The Competence-Based Curriculum at Laurea
The Competence-Based Curriculum at Laurea
The Competence-Based Curriculum at Laurea
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The Competence-Based
Curriculum at Laurea
Outi Kallioinen (ed.)
2007 Vantaa
Copyright © authors
and Laurea University of Applied Sciences
ISSN 1458-7238
ISBN 978-951-799-128 - 5
Foreword 5
Introduction 6
I BUILDING THE COMPETENCE-BASED CURRICULUM 10
The Competence-Based Core Curriculum as Laurea’s Choice
Pentti Rauhala 11
Laurea’s Competence-Based Curriculum as a Development
Process
Teemu Rantanen 21
Future Expertise in Laurea’s Competence-Based Curriculum
Outi Kallioinen 31
II GENERIC COMPETENCES IN THE LAUREA CURRICULUM 42
Process of Defining the Generic Competences
Katariina Raij & Teemu Rantanen 43
Ethical Competence
Soile Juujärvi 53
Reflective Competence
Arja Piirainen 65
Network Competence
Liisa Ala-Luukko & Hannu Pirnes 76
Innovation Competence
Vesa Taatila 90
Globalisation Competence
Ari Nieminen 102
The Generic Competences in Comparison with the European
Higher Education Area’s Development
Outi Kallioinen 112
III FROM COMPETENCE AREAS TO THEMES 122
Curriculum to Promote Innovative Business Renewal
Susanna Kivelä & Katri Ojasalo 123
3
Renewable Competence in the Nursing Curriculum Reform Process
Paula Lehto & Pirjo Tiirikainen 137
Curriculum Process in Physiotherapy
Arja Piirainen, Mikko Julin and Päivi Immonen-Orpana 147
Curriculum Process in the Degree Programme in Social Services
Teemu Rantanen 156
Curriculum Reform for the Degree Programmes in Hospitality
Management
Maarit Fränti 168
Curriculum Reform in the Degree Programme in Sustainable
Development
Anne Virtanen 183
IV LEARNING BY DEVELOPING AS AN OPERATING MODEL 192
A Workroom in an Open World: How LbD Changed the Library
Hanna Lahtinen 193
Support from the Curriculum for the LbD Model’s Implementation
Pauliina Nurkka 200
Experiences of Implementing the Competence-Based Core
Curriculum at Laurea Järvenpää
Tarja Rinne 206
Learning by the LbD Model
Marianne Nurmi & Tea Sutinen 214
4
Foreword
In the late 1990s, Laurea chose as its strategic approach the integration of edu-
cation, research and development, and regional development. A concept of
learning and knowledge in line with the strategic intent was recorded in Laurea’s
pedagogical strategy and approved by the Board on 28 October 2002. This stra-
tegy was revised in spring 2007. According to the strategy, learning at Laurea
takes place through instruction, research and development. The principle of tri-
ple task integration, approved as Laurea’s strategy, was turned into the idea of
‘learning in projects’ in the 1990s and the early days of the new millennium.
While implementing the pedagogical strategy, Laurea’s practical developers re-
fined this principle into the Learning by Developing (LbD) model. Learning by
Developing combines two of the major orientations of universities of applied sci-
ences: professional education (learning) and research-oriented higher education
(developing).
It was soon evident after implementing the ‘learning in projects’ model that the
traditional curriculum process wasn’t optimally supportive of the new operating
model. The development objectives of the European Higher Education Area and
research on curricula carried out by Finnish higher education institutions led to
the adoption of a competence-based curriculum idea and model. The model’s
focus is not on contents but on broader competences needed in the workplace
of the future. It is no coincidence that the core competences defined in a Future
Probe published in autumn 2006 by the Confederation of Finnish Industries en-
ded up being very similar to Laurea’s generic curriculum competences.
The aim of this publication is to describe the competence-based core curriculum
adopted by Laurea on 1 August 2006, and the LbD operating model as its im-
plementation.
5
Outi Kallioinen
Introduction
6
factors while also creating reforms that will improve competitiveness in the fu-
ture.
Gibbons, Limoges, Nowotny, Schwartzman, Scott and Trow (2000) looked at
knowledge-production and its dynamics in modern society and science in their
book The New Production of Knowledge. The concepts and views described in
the work regarding the dynamic change of knowledge production are highly ap-
plicable to examining the knowledge generated in the development processes
related to Laurea’s core curriculum. Gibbons et al. (2000, 3-6) examined the
knowledge generated in applied research in transdisciplinary frameworks. The
knowledge produced in applied, processual studies sprang from broad-based
joint reasoning between the participants. Knowledge and new competence are
generated through continuous discussion; they cannot be generated without in-
volving the active participants’ interests. This is a good description of the impor-
tance of authenticity and partnership in development projects, the principles on
which Learning by Developing is based.
Knowledge produced in applied research is also characterised by interdiscipli-
narity, heterogeneity, organisational heterarchy and transdisciplinarity, social re-
sponsibility, reflection and quality assessment, with a marked dependence on
context and application. Knowledge is the result of the parallel growth of knowl-
edge producers and users in society (Gibbons et al. 2000, 167).
Research and development work carried out in the transdisciplinary framework
has four noteworthy characteristics, which are also visible in the practical imple-
mentations of Laurea’s core curriculum:
1) The research and development work leads to a developing framework for di-
recting problem-solving efforts.
2) Knowledge produced at the meeting points of different expertise sectors de-
velops its own theoretical structures, research methods and practices, which
may not be applicable to the traditional scientific field.
3) The research outcomes are transmitted to the participants of the process and
may be disseminated as soon as they have been produced. The outcomes are
circulated and developed in new problem-solving situations rather than through
professional journals or conferences.
4) Transdisciplinarity arises from dynamic motion at the intersection of various
expertise sectors. It consists of active problem-solving ability in which interaction
networks are maintained through both official and unofficial means. Maintaining
7
the mobility of information and predicting the next area of application are also
very difficult (Gibbons et al. 2000, 3-6).
This curriculum publication describes both the process and its outcomes in a rich
and multidimensional way. Chapter I, Building the competence-based Curricu-
lum, focuses on describing the strategic choices made in the curriculum reform,
on the reform as a development process, and on future expertise. Chapter II,
Generic Competences in the Laurea Curriculum, examines the creation of the
generic competences and describes the theoretical framework behind each
competence. The generic competences are also compared to general Finnish
and European competence descriptions. Chapter III, From Competence Areas to
Themes, describes degree programme curricula, while Chapter IV, Learning by
Developing as an Operating Model, discusses the development of the Laurea
Library and the practical implementation of the new curriculum using the LbD
model.
The publication provides a fairly comprehensive view of the new curricula, but is
ultimately only able to reveal the tip of an iceberg that contains huge amounts of
shared, object-oriented contemplation and action. This new curriculum did not
make the world final, but it provides an excellent springboard for future devel-
opment. We hope that this publication will serve as a useful account of devel-
opment in pedagogy for universities of applied sciences.
REFERENCES
Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P. & Trow, M.
2000 (1st ed. 1994). The New Production of Knowledge. The Dynamics of Sci-
ence and Research in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage.
8
Contributors
Liisa Ala-Luukko Maarit Fränti Päivi Immonen-Orpana
Senior Lecturer, Master of Director, Master of Science Senior Lecturer, Master of
Science Laurea University of Ap- Health Science
Laurea University of Applied plied Sciences Laurea University of Applied
Sciences Sciences
9
I BUILDING THE
COMPETENCE-BASED
CURRICULUM
10
Pentti Rauhala
11
In this decade, the curriculum reform process has been fuelled by joint develop-
ment efforts conducted by higher education institutions in order to fulfil the re-
quirements of the European Higher Education Area. Feedback received from the
labour market, such as a general critique regarding the failure of universities of
applied sciences to provide enough practical competence, has also led to edu-
cation being developed in order to meet requirements coming from that direc-
tion. The Learning by Developing model, thanks to which Laurea received the
appointment as centre of excellence, is Laurea’s answer to this challenge.
Below is a more detailed look at the various factors that make up the founda-
tions of the curriculum reform carried out at Laurea in the first decade of the
twenty-first century.
Basis in Laurea’s overall strategic thinking
The concept of learning and knowledge implied by Laurea’s strategic intent was
defined in a pedagogical strategy approved by the Board on 28 October 2002.
According to the strategy, learning at Laurea takes place through teaching, re-
search and development. Learning is a gradually progressing research process,
in which the students act as partners and the lecturer acts as the students’ tutor
and a supporter of professional growth. The three tasks of a university of applied
sciences – education, research and development, and regional development –
become integrated into a single entity. In the early twenty-first century it was not
yet common for universities of applied sciences to have a pedagogical strategy.
