HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

MODULE 2.2: CELLULAR LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

About 200 different types of specialized cells carry out a multitude of
functions that help each system contribute to the homeostasis of the entire body. At the
same time, all cells share key structures and functions that support their intense activity.

The Cell: Parts and Functions

The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made
up of cells (or in some cases, a single cell). Most cells are very
small; most are invisible without using a microscope. Cells are
covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes.
The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.

I. Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane serves as the interface between the
interior of the cell and the extracellular fluid (ECF) that bathes
all cells.
• The cell membrane regulates the exchange of vital substances between
the content of the cells and its external environment.
• It communicates with other cells to help the body function.
• It is extremely thin (you could stack 10,000 plasma membranes to equal
the thickness of a piece of paper). Made up of:

1. Phospholipids. Amphiphilic with the hydrocarbon tail of the molecule being

hydrophobic; its polar head hydrophilic.’
- As the plasma membrane faces watery solutions on both sides, its
phospholipids accommodate this by forming a phospholipid bilayer
with the hydrophobic tails facing each other.
- Serves as "gateway + barrier for cell". The cell membrane isolate's
the contents of the cell from the external environment.

2. Membrane Proteins. One role of proteins in cells is for transport of molecules/ions

into or out of cells. Three methods of doing this are through active, facilitated or
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MODULE 2.2: CELLULAR LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

passive transport. Other roles of membrane proteins are in cell recognition, receptors,
cell to cell communication.

3. Cholesterol. Cholesterol breaks up the Van der Waals interactions and close
packing of the phospholipid tails. This disruption makes the membrane more fluid.
Therefore, one way for a cell to control the fluidity of its membrane is by regulating its
level of cholesterol in the cell.

II. Protoplasm
A. The Cytoplasm
- made up of all of a
cell's internal
contents, so all the
organelles except the
nucleus.
- composed of 65%
water, with as much
as a billion molecules
contained within the
cytoplasm of one
single cell.
- contains enzymes,
and dissolved
nutrients like amino
acids and sugars.
- the water allows for
reactions to occur within the cell

CELLULAR STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES:

1. Ribosomes
• for synthesizing proteins
• Large assemblies of RNA + dozens of different proteins, synthesized
in nucleolus in eukaryotes
• Proteins are synthesized through the formation of peptide bonds
between amino acids. POLYPEPTIDES are long chains of amino
acids
• found free in the cytoplasm in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes or
bound to endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes ==> rough ER
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• A network of flattened, interweaving tubules which are formed by
membranes within the cell. They create mazes of narrow channels.
• ER is continuous with the Nuclear Envelope -- nuclear membrane is part
of the endomembrane syst.
• Rough ER -- contains many bound ribosomes which bind to the ER after
beginning synthesis of proteins which are to be secreted into the lumen.
The proteins are then carried through the ER membrane as they are
synthesized.
• Smooth ER -- connected to rough ER; no ribosomes
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3. Golgi Complex engulfs damaged

• The Golgi body consists of organelles
layers of sacs. These sacs
have a very thin membrane. 5. Peroxisomes
Vesicles are pinching off the • Some of the functions of the
edges of the sacs. peroxisomes in the human
• It acts in the modification of liver:
lipids and proteins. - Breakdown (by oxidation) of
• It serves to store and excess fatty acids.
package materials for - Breakdown of hydrogen
exportation from the cell. peroxide (H2O2), a
The Golgi body works potentially dangerous
together with the vesicles. product of
They move back and forth - fatty-acid oxidation. It is
from the organelle to the cell catalyzed by the enzyme
membrane carrying the catalase.
packaged materials to the - Participates in the synthesis
outside of the cell. of cholesterol
• Golgi modifies products of - Participates in the synthesis
ER of bile acids.
- Participates in the synthesis
4. Lysosomes of the lipids used to make
• Made from ER: ---> Golgi --- myelin.
> Lysosomes - Breakdown of excess
• Compartment surrounded purines (AMP, GMP) to uric
by membrane which acid.
contains enzymes to digest
(hydrolyze) 6. Mitochondria
macromolecules, proteins • Function: Cellular
polysaccharides, fats, Respiration -- oxidize
nucleic acids. intermediate products of
- membrane keeps metabolism to CO2 and
enzymes from H2O; excess free energy
digesting functional transformed into synthesis
parts of the cell of ATP
- maintains low pH • Structure
(approx. 5) where - Approximately 1 μ in
these digestive diameter; may be very long
enzymes are most in some cells
active - 2 membranes - inner
• Used to digest: membrane and outer
- external material by membrane
engulfing into vesicles - inner membrane has large
(Phagocytosis) which surface area and folds
then fuse with inward forming cristae;
lysosomes. contains membrane proteins
- digest and recycle responsible for respiration
cellular materials -- and ATP synthesis
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- outer membrane is a sieve • generate cytoplasmic streaming

