help cells produce large amounts of
ATP, in a process called cellular respiration

• Mitochondria contain an inner and an outer membrane

• Mitochondria self-replicate, using their own ribosomes and some of their
genes are on their own DNA

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Energy Production
 Most cells generate ATP through the break-down of
carbohydrates, especially glucose.
 1st steps take place in cytosol called glycolysis (each
glucose molecule is broken down into 2 molecules of
pyruvic acid) then absorbed into mitochondria.
 In the mitochondrial matrix, CO2 is removed from
each pyruvic acid and the remainder enters the TCA
(Tricarboxylic Acid) Cycle or Krebs Cycle.
 TCA Cycle break down the absorbed pyruvic acid
through enzymatic pathway in the presence of O2.
 The remnants of pyruvic acid contain C,O and H
atoms  C & O will release as CO2, which diffuses
out of the cell.
 The hydrogen atoms are delivered to carriers
proteins in the cristae.
 The electrons from hydrogen atoms are removed and
passed along a chain of coenzymes.
 The energy released during this steps performs the
enzymatic conversion of ADP to ATP.
 Mitochondria produces about 95% of the ATP
needed to keep cell alive.
 Nucleus
• The central control center of a cell
• A double-walled nuclear envelope separates the
nucleus from the cytoplasm

• The nucleolus is a site within the nucleus that

produces new ribosomes

• Chromosomes contain our genes - the source of

information for building and running cells

• Nuclear pores permit the movement of ions and

small molecules.

• Nuclear matrix provides structural supports and

involves in the regulation of genetic activity.

• Chromatin gives the nucleus a clumped and

grainy appearance.

• Each chromosome contains DNA combined with

histone proteins to form chromatin

• The histones allow the DNA to be tightly

packed.
Q 1 . Label the diagram below
 The Transcription of mRNA
Steps in mRNA transcription:
1) The two DNA strands separate, and RNA
polymerase bind to the promoter of the gene.
2) The RNA polymerase moves from one
nucleotide to another along the length of the
template strand.
3) At each site, complementary RNA nucleotides
form hydrogen bonds with the DNA
nucleotides of the template strand.
4) The RNA polymerase then strings the
arriving nucleotides together into a strand of
mRNA.
5) On reaching the stop signal at the end of the
gene, the RNA polymerase and the mRNA
strand detach.
6) Transcription ends.
7) The complementary DNA strands now
complete their reassociation as hydrogen
bonding occurs between complementary base
pairs.
 Translation
• Protein synthesis occurs through translation.
• The formation of linear chain of amino acids, using the information provided by
mRNA strand.
• Using mRNA and ribosomes to create proteins
• The ribosomes are made of proteins and rRNA, and they have multiple binding
sites for mRNA and tRNA
• tRNA’s help line up the correct amino acids to make a new protein
Protein Codon
 Translation Process
Steps in translation:
1) mRNA becomes associated with
small ribosomal subunit and then
the large and small ribosomal
subunit join together.
2) Specific tRNA picks up a specific
amino acid.
3) tRNA anticodon attaches to
complementary mRNA codon.
4) The next tRNA with its amino acid
moves into position on mRNA.
5) Amino acids are joined by a peptide
bond and the 1st tRNA detaches.
6) As more amino acids are brought
into position by their tRNA’s, the
protein gets progressively longer.
7) Stop codon terminate synthesis of
protein and protein is released.
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
8) Following protein synthesis,
ribosomal subunit separate.
 Cell Division & Cell Cycle
• All non-gamete producing cells of the body are produced by mitosis
• The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events by which somatic cells replicate
• Cells grow, and also duplicate their DNA during interphase
• Cells divide their chromosomes and their nuclei during mitosis
• After mitosis, cells finish dividing during cytokinesis
The Cell Cycle
 DNA Replication

• DNA molecules are copied during

S phase

• The structure of the double helix

allows both copies of the new
DNA to have the same sequence

• At the end of S phase, sister

chromatids have been created
(even though they are not visible
until mitosis)
Mitosis vs Meiosis
 Active vs Passive Processes
• All transport of molecules or ions across membranes can be classified as being
either passive or active:

• Passive processes are spontaneous:

• Chemicals move based on their kinetic energy
• Movement is from higher to lower concentrations (“downhill”)
• Examples: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

• Active processes use stored energy:

• Energy input is required for chemicals to move
• Movement is from lower to higher concentrations (“uphill”)
• Examples: primary and secondary active transport, endocytosis
 Diffusion

• Passive movements of solutes

• Movements of solutes directly through the lipid bilayer is called
simple diffusion

• Movement of solutes with the help of membrane proteins is called

facilitated diffusion

• The rate of diffusion depends on:

• Concentration gradient
• Temperature
• Mass of diffusing ion/molecule
• Membrane surface area
• Diffusion distance
 Diffusion

 Non-polar molecules move via simple diffusion

 Many ions cross membranes through ion channels
 Polar molecules are transported by carrier-mediated facilitated
diffusion

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Osmosis
• Most membranes are selectively permeable - and allow water to move much
more quickly than many solutes
• Water moves in response to differences in solute concentrations, and water
always moves toward the higher solute level

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Tonicity and its Effects on Cells
• Osmotic gradients can have dramatic effects on cells
• 3 types of solutions are:
1) Hypotonic solutions 2) Isotonic solutions 3) Hypertonic solutions

• Because water moves quickly, most of our body fluids and cells are in osmotic
equilibrium

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Active Transport

• In active transport, chemicals move “uphill” (against their

concentration gradients]
• Energy is required to drive all active processes
• The three types of active processes are:
• Primary active transport - ATP is the source of energy
• Secondary active transport - ion gradients are the source
of energy
• Transport in vesicles - some large molecules can enter
(endocytosis) and leave (exocytosis) cells without being broken
down
 Primary Active Transport
• Primary active transport pumps ions “uphill” (against their concentration
gradients)
• Energy from ATP hydrolysis is used to power this process
• The Sodium potassium pump is an example of primary active transport

* Solutes are
transported across
plasma membranes
with the use of
energy, from an area
of lower
concentration to an
area of higher
concentration
 Active Transport

Cytosol 3 Na+
K+
gradient 1

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 57

 Secondary Active Transport
• Secondary active transport also moves ions or molecules “uphill” (against their
concentration gradients)
• Energy from an existing ion gradient powers this process
• Symporters and antiporters are two types of secondary active transport - many
specific examples of each type exist in cells

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Transport in Vesicles
• Vesicles are small spherical membrane sacs
• Vesicles are used to move large molecules in and out of cells, and
between organelles

• One important example is receptor-mediated endocytosis

 Receptor Mediated
Endocytosis
1) Target molecules (ligands) bind to receptor
in cell membrane. Areas coated with
ligands form deep pockets in membrane
surface.

2) Pocket pinch off, forming endosomes

known as coated vesicles.

3) Coated vesicles fuse with primary lysosomes

to form secondary lysosomes.

4) Ligands are removed and absorbed into the

cytoplasm.

5) The lysosomal and endosomal membrane

separate.

6) The andosome fuses with the cell

membrane and the receptors are again
available for ligand binding.
• Phagocytosis allows some cells
to “eat” large particles

• Bulk-phase endocytosis allows

cells to take in fluid and small
solutes together

• Transcytosis allows cells to

transport large chemicals across
an epithelium

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 The Cell Theory…
The basic concepts of this theory can be summarized as
follows:

Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals

All cells come from the division of preexisting cells

Cells are the smallest unit that perform all vital

physiological functions

Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

Robert Hooke (1665)

The End