The principle of triple task integration, approved as Laurea’s strategy, was tur-
ned into the idea of ‘learning in projects’ in the 1990s and the early days of the
new millennium. Consequently the problem arose of how to fit projects into the
curricula used at the time without letting them dominate too much. The theory
was not to be based on a set of curriculum-stipulated study units that must be
turned into project work. In implementing the pedagogical strategy, Laurea’s
practical developers refined the idea of ‘learning in projects’ into the Learning by
Developing model. Its development was influenced not only by Laurea’s own
pedagogical research but also by the theory of research-oriented learning ex-
pounded by Hakkarainen, Lonka and Lipponen, and on other ideas based on a
pragmatic theory of knowledge (Fränti & Pirinen 2005; Raij 2000, 2003, 2006;
Suomala 2003).
Basis in pedagogy and philosophy of education
Pedagogical research and its applications have played a central role in Laurea’s
core curriculum reform work. The first pedagogical strategy was based on
Katariina Raij’s definition of the relationship between theoretical and practical
12
teaching and learning. Raij (2000, 142; 2003, 45, 51) defines the competence
produced in a university of applied sciences as the sum of four factors: evi-
dence-based knowledge; understanding the context and its phenomena; skills in
doing; and the ability to manage various situations. The competence environ-
ment is composed of the knowledge environment, the skill environment, the ex-
periential environment and the value environment. The main aim of Laurea’s
pedagogical development efforts was to find a workable model for workplace-
oriented learning.
In terms of the philosophy of education, Laurea’s pedagogical thinking arises
from concepts rooted in John Dewey’s pragmatism, according to which profes-
sional education must not consist simply of learning the technical skills required
for routine employment, but of active scientific research on materials, processes
and principles. According to Dewey, separating the active doing phase from
passive reasoning eliminates the essential significance of an experience (Dewey
1984, 452-479, 505).
Recent public debates, which have attempted to redefine universities of applied
sciences as higher vocational institutions (polytechnics) by demanding that de-
grees be shortened and focused on learning practical skills, have forgotten the
principles of Deweyian philosophy. Academic researchers, on the other hand,
have proposed the adoption of a pragmatic-naturalistic philosophy of education
for universities of applied sciences without knowing much about the current situ-
ation at the institutions in question (Pihlström 2004, 52).
Habermas’s knowledge interests are technical, practical and emancipatory.
Technical knowledge interest refers to a typical scientific interest that strives to
find out how things are. Practical knowledge interest refers to the endeavour to
understand things that is typical of the humanities and the behavioural sciences.
Emancipatory knowledge interest refers to knowledge with which society can be
developed and reformed. It is a complementary concept to the pragmatic phi-
losophy of education, on the basis of which we could think that the most valu-
able learning is learning that helps us cope with highly demanding tasks (Audi
1999, 325).
A significant crystallisation for Laurea’s pedagogical thinking was provided by
the investigative learning model proposed by Hakkarainen, Lonka and Lipponen
(2004). Investigative learning sees learning from three perspectives: the informa-
tion gathering metaphor, the participation metaphor and the knowledge creation
metaphor. The investigative learning approach has helped to create an under-
standing of the learner’s thought and learning processes in R&D projects, and to
13
create work methods and practices by which R&D skills can be developed in
specially formed integrative learning environments (Hakkarainen, Lonka & Lip-
ponen 2004, 18-24; Fränti & Pirinen 2005, 46).
Raij (2006, 30-31) explains that Laurea’s Learning by Developing is different
from investigative learning in that it also includes knowledge required in the
workplace and the integration of the three tasks of a university of applied sci-
ences.
Basis in higher education curriculum models
The curriculum models defined by the Teaching Development Unit of the Uni-
versity of Oulu (Karjalainen 2003, 50-53) are:
2. The module model, in which study units are grouped into compulsory or
optional modules. Each module forms a cohesive competence area, which
must be completed as a whole.
5. The block model, in which the studies for each semester form a fixed
block of studies.
I became familiar with these curriculum models in 2003, when working with Asko
Karjalainen in a team that was to evaluate the workability of the teaching devel-
opment and feedback system used at the Turku University of Applied Sciences.
Out of the models defined by Karjalainen, the competence-based core curricu-
lum model seemed to provide a solution to the problems related to the practical
implementation of Laurea’s pedagogical strategy. Initially, Laurea’s pedagogical
developers wanted to create a unique curriculum model for Laurea, but I consid-
ered it to be more appropriate to form links with development work carried out
elsewhere in the higher education field. This would initiate a more fruitful interac-
tion between Laurea and other higher education pedagogical developers.
14
In early 2004, Laurea decided it would transfer to a competence-based core cur-
riculum at the start of the 2006-2007 academic year. In a survey conducted of
Laurea’s lecturers, 90 per cent believed the reform to have been initiated by
Laurea’s Board. Forty per cent believed that the lecturers’ opinions had influ-
enced the decision. This interim review of the curriculum process considered the
improvement proposals made by students to have been of little import (Auvinen
et al. 2006, 36). Most would agree that a radical innovation such as this should
be initiated in just such a way. If the starting points had lain just in development
requests made by students or lecturers, there would be improvements to exist-
ing structures, but no major changes.
Basis in the objectives of the European Higher Education Area
In 2005, Finland’s higher education institutions adopted the European Credit
Transfer System for measuring the scope of studies, replacing the earlier Fin-
nish credit system. This was not just a technical change, but it involved shifting
to a student-oriented and learning- and competence-based system. Teaching
and learning was now directed by target-oriented competence development rat-
her than just the completion of study units required for a degree. In terms of the
recognition and comparability of international degrees, it is important to link lear-
ning outcomes to concrete competence requirements and definitions in the la-
bour market. Consequently, curricula move away from a focus on plans based
on individual subjects and teaching requirements, and towards a competence-
based core curriculum model that observes the holistic development of students
and supports professional growth (ARENE 2007, 21-22).
A shared vision for the curricula of universities of applied sciences in 2010 was
built in regional seminars held as part of the ECTS Project of the Rectors’ Con-
ference of Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences (ARENE). The vision was:
In 2010, universities of applied sciences will have a workable curriculum derived
from a good shared process. The curriculum supports the attainment of the uni-
versity of applied sciences’ strategic intent and the target-oriented learning of all
parties involved. The curriculum clearly and intelligibly brings forward the plan
for the students’ learning and professional growth. It is future-oriented and based
on the needs of the labour market and its development in the university of ap-
plied sciences’ area of operation, on a realistic evaluation of the students’ start-
ing points and circumstances, and on the demands of international cooperation
(ARENE 2007, 26).
15
in a competence-based orientation. The proposal was intended to act as a foun-
dation for a government decision on a national qualifications framework that is
compatible with the European framework. The decision has now been delayed in
waiting for the completion of the European qualifications framework. In future,
the international comparability of degrees will be based on a comparison not of
completed courses, contents or durations, but of required competences (Ministry
of Education 2005; ARENE 2007, 27).
The generic competences defined in Laurea’s competence-based core curricu-
lum are the same, theoretically if not verbally, as those defined by ARENE’s
ECTS Project: self-development, ethical competence, communication and inter-
action competence, development competence, organisational and social compe-
tence, and international competence. The theoretical difference lies in the fact
that subject-specific competences run parallel to the generic competences in the
ECTS Project’s recommendations. In Laurea’s theory, subject-specific compe-
tences are also generic competences (knowledge-based and skill-based profes-
sional competences). The interim review of Laurea’s competence-based core
curriculum (Auvinen et al. 2006) criticised this separation between knowledge-
based and skill-based competence, and in a way it can be said to be contrary to
the principles of Laurea’s pedagogical strategy. On the other hand, Laurea’s ge-
neric competences could be considered more progressive in that they are not
based on current degree programme structures, as the ECTS Project’s compe-
tences are. Thus Laurea’s theory is better at promoting multidisciplinary as-
sessment and the comparability of shared competence targets of different de-
gree programmes (ARENE 2007, 30).
Basis in the needs of the employment sector
16
tumn 2006. The report defines the following competence areas as being crucial
for the competitiveness of businesses in 2015: business competence, technol-
ogy competence, specialist competence or multiple competence/
multidisciplinarity, creativity and innovation, network competence, service com-
petence, corporate responsibility, multiculturalism and design competence (EK
2006, 5). The theoretical correspondence with Laurea’s generic competences –
knowledge-based professional competence, skill-based professional compe-
tence, ethical competence, innovative competence, network competence, reflec-
tive competence and globalisation competence – is remarkable.