permeable to small in some cells
molecules; intermembrane - generate locomotion in cells such
space is similar to as white blood cells and the
cytoplasm in concentration amoeba
of small molecules - interact with myosin ("thick")
- matrix - contains enzymes filaments in skeletal muscle fibers
responsible for many steps to provide the force of muscular
of metabolism contains DNA contraction
molecule
2. Intermediate filaments.
7. The Cytoskeleton
- Cells contain elaborate • These cytoplasmic fibers average
arrays of protein fibers that 10 nm in diameter (and thus are
serve such functions as: "intermediate" in size between
- establishing cell shape actin filaments (8 nm) and
- providing mechanical microtubules (25 nm) (as well as
strength of the thick filaments of skeletal
- locomotion muscle fibers).
- chromosome
3. Microtubules
separation in mitosis
and meiosis • are straight, hollow cylinders
- intracellular transport of
• have a diameter of about 25 nm;
organelles
are variable in length but can
The cytoskeleton is made up of three grow 1000 times as long as they
kinds of protein filaments: are thick
• built by the assembly of dimers of
1. Actin filaments (also called alpha tubulin and beta tubulin.
microfilaments). • Microtubules participate in a wide
variety of cell activities. Most
• Monomers of the protein actin involve motion. The motion is
polymerize to form long, thin provided by protein "motors" that
fibers. These are about 8 nm in use the energy of ATP to move
diameter and, being the thinnest along the microtubule.
of the cytoskeletal filaments:
• form a band just beneath the B. Nucleus
plasma membrane that 1. Nuclear Envelope
- provides mechanical - double membrane
strength to the cell surrounding the nucleus
- links transmembrane separating it from the rest of
proteins (e.g., cell surface the cell
receptors) to cytoplasmic - - nuclear pores - pores
proteins through both membranes;
- anchors the centrosomes at formed by protein
opposite poles of the cell molecules; controls
during mitosis - traffic of molecules between
- pinches dividing animal cells the cytoplasm and the
apart during cytokinesis nucleus
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-nuclear lamina - layer of proteins inside the nuclear membrane; may be

responsible for
- stabilizing the nuclear membrane.
- Nucleolus - where ribosomes are made
2. Chromosome
- DNA + proteins (histones) ==> chromatin which is dispersed through most of
the nucleus. The proteins keep the very long DNA molecules organized.
Chromatin is divided into individual units called chromosomes.
- during cell division chromatin segregates into individual chromosomes
- number of chromosomes depends upon type of cell; e.g., what organism and
whether it is somatic or germ (reproductive) form.
3. Nucleolus
- part of the nucleus responsible for synthesis of ribosomes needed for protein
synthesis in the cytoplasm. Nucleolar Organizers are regions of chromosomes
which contain multiple copies of genes for ribosome synthesis.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN CELL MEMBRANE

Movement of small molecules across membranes can involve simple
diffusion or protein-mediated transport

Cell membranes are selectively permeable.

1. Passive Transport - Lipophilic solutes cross the membrane freely by

dissolving in the lipid bilayer. This is passive diffusion. Examples: ethanol
(alcohol, contains both polar and non-polar regions); also, fatty acids,
glycerol, steroids, etc. Also nonpolar gases like O=O (O2)
2. Selective Transport by protein carriers = "permeases". Polar or ionic small
solutes may be transported across membranes if specific protein carriers are
in the membrane. Examples: sugars, amino acids, ions.
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Many substances cannot cross the membrane. Examples: large molecules such as
proteins, nucleic acids. Also, small polar molecules or ions for which there is no protein
carrier. Some protein transporters require energy; others do not.

