Lecture 3 (Analogue Electronics I)

RECTIFICATION
THE BASIC DC POWER SUPPLY

All active electronic devices require a source of constant dc that can be supplied by a battery or a
dc power supply. The dc power supply converts the standard 120 V, 60 Hz ac voltage available
at wall outlets into a constant dc voltage. The dc power supply is one of the most common
circuits you will find, so it is important to understand how it works. The voltage produced is used
to power all types of electronic circuits including consumer electronics (televisions, DVDs, etc.),
computers, industrial controllers, and most laboratory instrumentation systems and equipment.
The dc voltage level required depends on the application, but most applications require relatively
low voltages.
A basic block diagram of the complete power supply is shown in Figure 1(a).
Figure 1
Generally the ac input line voltage is stepped down to a lower ac voltage with a transformer
(although it may be stepped up when higher voltages are needed or there may be no transformer
at all in rare instances). As you learned in your dc/ac course, a transformer changes ac voltages
based on the turns ratio between the primary and secondary.
If the secondary has more turns than the primary, the output voltage across the secondary will be
higher and the current will be smaller. If the secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the
output voltage across the secondary will be lower and the current will be higher.
The rectifier can be either a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave rectifierThe rectifier converts the
ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage, called a half-wave rectified voltage, as shown in
Figure 1(b).
The filter eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage and produces a relatively smooth dc
voltage. The regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant dc voltage for variations in the input
line voltage or in the load. Regulators vary from a single semiconductor device to more complex
integrated circuits. The load is a circuit or device connected to the output of the power supply
and operates from the power supply voltage and current.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS
Figure 2 illustrates the process called half-wave rectification.
Figure 2
A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor, RL, forming a half-wave rectifier.
Keep in mind that all ground symbols represent the same point electrically. Let’s examine what
happens during one cycle of the input voltage using the ideal model for the diode. When the
sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and conducts current
through the load resistor, as shown in part (a). The current produces an output voltage across the
load RL, which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.
When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the diode is reverse-
biased. There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V, as shown in Figure 2(b).
The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage
appear across the load. Since the output does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage
with a frequency of 60 Hz, as shown in part (c).
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage
The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value you would measure on a
dc voltmeter. Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the curve over a full
cycle, as illustrated in Figure 3, and then dividing by the number of radians in a full cycle. The
result of this is expressed in Equation below, where Vp is the peak value of the voltage. This
equation shows that VAVG is approximately 31.8% of Vp for a half-wave rectified voltage.
VP
V AVG =
π
Figure 3
Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-wave Rectifier Output
In the previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal. When the practical diode model is
used with the barrier potential of 0.7 V taken into account, this is what happens. During the
positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode
becomes forward-biased. This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V less
than the peak value of the input, as shown in Figure 4. The expression for the peak output
voltage is
Figure 4
It is usually acceptable to use the ideal diode model, which neglects the effect of
the barrier potential, when the peak value of the applied voltage is much greater than the
barrier potential (at least 10 V, as a rule of thumb). However, we will use the practical
model of a diode, taking the 0.7 V barrier potential into account unless stated otherwise.
Transformer Coupling
A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage from the source to the rectifier, as
shown in Figure 5. Transformer coupling provides two advantages. First, it allows the source
voltage to be stepped down as needed. Second, the ac source is electrically isolated from the
rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the secondary circuit.
Figure 5
The amount that the voltage is stepped down is determined by the turns ratio of the transformer.
Unfortunately, the definition of turns ratio for transformers is not consistent between various
sources and disciplines. In this text, we use the definition given by the IEEE for electronic power
transformers, which is “the number of turns in the secondary
(Nsec) divided by the number of turns in the primary (Npri).” Thus, a transformer with a turns ratio
less than 1 is a step-down type and one with a turns ratio greater than 1 is a step-up type. To
show the turns ratio on a schematic, it is common practice to show the numerical ratio directly
above the windings. The secondary voltage of a transformer equals the turns ratio, n, times the
primary voltage.
V sec =nV pri
Therefore
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the load during the entire
0
360 of the input cycle, whereas a half-wave rectifier allows current through the load only during
one-half of the cycle. The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency
twice the input frequency and that pulsates every half-cycle of the input, as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6
The number of positive alternations that make up the full-wave rectified voltage is twice that of
the half-wave voltage for the same time interval. The average value, which is the value measured
on a dc voltmeter, for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave, as
shown in the following formula:
VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.
Center-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier Operation

A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to the
secondary of a center-tapped transformer, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7
The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the center-tapped secondary. Half of the
total secondary voltage appears between the center tap and each end of the secondary winding as
shown in Figure 7.
For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the secondary voltages are as
shown in Figure 8(a). This condition forward-biases diode D1 and reverse-biases diode D2. The
current path is through D1 and the load resistor RL, as indicated. For a negative half-cycle of the
input voltage, the voltage polarities on the secondary are as shown in Figure 8(b). This condition
reverse-biases D1 and forward-biases D2. The current path is through D2 and RL, as indicated.
Figure 8
Because the output current during both the positive and negative portions of the input cycle is in
the same direction through the load, the output voltage developed across the load resistor is a
full-wave rectified dc voltage, as shown in Figure 8
Bridge Full-wave Rectifier Operation

The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown in Figure 9. When the input cycle is
positive as in part (a), diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct current in the direction
shown. A voltage is developed across RL that looks like the positive half of the input cycle.
During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.
Figure 9
When the input cycle is negative as in Figure 9(b), diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and
conduct current in the same direction through RL as during the positive half-cycle.
During the negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave rectified output
voltage appears across RL as a result of this action.
A bridge rectifier with a transformer-coupled input is shown in Figure 10(a). During the positive
half-cycle of the total secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased. Neglecting the
diode drops, the secondary voltage appears across the load resistor. The same is true when D3
and D4 are forward-biased during the negative half-cycle.
As you can see in Figure 10(b), two diodes are always in series with the load resistor during both
the positive and negative half-cycles. If these diode drops are taken into account, the output
voltage is
Figure 10

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RECTIFICATION

THE BASIC DC POWER SUPPLY

VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.

Center-Tapped Full-wave Rectifier Operation

Bridge Full-wave Rectifier Operation

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