At the time of writing, the most recent report examining the general requirements
for education placed by the employment sector and by society is a report of the
Ministry of Labour’s Globalisation Committee. The report describes three com-
petence development requirements of the economic operating environment:
1. The need to invest heavily in a relatively narrow area of top expertise,
which will allow Finland to stay at the forefront of global competence;
2. The need to look after the capacity of various aspects of the economy
(particularly service functions) to utilise new knowledge, most of which is
generated outside Finland;
If Laurea’s curriculum reform is evaluated from the point of view of these factors
we may be safe in concluding that Laurea’s generic competence theory may re-
spond better to future challenges than ARENE’s ECTS Project’s more conserva-
tive recommendation regarding core competence areas.
17
Conclusion
The structural development of the higher education field has again become a fo-
cal point of higher education policy, after the preparation of the performance ag-
reement for 2007-2009, the memo of the Ministry of Education of 8 February
2006, and a government review of educational policy. It remains to be seen to
what extent content development efforts, which have ceased in the twenty-first
century, will be reinitiated now that structural reforms are taking up resources
and causing unrest among staff. In the 1990s, the staff of universities of applied
sciences traversed a difficult path towards a cohesive, established university of
applied sciences. Once that objective was met, a strategically led journey to-
wards the strategic intent for 2010 – ‘a fully authorised and international univer-
sity of applied sciences participating in innovation activities’ – began. At times,
members of staff have felt that the objectives were too elevated to correspond to
everyday realism. However, it appears that the selected modus operandi has led
development very consistently and profitably. Today’s world is very demanding.
Universities of applied sciences are still looking to claim their rightful place in the
higher education arena. Mediocrity is not acceptable; we must aim for the top.
References
ARENE 2007. The Bologna Process and Finnish Universities of Applied Sci-
ences. Participation of Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences in the European
Higher Education Area. Helsinki: ARENE ry.
nd
Audi, R. 1999. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2 ed. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
18
Confederation of Finnish Industries EK 2006. Future Probe. Verkostoitumisesta
voimaa osaamiseen. Final report.
Dewey, J. 1984. The Philosophy of John Dewey. Two Volumes in One. 1 The
Structure of Experience, 2 The Lived Experience. John J. McDermott (Ed.). Chi-
cago & London: University of Chicago Press.
Hakkarainen, K. & Lonka, K. & Lipponen, L. 2004. Tutkiva oppiminen. Järki, tun-
teet ja kulttuuri oppimisen sytyttäjinä. Porvoo: WSOY.
19
Suomala, J. 2003. “Tutkimus- ja kehittämisprojektit opiskelijoiden oppimisym-
päristönä.” In Kotila, H. (Ed.) Ammattikorkeakoulupedagogiikka. Helsinki: Edita,
pp. 95-108.
20
Teemu Rantanen
In recent years, many universities of applied sciences have carried out curricu-
lum work. This is partly due to the standardisation efforts of the European Higher
Education Area and the shift to the European Credit Transfer System. Most insti-
tutions have striven to develop their curricula with a basis in competences, start-
ing from the predicted competence requirements of the employment sector (cf.
e.g. Auvinen, Dal Maso, Kallberg, Putkuri, Suomalainen 2005). The transfer to
the ECTS system signified different processes of varying durations for each uni-
versity of applied sciences (Liljander 2005). Laurea started the change as a pu-
rely technical conversion calculation, and investigated the curriculum reform ca-
refully. The objective was to adopt new curricula throughout Laurea in autumn
2006 (Laurea Curriculum Reform Project Plan 2004).
Various stages can roughly be distinguished in the curriculum reform process
carried out at Laurea in 2004-2006. In spring 2004, the focus was on project
planning, whereas between late 2004 and January 2005 the emphasis was on
creating Laurea’s competence-based curriculum model. At these early stages,
the central operator was the curriculum reform project team. The actual curricu-
lum development work took place between March 2005 and March 2006. This
work involved all Laurea lecturers, with a focus on degree-programme-specific
efforts. The management group and the generic competence team also played
an important part. Since April 2006, the process has focused on planning teach-
ing implementations and learning evaluation processes, among other things.
Process reviews have formed an important part of the process since autumn
2005.
This article describes Laurea’s curriculum reform process using the documenta-
tion created during the process. The description focuses particularly on the early
stages of the process; the process of defining generic competences and degree
21
programme curricula will be examined in further detail elsewhere in this publica-
tion. The article is written especially from the point of view of the development
project’s management group and project team.
Perspectives into the curriculum process
22
ject was more process-oriented than planning-oriented, although its basic princi-
ples and objectives remained the same throughout.
Initiation of the curriculum reform
23
At this stage the objectives did not include transferring to a competence-based
core curriculum; instead, the starting point was choosing a curriculum model by
analysing and refining various models.
As its first task in spring 2004, the project team drew up a project plan (Laurea
Curriculum Reform Project Plan 2004). It structured the curriculum reform proc-
ess with a basis in a structure proposed by Karjalainen (2003) for the curriculum
process. However, the focus was always on creating a shared curriculum for the
whole university of applied sciences, not on defining competences for individual
degree programmes.
In the project plan (2004) the main structures of the project were defined as the
project team, degree programme committees, Laurea’s Steering Group and Ex-
tended Steering Group, Laurea’s expertise sector networks, and the Winha
committee. Contrary to the project plan, the expertise sector networks were clo-
sed down during the process, and a Winha committee was never established in
the form described in the plan. The planning stage did not yet recognise the im-
portance of the development of generic competence and of the generic compe-
tence team.
The curriculum process continued in the form of familiarisation with various cur-
riculum models through literature and field trips. One of the most important trips
in terms of the curriculum process was the project team’s visit to the University
of Oulu’s curriculum project in May 2004. This visit supported the notion of the
benefits of the competence-based core curriculum model. In spring 2004, how-
ever, there was some debate on workload reviews (cf. e.g. Karjalainen, Alha &
Jutila 2003) and on core subject analyses. The project team had certain reserva-
tions regarding the importance of these factors:
“It was noted that the core subject analysis and workload review can easily lead
us back to existing curricula. If we start from existing curricula, we end up just
developing. If we want to reform and renew, we have to adopt a new approach.”
(Minutes of a curriculum reform project team meeting, 27 May 2004)
Choosing and structuring the competence-based core curriculum process
24
orientation. There was also an emphasis on the broader social significance of
the generic competences: “The generic competences aim to create a vital and
competitive Finland.” (“Morning Presentations – Main Outcomes”. Seminar of
Laurea’s Extended Steering Group, September 2004.)
An initial definition of Laurea’s shared generic competences was made in au-
tumn 2004. This was done using theoretical analysis, a welfare competence sur-
vey conducted in spring 2004, and a competence survey conducted on the de-
velopment day held on 28 October 2004 (cf. the article by Raij & Rantanen in
this book). The project team continued to work on the curriculum model, defining
it as a two-dimensional model in December 2004:
Laurea’s curricula could be presented as a two-dimensional model (or ma-
trix), with generic competences on the vertical axis and degree-programme-
specific themes on the horizontal axis.
Each theme can include basic studies as well as professional studies. The
concepts of basic and professional studies are not, however, central to the
structure of the curriculum. Although the themes and study units are de-
gree-programme-specific, some programmes may also share study units.
(Structure of the Competence-Based Core Curriculum 2004)
25
work. In addition, a generic competence team was appointed for defining the
generic competences.
During 2005 and early 2006, the curriculum management group focused on
leading and coordinating the process. Its main tasks included organising curricu-
lum seminars, clarifying the ways in which the curriculum should be written, de-
ciding on various small details, and organising the evaluation of the curriculum.
The management group interacted regularly with Laurea’s Steering Group, par-
ticularly through the mediation of the development director.
The generic competence team experts created descriptions of each generic
competence. These were condensed further and used to create level descrip-
tions, so that each generic competence progressed through three levels. In
summer and autumn 2005, five generic competences shared by all of Laurea’s
degree programmes and two degree-programme-specific generic competences
(knowledge-based and skill-based professional competence) were defined.
The issue of how to evaluate competence according to the generic competences
led to extensive debates from late 2004 onwards. The generic competence team
concluded that the generic competences should be evaluated using an elec-
tronic portfolio. The practical details of portfolio evaluation received very little at-
tention at the planning stage, however, being left for the planning of the imple-
mentation of study units and themes.
The writing of actual curricula took place separately for each degree programme.
For this purpose, degree programme curriculum teams were set up in March
2005. Their main task was to create a curriculum for each degree programme by
the end of February 2006. The teams consisted of senior lecturers and principal
lecturers from the relevant field of study. Each team appointed its own chairman
and invited student and workplace representatives to join. Certain degree pro-
grammes did not appoint a separate workplace representative, but took into ac-
count the voice of the employment sector through workplace interviews or semi-
nars.