2 possible situations:
a) Facilitated Diffusion - Membrane has specific protein carrier, will bind to
molecule and bring it across cell membrane. No energy required. No
preferential direction. If molecule is more concentrated outside than inside
cell, net movement will be out of cell.
b) Active Transport - Membrane has specific protein carrier, also a requirement
for energy (ATP or other form of energy). Will move solute against a
concentration gradient, so can concentrate
material even if diffusion would favor opposite direction of flow.
Example: Na+, K+ ATPase in nerve cells. Pumps Na+ to outside,
K+ in, maintains electrical potential against diffusion. When nerve cell "fires",
momentary gates open to let diffusion occur. Then pumps are turned back on
to restore potential.

Movement of Large Molecules: Endocytosis, Exocytosis,

Phagocytosis, Carrier-Mediated Endocytosis
1. Large molecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polypeptides larger than a few amino acids,
polysaccharides larger than a few sugars) are not carried by transport proteins.
2. There are mechanisms for moving larger molecules, but they don't enter into
cytoplasm.
a) Exocytosis: membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane, releases
enclosed material to extracellular space. Ex: release of digestive enzymes from
pancreatic cells; mucus, milk, hormones, etc.
b) Endocytosis: cell membrane invaginates, pinches in, creates vesicle
enclosing contents.

Three common situations:

I. Phagocytosis: Typically works on debris, bacteria, other particulate matter.

Contents of the "phagosome" are usually fused with lysosome to create
"phagolysosome", where material is broken down. Especially common in white
blood cells such as macrophages and other leukocytes.
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II. Pinocytosis: similar to reach maturity. Some cells, such as

phagocytosis, but ingests fluid liver cells, retain but do not normally
rather than particulate matter. utilize their capacity for division. Liver
"Cell drinking". Ex. cells lining cells will divide if part of the liver is
blood capillaries take fluid from removed. The division continues until
blood (but not red cells), move the liver reaches its former size.
fluid across their cytoplasm,
release into extracellular space
surrounding cells outside the
capillary.

III. Carrier-mediated
endocytosis (CME), aka
receptor-mediated
endocytosis: very specialized
system. Certain important
molecules or ions are not
brought into cell by transport
processes, but by CME.

Ex. iron is carried through blood tightly

bound to transferrin protein carrier. To
get iron into cells, cell membrane ✓ G1 phase: The growth phase of
contains special receptor proteins that the cell. For many organisms, this
bind transferrin, move towards special occupies the major portion of the
regions of membrane under which lie cell’s life span.
clathrin proteins. Endocytosis occurs ✓ S phase: The phase in which a
inside clathrin "cage", moves inside replica of the genome is
cell. Cage eventually recycles back to synthesized. Each chromosome
cell surface, returning transferrin replicates to produce two
proteins to cell exterior. However, iron daughter copies called sister
is released inside cell, exits from chromatids.
vesicles, becomes bound to ferritin. ✓ G2 phase: The stage in which
preparations are made for
THE CELL genomic separation. This
DIVISION includes the replication of
mitochondria and other
Like whole organisms, cells also have organelles, chromosome
a cycle. They are born, live for a while, condensation, and the synthesis
and then reproduce. This can be of microtubules.
conveniently divided into two parts, a ✓ M phase: The phase in which the
period of growth and preparation for micro tubular apparatus is
reproduction called interphase and a assembled, binds to the
reproductive period called mitosis. chromosomes, and moves the
Some cells divide rapidly (beans, for sister chromosomes apart. This
example take 19 hours for the phase is called mitosis
complete cycle; red blood cells must ✓ C phase: The phase in which the
divide at a rate of 2.5 million per cell itself divides, creating two
second). Others, such as nerve cells, daughter cells. This phase is
lose their capability to divide once they called cytokinesis.
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a. MITOSIS

Mitosis is the process of forming (generally) identical daughter cells by replicating and
dividing the original chromosomes, in effect making a cellular xerox. Mitosis deals only
with the segregation of the chromosomes and organelles into daughter cells.

The kinetochore is the point where microtubules of the spindle apparatus

attach. Replicated chromosomes consist of two molecules of DNA (along with their
associated histone proteins) known as chromatids. The area where both chromatids
are in contact with each other is known as the centromere. The kinetochores are on
the outer sides of the centromere.