The degree programme teams began by analysing the future competence nee-
ded in the field by working with the employment sector and students, and by us-
ing available predictive data. To ensure that the processes progressed uni-
formly, four curriculum seminars were organised in 2005 and two in spring 2006
for all degree programmes. Poster presentations and short general presenta-
tions were made to invite discussion on the degree programmes’ competence
requirements. The work progressed such that by the curriculum seminar held on
28 September 2005, the degree programme teams had carried out analyses of
26
the operating environment, future competence requirements and competence
areas of the sector in question, and drafted preliminary themes. There was then
time for describing theme objectives and defining the targets and contents of the
study units included in the themes between October and December 2005, and a
period for final refinement between January and March 2006.
One of the risks identified in the project plan was the fear that lecturers would fail
to commit to the process due to the limited time resources. This was addressed
by making a Laurea-wide decision on budgeting for the development work and
for the lecturers’ work inputs. Staff commitment was also fostered by focusing on
the curriculum reform and the LbD model during the Laurea-wide development
sessions held in 2005. A curriculum reform workspace was created in Laurea’s
online environment (Optima) to improve communication by storing all materials
related to the process in the same folder. The Optima environment was an ex-
cellent communication channel throughout the process, although very little free-
form discussion took place on the platform.
The relationship between themes and generic competences generated some
confusion in the degree programme teams. The first drafts for theme objectives
(autumn 2005) focused on traditional subject-specific competence areas. After a
seminar on the evaluation of degree programme curricula and some refining
work, the approach of the curricula was finally more clearly competence-based.
Evaluating the process
27
meant that the concrete planning stage was reached on schedule (Curriculum
Reform Management Group memo 23 May 2006).
However, the development process also had clear problems from the manage-
ment group’s point of view. Specific issues were the delays to the schedule, the
haste with which events had to be planned, and the lack of a detailed overall
plan. Irregularities were also noted in the generic competence development work
and in staff commitment. Cooperation between degree programmes and trans-
disciplinary work were also fairly limited in the curriculum process (Curriculum
Reform Management Group memo 23 May 2006).
Overall, Laurea’s curriculum reform has been a very extensive process. In addi-
tion to the project management group, the degree programme teams and the
generic competence team, the process involved numerous short- or long-term
committees and groups (e.g. management development team, curriculum writing
team, management competence team, entrepreneurship competence team, re-
search and development competence team, customer relationship competence
team, chairs of the degree programme, language teachers). The process would
probably have been impossible without the strong commitment of Laurea’s top-
level management. The fact that all degree programme directors were repre-
sented in the management group made the process easier. However, from the
point of view of the workability of the reform, the most important factor was the
extensive commitment of staff to the competence-based core curriculum and the
LbD model.
References
“Morning Presentations – Main Outcomes”. Seminar of Laurea’s Extended
Steering Group, September 2004.
28
Evaluation of Universities of Applied Sciences as Centres of Excellence in Edu-
cation 2004. Laurea University of Applied Sciences.
Karjalainen, A., Alha, K. & Jutila, S. 2003. Anna aikaa ajatella. Suomalainen
yliopistojen mitoitusjärjestelmä. University of Oulu, Teaching Development Unit.
Project Plan for the Laurea Curriculum Reform Process. 2004. Drafted on 11
May 2004.
29
Curriculum Reform Project Team, memo of 27 May 2004.
30
Outi Kallioinen
• essential to the implementation of the vision and the making of strategic deci-
sions
• essential for producing core products
• essential for the company to survive in the long run
• competences that exist within the organisation and are unique for the company
31
• invisible to competitors, difficult to copy or transfer, few in number
• a combination of skills, resources and processes
• long-lasting in the organisation
• created and developed through learning in the organisation
• marketable and containing commercial value
(Otala 1996; Sydänmaanlakka 2004, 147.)
According to Prahalad and Hamel (1990), core competences are the interpreta-
tions of an organisation’s players as to what they believe produces added value
for customers. Another important characteristic of core competences is the fact
that through the organisation’s learning they are transformed into at least team-
level competence, so they are not the result of an individual’s learning. (Viitala
2005, 82). One of Laurea’s core competences that produce added value for cus-
tomers is innovation competence.
The organisation’s operations are built on its core competences, so they must be
made the target of systematic and target-oriented development, closely linked to
training and management. At this point it must also be decided how to acquire
non-core competences. They can be produced internally, acquired through part-
ners or networks, or outsourced.
According to Prahalad and Hamel (1996), core competences can also be known
as strategic or critical competences, and a competence maintenance process
has to be set up to safeguard them. A core competence plan must be made as
part of the organisation’s competence management and development efforts,
defining the quantity, quality, location and acquisition method of each compe-
tence. A development process, with objectives, must also be defined for core
competences. This will allow the organisation to utilise its core competences op-
timally, to protect and to preserve them. (Viitala 2005, 82)
From the point of view of competence management it is extremely important that
the organisation identify and map its experts’ competence in order to persistently
develop it and lead it in the direction of the vision, and to allow the organisation
to recruit new experts when needed (Argyris & Schön 1995). In terms of the ex-
pertise produced by universities of applied sciences, it is very important to pre-
dict the competence needs and completely new competence combinations that
will arise in the future, in order to respond to the employment market’s needs for
renewing, maintaining and developing core competences. It is a demanding
task, but it can be accomplished by forecasting and carrying out predictive, high-
quality curriculum development work together with representatives of the em-
32
ployment market. The generic competences in Laurea’s new curriculum contain
exactly the kind of general competence shared by all future experts that allows
for ethical, reflective and innovative work in an increasingly networked environ-
ment and in our globalised world.
Riitta Viitala (2005) discusses different views on the concepts used in relation to
expertise and professionalism. Some of the most common terms are skills, com-
petences and capabilities. Skills refer to specialist abilities that can be taught
and that are applied to practical work tasks. Competences are used more to re-
fer to aptitudes – i.e. proficiency in a certain job. The concept of competence is
also linked to professionalism; the highly advanced, confident and skilful work of
an expert in a field. Capabilities are usually linked to prowess, but prowess and
ability are often confused conceptually in speech. (Garavan & McGuire 2001;
Viitala 2005, 113.)
Ruohotie (2002) has discussed the meanings given to professional competence
on the basis of definitions made by Ellström (2001), indicating that the profes-
sional competence that an individual can genuinely utilise in his or her work re-
ceives meaning from four very different perspectives:
• Professional competence means the skill and proficiency requirements made
by the employment market, by professional organisations, etc.
• Professional competence means the skills required by the workplace for the
successful completion of a job.
• Professional competence means an individual’s proficiency and eligibility for
further study, indicated by curricula, degree requirements and degree certifi-
cates. Professional competence means the individual’s actual and potential
proficiency, i.e. individual and personal capacity.
According to Räsänen (1996), professionalism implies a varied and comprehen-
sive ability to complete job tasks, which encompasses both broad capabilities
and the capacity to develop. Good control over tasks leads to the ability to com-
plete tasks independently, implies responsibility over one’s own performance
and work outcomes, and produces success in changing circumstances.
According to Ruohotie (2002), the performance of professionally skilled individu-
als can vary greatly depending on what they consider to be core competences or
strategies in their jobs, and what meaning they impart to different competences.
The transfer of competences from one context to another is not spontaneous,
which creates challenges when providing orientation for new workers or experts.
33
From the point of view of key qualifications, universities of applied sciences
should plan the learning process so that the teaching and development of gen-
eral skills is also linked to a genuine workplace context. The definition of each
competence should be socially localisable (Ruohotie 2002; 2006). The Learning
by Developing operating model allows for the development of new professional
competence in authentic workplace contexts, which creates an understanding of
expertise as a holistic entity rather than as a series of competences.
Expertise as described in Laurea’s curricula
34
programme teams’ visions as they were, without summarising or interpreting. In
the Study Guide, these expertise descriptions are then used for defining compe-
tences, on the basis of which the curriculum’s themes and study units are for-
med.
Expertise in business management, Bachelor of Business Administration
A changing business environment requires innovation, the ability to anticipate
changes and change management skills. The ability to analyse and develop
business operations is essential. Business Management graduates have the re-
quired professional knowledge and skills to act as innovators in their fields.
Working in a dynamic and networked business environment requires versatile
communication skills, ethically sustainable management, attention to weak sig-
nals, and the ability to utilise the potential offered by information technology. As
economic growth will in future be increasingly based on intangible assets, ser-
vice production has to be seen as part of all business operations. Expertise in
the field relates increasingly to redefining entire value-generating systems. Value
generated for customers is examined from the perspective of a broad selection
of services produced by an entire network, in which innovations are increasingly
important.
35
ments. Physiotherapy customers are individuals, communities, companies or or-
ganisations seeking a physiotherapist’s advice and professional assistance. The
profession is based on physiotherapy as a science, which centres on human
movement, mobility and functional ability, and the relationships of these factors
with individual actions. Physiotherapy applies research and data from many
other sciences.
The aim of the Degree Programme in Social Services is to train experts in social
services. This means providing training in issues related to education, rehabilita-
tion, prevention and the maintenance of abilities, from the points of view of rela-
tionships between people, social situations and the society as a whole. The
value base of social services is founded in respect for people and social justice.
Bachelors of Social Services are experts in everyday life, supporters of ordinary
people in various situations and problems that they encounter.
The field of social services and health care consists of working with people.
Skills in interpersonal work, interaction, empathy, responsibility, individual and
group management, and holistic encounters with people form the core of compe-
tence in the field. Social services also emphasise the societal nature of prob-
lems, resources and support. Work in the field is closely linked to the structures
of the welfare society. The operating environments of the sector are built on the
basis of social policy decisions. Bachelors of Social Services must be prepared
to work in the public, private and third sectors alike. The relationships of an ex-
pert in social services with the society are twofold: on the one hand, Bachelors
of Social Services are executors of social policy decisions, providing guidance to
customers in the use of welfare services; on the other hand, their core compe-
tence includes providing social influence and supporting citizens through social
change processes.
The Degree Programme in Social Services trains experts for the broad field of
social services. Different areas of the field require different skills; challenges and
36
opportunities related to population, legislative, technological and methodological
developments create a need for specialist skills. The main areas of specialisa-
tion are related to the aging population, supporting children and families, mar-
ginalisation, social rehabilitation, and increasing participation.
Competence in existing social service methodology and a deep understanding of
the social viewpoint form an essential part of expertise in social services. How-
ever, work with customers living in different conditions and with changing social
situations emphasises the need for an investigative and developmental ap-
proach instead of one where ready-made solutions are adopted. Also needed is
a constant self-evaluation of one’s own work and learning, i.e. reflective profes-
sionalism. Social efficiency requirements and a focus on citizens’ rights and the
effectiveness of social service work have brought about an emphasis on evaluat-
ing services and work methods, on quality and on leadership. (Laurea Study
Guide 2006-2007)
An area of core competence is the ability to predict changes in the operating en-
vironment. Those working in the sector must be able to analyse existing trends
and recognise even weak signals coming from the industry in order to predict the
future of the field and their company. Expertise lies particularly in the ability to
renew and update services. Business-to-business cooperation must be devel-
oped to counter the continuous changes in the operating environment. The most
important thing is to find core partners, and to manage competence and change.
In addition to knowledge, skills and abilities, expertise in the field involves val-
ues, attitudes, ethics, motivation, critical thinking, flexible operations, under-
standing the links between different functions, and intuition. In order to be useful,
the different areas and functions of expertise must be integrated. (Laurea Study
Guide 2006-2007)
37
veloper. It is based on research, on the ability to participate in a social value
network, and on competence in an enriching community. Experts are skilled in
discerning the significance of new solutions and services from the point of view
of success, and in committing and being motivated to be influential in a work
community or relevant value network.
Security and safety form part of safeguarding the well-being of the society and
its people and communities. Experts in security management understand the
structure of the sector and its clusters, and can analyse, develop and merge se-
curity into company operations and processes. They can predict the financial
aspects of various security risks and determine the financial effects of security
measures. Experts must also master the sale and purchasing of security-related
products and services.
In future, the maintenance of safe living and operating environments will increas-
ingly be achieved through cooperation, combining the resources of the authori-
ties and of other operators. Experts in security management can form partner-
ships, act as partners and participate in enriching communities and multidiscipli-
nary environments. It is critical to understand the legal aspects of human behav-
iour, and to be able to communicate and interact. Expertise is reflected in the
ability to take an organisation in a chosen strategic direction while making use of
individuals’ and communities’ competence in management and development. In
everyday operations it is seen as competence in planning, implementing and
evaluating security measures, and in leadership-related skills. Decision-making
skills are also important in an expert’s work.
Increasingly complex and long operational chains and logistical networks place
further demands on security. Security experts must be able to anticipate and re-
solve threats related to people, operations, operating environments, logistics and
information security, and to minimise the damages caused by the fulfilment of
such threats. The increasing complexity of operating environments leads to
more normative regulation of security issues. In the work of a security expert,
38
this means the ability to apply new regulations in ways which are lawful and
which respect people’s basic human rights.
Expertise aims for competence that will carry us to and in the future. The exper-
tise descriptions particularly emphasise shared activity, anticipation, readiness
for change, multiple skills, continuous learning, development and self-evaluation.
These factors lead to the development of the abilities listed by Anderson and
Marshall (1994) as making up the third stage of competence needed in working
life, i.e. abilities leading to an organisation’s maximal performance. The use of
these competences is linked to systematic reasoning, and they are essential for
a learning organisation that utilises both hidden and explicit learning processes
in its development. (Ruohotie 2002)
39
knowledge, as well as on the efficiency and quality of applying the knowledge.
These aspects are also emphasised by the OECD in its report (2002).
The production of actual expertise in accordance with the new curriculum is cur-
rently under way in relation to nearly 1,500 students who started at Laurea in
2006. In a few years’ time it will be very interesting to investigate how expertise
has been attained in the different degree programmes, and what its impact is on
the graduates’ employment.
REFERENCES
Anderson, A. & Marshall, V. 1994. Core Versus Occupation-Specific Skills. Hor-
sham: The HOST Consultancy. Labour Market Intelligence Unit.
Argyris, C. & Schön, D.A. 1995. Organizational Learning II: Theory, Method, and
nd
Practice. 2 ed. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
Bereiter, C. 2002. Education and Mind in the Knowledge Age. Mahwah, NJ: Erl-
baum.
40
Laurea Study Guide 2006-2007
Prahalad, C.K. & Hamel, G. 1990. “The Core Competence of the Corporation”.
Harvard Business Review (May-June), pp. 79-91.
41
II GENERIC COMPETENCES
IN THE LAUREA
CURRICULUM
Chapter II examines the creation of the generic competences and describes the
theoretical framework behind each competence. The generic competences are
also compared to general Finnish and European competence descriptions.
42
Katariina Raij & Teemu Rantanen
Background
Debates on Finnish higher education institutions’ curricula often include the con-
cepts of ‘generic competence’ and ‘competence-based core curriculum’. There
are various interpretations of these concepts. According to Karjalainen (e.g.
2003, 50-51), in the competence-based core curriculum, modules are not de-
fined as single study units or competence areas, but as core expertise modules
that are multidisciplinary or consist of various subjects, and that progress
throughout the degree. Generic competences are seen as areas of expertise on
which the competence-based core curriculum is based (e.g. Campbell 2001).
Karjalainen cites the Finnish degree of Licentiate in Medicine as an example of a
competence-based core curriculum, as it can consist of generic competences
and for example one hundred cases to be solved in small teams. Another way to
look at the competence-based core curriculum is to define generic competences
as core competences (e.g. Skilbeck 1984). Laurea’s core curriculum contains
aspects from both perspectives. The generic competences are defined as core
competences that correspond to the needs of the workplace. The competence-
based core curriculum is structured as a matrix, in which these core compe-
tences run throughout the degree. The horizontal axis of the matrix is made up
of themes representing the degree programmes’ own competence descriptions.
This article describes the process of defining the generic competences as a part
of Laurea’s curriculum reform. We start by looking at how preliminary generic
competences were identified and appointed using a survey analysis. We then
describe the work of the generic competence team established for refining the
competences. Finally, we compare the completed generic competence descrip-
tions to the outcomes of the work of a committee consisting of representatives
from European higher education institutions.