During mitosis replicated chromosomes are positioned near the middle of the cytoplasm
and then segregated so that each daughter cell receives a copy of the original DNA (if
you start with 46 in the parent cell, you should end up with 46 chromosomes in each
daughter cell).

a. Prophase
- Prophase is the first stage of mitosis proper.
- Chromatin condenses (remember that chromatin/DNA replicate during
Interphase),
- the nuclear envelope dissolves,
- centrioles (if present) divide and migrate,
- kinetochores and kinetochore
b. Metaphase
- Metaphase follows Prophase. The chromosomes (which at this point consist of
chromatids held together by a centromere) migrate to the equator of the spindle,
where the spindles attach to the kinetochore fibers. The imaginary line passing
through the cell is called the metaphase plate.
- each chromosome is drawn by the microtubules extending from it to the two
poles of the spindle.
c. Anaphase
- Anaphase begins with the separation of the centromeres, and the pulling of
chromosomes (we call them chromosomes after the centromeres are separated) to
opposite poles of the spindle.
- The poles of the cell are pushed apart by microtubular sliding, and the sister
chromatids are drawn to the opposite poles by the shortening of the microtubules
attached to them
d. Telophase
- Telophase is when the chromosomes reach the poles of their respective spindles,
- the nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes uncoil into chromatin form, and the
nucleolus (which had disappeared during Prophase) reform.
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e. - Where there was one cell there a. Prophase I:

are now two smaller cells each - Each chromosome then actively
with exactly the same genetic seeks out its homologous
information. These cells may then chromosome. After the
develop into different adult forms homologous chromosomes pair,
via the processes of the structure is referred to as a
development. tetrad (four chromatids). The
f. Cytokinesis point at which two non-sister
- Cytokinesis is the process of chromatids intertwine is known as
splitting the daughter cells apart. a chiasma.
Whereas mitosis is the division of - a process known as crossing
the nucleus, cytokinesis is the over occurs at this point. This is
splitting of the cytoplasm and where two non-sister chromatids
allocation of the Golgi, plastids exchange genetic material.
and cytoplasm into each new cell. - Spindle forms; nuclear
- In animal cells cytokinesis is membrane and nucleoli
achieved by pinching the cell into disappear.
two with a contracting belt of b. Metaphase I – sets of
microfilaments. A cleavage homologous chromosomes line
furrow forms where the up at middle plate
cytoplasm is progressively c. Anaphase I – The homologous
pinched by the decreasing chromosomes are pulled apart to
diameter of the microfilament separate poles (not the sister
belt. chromatids of each homologous
chromosome)
B. MEIOSIS: SEXUAL d. Telophase I – New nuclear
REPRODUCTION envelopes appear, etc., and
cytokinesis. Note: that the
In the process of sexual reproduction, resulting cells are now haploid,
sex cells called gametes unite to form although the chromosomes are
a zygote. The zygote will then still duplicated.
undergo mitosis to form the new
individual. However, in order for the
original number of chromosomes to 2. Meiosis II
be maintained across generations, a. Interphase II – this stage is very
gametes need to have half the normal brief and doesn’t even exist in some
complement of chromosomes. organisms. DNA is not replicated this
time.
Meiosis – is a special type of mitosis b. Prophase II – also brief because
that reduces the number of the chromosomes never completely
chromosomes in the uncoiled. Nucleus disappears,
daughter cells. Meiosis produces chromosomes condense and spindle
haploid cells form diploid cells. Meiosis forms.
separates homologous chromosomes c. Metaphase II – Chromosomes line
into different cells and results in 4 up at middle plate.
haploid cells from 1 diploid cell. d. Anaphase II – sister chromatids are
pulled to opposite poles
e. Telophase II – nucleus reorganizes
1. Meiosis I
itself; cytokinesis occurs. Note each
- Starts with a regular diploid cell
resulting daughter
- Chromosomes duplicated during
cell does not have any duplicated
interphase
chromosomes.
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Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in body cells Occurs in reproductive organs
1 division event 2 division events
Two 2N (diploid) daughter cells Four N (haploid) daughter cells
Daughter cells same as parent Daughter cells genetically different due
to crossing over

Cellular Diversity
The body of an average human adult is composed of nearly 100 trillion cells.
All of these cells can be classified into about 200 different cell types. Cells
vary considerably in size. The shapes of cells also vary considerably. They
may be round, oval, flat, cube-shaped, column-shaped, elongated, star-
shaped, cylindrical, or disc-shaped.