43
Welfare competence questionnaire
44
Table 1. Main aspects of welfare competence as indicated by a survey of Laurea lectures
Class Frequency
Interaction, social skills 19
Creative, research-, evaluation- and development-oriented
approach 18
Cooperation skills 17
Ethics, ethical competence 16
Subject-specific competence 13
Multidisciplinary competence 11
Network competence 10
Skills in supporting day-to-day coping / reinforcing re-
sources 10
Technical competence 10
Interpersonal skills 9
Empathy/caring/emotional intelligence 9
Leadership/organisational skills 9
Ability to recognise the requirements/resources/realities of
welfare 8
Theory-related competence 7
Spirituality-related competence 7
Ability to work in a community 6
Information management 6
Ability to give guidance/advice 6
Entrepreneurship competence 6
Looking after one’s own well-being 6
Team-working skills 6
Knowledge of the human physique and psyche 6
Self-management 6
Health promotion 5
Listening skills 5
Presence/encounters 5
Language skills 5
Multicultural knowledge 5
On the basis of the welfare questionnaire, an initial vision of what the generic
competences could comprise was presented at a curriculum seminar for Lau-
rea’s Extended Steering Group in October 2004 (Rantanen 2004b):
• interaction skills
• ethical competence
• network and team-working competence
• research and development competence
• subject-specific competence
• leadership competence
• technical competence
45
• international competence
• business and entrepreneurship competence
The presentation was initially based solely on the welfare analysis. In the dis-
cussion held at the seminar it became apparent that similar generic compe-
tences could be used to structure competence in all degree programmes. The
method used was also found to be appropriate.
Consequently, similar questionnaires were sent out to all Laurea staff in relation
to sustainable development, ICT and business competence. The questions were
in line with those of the welfare questionnaire. Respondents were also asked to
name the field of study they represented. Two final questions were selected for
further analysis: ’What kind of competence in business / sustainable develop-
ment / ICT will be required of the workers of the future?’ ’What will the focal
points of business / sustainable development / ICT and its development be in the
future?’ The survey was conducted at two regional units during a regional unit
development day in October 2004 (n=86) and at the third regional unit later, in
writing.
The answers were first analysed quantitatively using content analysis, sepa-
rately for the areas of business competence, sustainable development and ICT.
After this, shared, repeated classifications were identified between the areas. Fi-
nally, the classifications drawn from the data to describe competence were com-
bined into broader classifications. The broader classes thus achieved were na-
med on the basis of the data, also taking into account Laurea’s strategic choi-
ces. This resulted in six preliminary generic competences (Raij & Rantanen
2004):
• ethical competence (ethics, values, responsibility)
• reflective competence (reflection, change management, human skills, learning
skills)
• globalisation competence (understanding globalisation, cultural and social
competence, multicultural competence and international competence)
• network competence (social skills, interaction, communication, networking, co-
operation, service-mindedness, customer orientation)
• leadership competence (management, business, entrepreneurship compe-
tence)
• innovative competence (research-oriented and developmental approach, R&D
skills, information management, IT, innovation, forecasting, future compe-
tence)
46
Describing the generic competences
47
diate level (Level 2) and an advanced level (Level 3) were identified. The levels
reflect the vision of students progressing, through their studies, from the per-
sonal competence level to the organisational developer level, and, from there, to
the most advanced social reformer level. As a starting point it was decided that
every Laurea student should reach at least Level 1 in all generic competences.
From there on, each degree programme would have its own requirements. This
means that some degree programmes require students to reach either Level 2
or Level 3 in some generic competences.
The generic competence team also carefully considered the evaluation of the
generic competences. Discussions resulted in a two-level evaluation system. It
was deemed important that the generic competences be evaluated as a part of
the professional growth process that takes place during the studies, as well as in
relation to the degree-programme-specific themes. The idea is that the progress
of generic competences be considered in conjunction with the evaluation of stu-
dy units to the extent that each generic competence is linked to each study unit’s
learning outcomes. Discussions on the methodology of generic competence
evaluation resulted in the adoption of a portfolio. The portfolio is seen as the
students’ tool for identifying, evaluating and demonstrating their competence. It
allows lecturers to assess the students’ competence as a learning process and a
professional growth process, and provides a means of guiding the students.
Considerations
48
According to Auvinen et al. (2005, 46), the aim of the competence-based core
curriculum is to allow learning to be more closely linked to the professional con-
text than it is in traditional study-unit-based curricula. Auvinen cites as an exam-
ple the competence-based curriculum of the Degree Programme in Forest Prod-
ucts Marketing at the North Karelia University of Applied Sciences, which con-
sists of twelve generic competences, e.g. confidence in professional skills,
commitment to the work community’s objectives and values, learning to learn,
and managing people and tasks (Auvinen et al. 2005, 47). At Laurea, the com-
petence-based core curriculum is described as a matrix in which the core com-
petences included in the generic competences and the degree-programme-
specific themes intersect. Thus there is a merger of the core curriculum shared
by all degree programmes, and the subject-specific competence (competence-
based curriculum) of each degree programme.
Ruohotie (2002) defines the objectives of a university of applied sciences on the
basis of qualifications needed in the workplace and the competences produced
by education. He structures the skill profile of an expert by distinguishing be-
tween profession-specific skills and knowledge, general workplace skills, and
self-management skills needed for professional development. According to Ruo-
hotie, general workplace skills include cognitive skills, social skills, media com-
petence, creativity, innovation and people- and task-management skills. This
structure is also behind Laurea’s pedagogical strategy (Laurea 2002, 4). How-
ever, in the course of the curriculum reform process, the competence needed in
the workplace was defined slightly differently. Of Laurea’s generic competences,
innovative competence and network competence are closest to Ruohotie’s
workplace qualifications. Leadership skills were considered to be much more
concrete than these. Laurea also departs from Ruohotie’s definition by empha-
sising ethical and globalisation competence. Laurea also made clear choices in
identifying the generic competences, deciding to do it by gathering analysis ma-
terials broadly from Laurea staff, to ensure that the classifications were widely
applicable. The process proved a success. Core competences could be identi-
fied easily from the list of competences due to their popularity. Comparisons with
other competence definitions (e.g. the Tuning report) were carried out after the
analysis was completed. Similarities could be found between Laurea’s and the
Tuning Project’s generic competence descriptions.
49
portant to identify different levels of progress in the competences, in order to fa-
cilitate evaluation and the identification of the competence acquired. These lev-
els are those of the personal, organisational and social developer. One chal-
lenge has arisen in how to disseminate the generic competences to become the
intellectual capital of lecturers, in order to make it easier for them to guide stu-
dents and support their professional growth. The portfolio work method closely
linked to the generic competences supports the students in identifying, evaluat-
ing and increasing their own competence (cf. Linnankylä 1995). For lecturers,
the portfolio is seen as a tutoring and evaluation tool. The generic competence
development work continues. Systematically gathered feedback is used to
evaluate the scope of the competences and in following the building of the rele-
vant abilities.
The abilities included in the generic competences can also be seen from the
point of view of the types of knowledge involved in professional competence (cf.
Raij 2000, 42; 2003, 50-51), identifying the knowledge, skills and abilities en-
compassed by each generic competence, as well as the values on which it is
founded. The accrual of the students’ own experiential knowledge can be fol-
lowed in the portfolio that corresponds to each generic competence.
50
References
Regional Development Strategy. 2002. Laurea University of Applied Sciences.
Project Plan for the Laurea Curriculum Reform Process. 2004. Drafted on 16
April 2004.
51
Rantanen, T. 2004b. “Hyvinvointiosaamisen painopistealueet ops:n juonteina?”.
Presentation to the Laurea Extended Steering Group’s curriculum seminar on 4
October 2004.
52
Soile Juujärvi
Ethical Competence
53
gramme, the value objectives, social responsibility, current professional ethics
and main ethical questions of each sector must be analysed. The ethical generic
competence also involves acquiring abilities that have not traditionally been in-
cluded in professional ethics teaching. Optimally, the students’ progression
through the ethical generic competence creates an ethical base for new exper-
tise generated at Laurea. Just like old professions, new professions need ethical
guidelines in order to maintain the legitimacy of the profession, to support indi-
vidual workers’ ethical activities, and to determine responsibilities in multidisci-
plinary partnerships (Honkonen & Korander 2004).
Four components of ethical competence
Although logically the interpretation of the situation comes before moral deci-
sion-making, according to Rest their components do not follow one another line-
arly; they may involve complex relationships. For example, a student’s moral
problem-solving ability may affect his or her way of interpreting ethical conflicts.
It is noteworthy that each of these components is needed in order to achieve
ethical actions; failure in one component causes the failure of the actions as a
whole. From the point of view of professional ethics, it is not usually a question
of not knowing what is right and what is wrong; it is that ethical problems are not
identified or that personal benefits (e.g. comfort or financial values) direct deci-
sion-making and actions more than ethics. Individuals may also be adept at
some of the components but bad at others (Juujärvi & Myyry 2005). For exam-
54
ple, an employee may be highly motivated to help a customer, but simultane-
ously be biased towards this customer at the expense of other customers.
The ethical generic competence consists of four components: (1) ethical sensi-
tivity; (2) ethical motivation; (3) moral-ethical problem-solving; and (4) ethical im-
plementation skills. In contrast to Rest’s model, ethical motivation takes second
place, before the problem-solving component. In professional education it is jus-
tifiable to assume that students have the will to work according to ethical values,
and that this value guides the solving of ethical problems. The realisation of
each component into learning outcomes is founded on evidence-based data,
which is most abundant in the area of moral-ethical problem-solving and least
abundant in the area of ethical implementation skills. Ethical sensitivity and mo-
tivation are in between these extremes (Walker 2002). Below is a description of
the components of ethical competence from the point of view of educational ob-
jectives. The objectives are indicated in line with competence levels in Table 1.
The first requirement for ethical actions is sensitivity to identifying the ethical
perspectives or problems involved in a situation. Ethical sensitivity refers to the
ability to recognise the special characteristics, needs, rights and responsibilities
of each person involved in the situation. It includes consideration of how one’s
own actions affect other people’s well-being. It also involves imagining and an-
ticipating various action plans and their consequences for each party. Ethical
sensitivity essentially involves recognising and respecting the differences be-
tween people and reflecting on one’s own attitudes and stereotypes. This is par-
ticularly important when encountering people from different cultural back-
grounds.
Empathy and the ability to put oneself in another’s position form the core of ethi-
cal sensitivity. The basic level involves listening to customers and adopting a
customer-oriented way of working, whereas at the intermediate level, students
can consciously construct customer-oriented interaction. They can bring out their
feelings and come up with professional objectives in dialogue with another per-
son. At the advanced level students can create empathetic interactions, in which
feelings are consciously processed and used as part of the interaction. There-
fore the connecting thread in ethical sensitivity is formed of professional interac-
tion skills, which are a target for active development throughout the education.
From the moral perspective, the core of development lies in role-playing skills –
i.e. the ability to put oneself in another’s position (Hoffman 2000).
Interaction skills in themselves are not enough to create ethical sensitivity, how-
ever. In order for students to identify customers’ and employees’ rights and re-
55
sponsibilities, they must have knowledge of them. This requires knowledge for
example of human rights and the main legislation related to the profession. Stu-
dents also need to know the special characteristics of major customer groups
and the main or typical ethical problems of the sector. This knowledge helps
them to identify ethical questions in ambiguous or unclear day-to-day situations.
56
Problems related to professional ethics are understood in different ways, de-
pending on the student’s level of development. For example, at the level of the
morality of good relationships (basic level of the generic competence descrip-
tion), it seems important to respond to customer needs and expectations, to be
trustworthy and to work in accordance with the professional role; at the level of
social systems and conscience (intermediate level) it is important to promote the
common good of the work community, to respect shared agreements and legis-
lation, and to act according to one’s own, internalised values. The students see
their professional actions as part of a broader social context. They ponder issues
related to the company’s or organisation’s social responsibility. On the other
hand, critical evaluation of the (work) community’s, institution’s and society’s
values and practices, and the examination of global ethical problems are linked
to the stage of the morality of social contract, utility and individual rights (ad-
vanced level). The broader the sociomoral perspective, the more comprehensive
and diverse the moral-ethical problem-solving can be, because it also includes
views related to previous perspectives.
The target level description for moral-ethical problem-solving describes the de-
velopment of a sociomoral perspective (individual-interpersonal level, organisa-
tional level and social level), as well as the ethical knowledge that is necessary
from the point of view of the development of reasoning skills. At the basic level
the main content consists of the field’s ethical code (ethical norms and instruc-
tions, public values) and the legislation that governs work. At the intermediate
level, the perspective is broadened with ethical approaches and theories that in-
clude a social point of view and that may be specific to the profession. Under-
standing problems of professional ethics with a basis in diverse moral philoso-
phies and ethical theories is useful, because most of them represent a socially
critical point of view. The most important thing, however, is not to know the con-
tent as such, but to apply and justify it in moral-ethical problem-solving. Re-
search has shown that moral-ethical problem-solving aptitudes vary greatly
among students and that the most effective way to develop them is to use argu-
mentative debate on typical and genuine ethical problems that arise in the field
(Rest & Narvaez 1994; King & Mayhew 2002). Moral-ethical problem-solving is
the component on which there is most research data. For example, there are in-
dications that advanced moral reasoning predicts ethical actions from students
in practical case work (Duckett & Ryden 1994).
Above is a description of the moral-ethical perspective from the point of view of
Kohlberg’s theory, according to which the core of moral development consists of
an evolving understanding of interpersonal cooperation and justice. In contem-
57
porary research, another central mode of moral reasoning is the ethic of care,
which is based on responding to the needs of another person (Gilligan 1982;
Skoe 1998). Moral-ethical problem-solving based on the ethic of care is a critical
competence area in professions centred around caring– such as nursing or so-
cial services. Taking care of the customer produces quality in any service pro-
fession. The ethic of care includes development stages that describe an increas-
ing understanding of the dynamics and responsibilities of human relationships,
such as the relationship between customer and employee (Juujärvi 2006a;
2006b; 2006c). Without knowledge and application of the ethic of care, ethical
problems related to assistance and nursing tasks cannot be solved fully. How-
ever, this aspect is not included in Laurea’s moral-ethical problem-solving, be-
cause ethical problems related to caring are not central to all fields of study. The
ethic of care is apparent in the generic competence description in the compo-
nent of ethical sensitivity.
Ethical implementation skills refer to the ability to take target-oriented action to
solve ethical problems, as well as the willpower and courage to act in accor-
dance with ethical values in practical situations. This is the most complex and
ambiguous component in Rest’s model (Walker 2002). Genuine ethical problems
are often linked to powerful conflicts of interest, emotions or risks to oneself or
others. If a situation poses a significant risk to oneself, in particular, it is human
nature to give up and to compromise one’s principles. However, ethical imple-
mentation skills may prove to be the most important part of moral actions: failure
to take moral actions implies that success in the other components did not pro-
duce the expected result (Juujärvi & Myyry 2005). Ethical implementation skills
often require the ability to cope with conflicts of opinion and social pressure.
Other important skills include the ability to justify one’s opinion, as well as nego-
tiation, conflict-solving, argumentation and influencing skills. In terms of the stu-
dent’s role it is particularly difficult to develop moral implementation skills, be-
cause it requires the ability to express one’s own justified, divergent opinion and
argue for it. The development of implementation skills is characterised by a feel-
ing of one’s ability to encounter and handle increasingly complex and challeng-
ing situations.
In evaluating ethical implementation skills, it is important to check that the skills
are put into action in practice. At the basic level, the objective should be for stu-
dents to strive towards object-oriented short-term ethical actions. This involves
the immediate implementation of ordinary ethical solutions – e.g. resisting temp-
tation and following ethical norms and general guidelines. Students should par-
ticularly strive to keep promises and comply with agreements. They should be
58
able to justify their actions verbally and in writing. They should also comply with
research ethics in their theses. At the intermediate level, students can implement
ethical actions in the medium-length term, for instance resolving conflicts in a
community. This implies managing basic professional interaction skills (e.g. ac-
tive listening) as well as negotiation skills (e.g. the ability to see a problem from
different perspectives and to summarise discussions). They have persistence,
character and the ability to work independently. At the advanced level, students
can set long-term ethical objectives such as actively promoting social change.
Their essential implementation competences are conflict-resolution and influenc-
ing skills, which are in turn based on varied argumentation (moral-ethical prob-
lem-solving).
Rest’s model has proven to be a useful tool in studying professional ethics and
planning educational interventions. It is known that ethical sensitivity and moral-
ethical problem-solving in particular can be developed through education (Rest
& Narvaez 1994). The model offers a comprehensive, scientifically proven vision
of ethical competence. It broadens the context of traditional professional ethics
from thinking about values to taking practical action. On the other hand, its de-
velopmental approach towards moral-ethical problem-solving has been criticised
for rating people according to their moral reasoning. The proponents of the ap-
proach have emphasised that the object of the evaluation is not the individual
but his or her reasoning. Research has shown that people consider the argu-
ments of the higher levels to be better and more convincing than those of the
lower levels, even if they are not on the same level themselves (cf. Rest 1994).
As a counter-argument it can also be noted that the students’ development takes
place regardless of the curriculum. The structures of the students’ reasoning
form a framework to which teaching in professional ethics fits or doesn’t fit. For
example, teaching containing abstract philosophical concepts will not get
through to students who are at the stage of the morality of good relationships.
The objectives given in curricula generally describe moral-ethical problem-
solving at the advanced level. However, only about 15 per cent of the population
ever reaches the fifth stage of Kohlberg’s development theory, the level of social
contract, and they reach it only after the age of 30. The sixth level of universal
moral principles is very rare (Colby, Kohlberg & al. 1987). Describing the stages
of development in reasoning makes objectives more defined and realistic. The
full utilisation of the model requires sensitivity on the teacher’s part towards the
students’ moral-ethical reasoning structures.
59
According to research, effective teaching requires that ethics be 1) a clearly de-
fined part of the curriculum, which 2) is integrated into the teaching of profes-
sional subjects, and 3) is implemented in cooperation with experts in the profes-
sion and in ethics (Rest & Narvaez 1994). The competence-based core curricu-
lum has made it possible to give a definite role to ethical competence. However,
the integration of ethical competence into the teaching of subject-specific units is
challenging particularly in terms of ethical sensitivity and moral-ethical problem-
solving. The inclusion of ethical sensitivity implies a need for specific objectives
in interaction skills. Developing moral-ethical problem-solving skills, on the other
hand, requires that the teaching naturally include the consideration of profes-
sional problems from ethical points of view. This implies making ethical contents
parallel to other contents, such as legal issues. By ethical contents I mean vari-
ous ethical theories and approach applications, the consideration and question-
ing of the social responsibilities of companies and organisations, and knowledge
of justice-building legislation (e.g. equality and non-discrimination laws). From
this point of view, the creation of the curriculum has only just begun.
Another major challenge in developing the core curriculum was creating objec-
tives that took into account the dialogic nature of the development of ethical
competence. This is because almost all the objectives of ethical competence
can only be fulfilled in interaction with others. However, there are few objectives
related to dialogue or argumentation in the curricula. The tool for teaching ethical
competence is the message. The effectiveness of traditional lectures has been
found to be low. Effectiveness in this case is linked to diverse pedagogical solu-
tions, such as role-play, simulations, film analyses, interaction skills, dilemma
discussions, reflective journals, professional mentors and projects related to
ethical issues (cf. Rest & Narvaez 1994). Quided online discussions on genuine
ethical problems could be one suitable method for promoting the development of
the students’ moral-ethical problem-solving skills (Juujärvi & Pesso 2006).
60
Soile Juujärvi, Doctor of Social Sciences, Principal Lecturer
Laurea University of Applied Sciences.
References
Colby, A., Kohlberg, L. et al. 1987. The Measurement of Moral Judgment, Vol. I.
Theoretical Foundations and Research Validation. New York: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Duckett, L.J. & Ryden, M.B. 1994. “Education for Ethical Nursing Practice.” In
Rest, J.R. & Narváez, D. (Eds.) Moral Development in the Professions: Psychol-
ogy and Applied Ethics. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, pp. 51-69.
61
Juujärvi, S. & Myyry, L. 2005. “Ammatillisen moraaliajattelun kehitys: Oikeuden-
mukaisuudesta huolenpitoon?”. In Pirttilä-Backman, A.-M., Ahokas, M., Myyry, L.
& Lähteenoja, S. (Eds.) Arvot, moraali ja yhteiskunta. Helsinki: Gaudeamus, pp.
70-94.
King P.M. & Mayhew, M.J. 2002. “Moral Judgment Development in Higher Edu-
cation: Insights from the Defining Issues Test”. Journal of Moral Education 31,
pp. 247-270.
Rest, J. 1994. “Background: Theory and Research”. In Rest, J.R. & Narváez, D.
(Eds.) Moral Development in the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics.
Hillsdale: Erlbaum, pp. 1-26.
Rest, J., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M.J., & Thoma, S.J. 1999. Postconventional
Moral Thinking. A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Rest, J.R. & Narváez, D. (Eds.) 1994. Moral Development in the Professions:
Psychology and Applied Ethics. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Skoe, E.E. 1998. “Ethic of Care: Issues in Moral Development”. In Skoe, E.E. &
von der Lippe, A.L. (Eds.) Personality Development in Adolescence: A Cross-
National and Life-Span Perspective. London: Routledge, pp. 143-171.
Walker, L.J. 2002. “The Model and the Measure: an Appraisal of the Minnesota
Approach to Moral Development”. Journal of Moral Education 3, pp. 353-367.
62
Appendices
Basic level Knowledge of the typi- Knowledge of the Knowledge and ability Short-term target-
cal ethical problems of significance of val- to apply the ethical oriented ethical op-
the sector and ability to ues and of the sec- norms of one’s own erations (e.g. avoid-
recognise them in real- tor’s value base field in problem- ing deceit, keeping
life situations solving promises)
63
Table 2. Stages of development of moral reasoning according to Kohlberg
Sociomoral perspective What is right?
Concretely individualistic perspective. Compliance with rules when this is immediately benefi-
cial. Satisfying one’s own needs and looking after one’s
Aware of the fact that each person has her own inter- own interests, and allowing others to do the same.
ests to work towards and that this creates conflicts.
Justice, fair exchanges and sharing are also right.
The individual’s perspective in interaction with others. Responding to the expectations of those close to the
subject. Responding to general role-related expecta-
Aware of shared emotions, personal contracts and oth- tions (e.g. roles of employee and friend). It is important
ers’ expectations, which are prioritised. Concrete appli- to be a good person with good motives and caring for
cation of the golden rule by putting oneself in the others. It is important to maintain mutual relationships,
other’s position. and demonstrate trust, loyalty, respect and gratitude.
Social perspective. Fulfilling the duties one agreed to when taking on the
position or role.
The social perspective is distinguished from personal
contracts and motives. Laws must be obeyed in all but extreme cases where
they conflict with other people’s binding social respon-
System perspective that defines roles and rules. Per- sibilities. It is right to contribute on behalf of one’s soci-
sonal relationships seen as a part of the system. ety, group and institution.
Perspective preceding that of the society. Awareness of the fact that people have different opin-
ions and values, of which most are relativistic (right
Perspective of the rational individual, awareness of the within a specific group). These relativist rules must
values and rights on which social contracts and rela- usually be obeyed because they are impartial social
tionships are based. contracts. Some non-relativistic values exist, such as
the right to life and freedom, which should be obeyed in
Applies contracts, objective impartiality and just proc- all societies regardless of the majority’s opinion.
esses.
Perspective of the morals from which social contracts Compliance with self-appointed moral principles. Most
are derived. laws and social contracts are acceptable because they
are based on moral principles. When the laws go
According to the perspective, every rational individual against these principles, it is right to act according to
understands the nature of morality or the fact that peo- one’s principles. Moral principles are universal princi-
ple are ends in themselves and must be treated as ples of justice, such as equal rights, respect for human
such. dignity and respect for people as they are.
64
Arja Piirainen
Reflective Competence
65
(Zedler 1960). Dewey (1963) considers humans to live in a harmonious world,
not in chaos. Thus reflectiveness forms a bridge between experience and learn-
ing, and seeing things anew allows us to change direction. Reflection is an op-
portunity to assimilate new knowledge, where teaching, as the redirection of the
student’s experience, produces learning in the learner (Dewey 1963).
66
ers (Mezirow 2000, 22) and analyses of one’s own resources (Brookfield 2000,
139). Critical reasoning can be divided into six levels of thought. At the first level
of reflection there is no change in actions; the activity continues as it was, rou-
tinely. The second level implies recognising that one’s own thinking is separate
from other people’s thinking. At the third level meanings change and require the
identification of others as separate beings; interest is awakened towards this dif-
ferent other. Interest can also change the significance of its object for the person
experiencing the interest, who is then ready to re-evaluate and rethink the sub-
ject. However, a change in meanings does not necessarily imply a change in at-
titude. It is not until the fifth and sixth levels with their conceptual re-evaluation
that concepts and points of view broaden, causing a change in meaning per-
spectives and resulting in reasoned critical reflection (Mezirow 1991, 93-97). For
experts to think and act in new ways, they must carry out reflection at the fifth
and sixth levels. This kind of conceptual rethinking allows the individual’s point of
view to broaden.
Expanding reflection on our own activities to include others allows us to test our
thoughts, to share them with others and to develop our fields. The ideal condi-
tions for this dialogue are the required data, self-recognition, the objective
67
evaluation of arguments, and opportunities for equal participation (Mezirow
2000, 14).
Realisation of
reflection in
time
Expanding reflection on
one’s own actions and
developmental problem-
solving
III Critical
after action reflection
II Dialogic
reflection
during action
I Descriptive
reflection
Descriptive
speech
Level of
reasoning
Dialogic reasoning is a half-way house for the development process (cf. Belenky
& Stanton 2000, 73). Together with others, we can create new thinking and thus
develop our actions. Shared reflective reasoning generates new competence
through new questioning (Merriam 2004). Critical reflection brings a research-
oriented approach to development and makes the learner commit to solving the
68
developmental problem together with others (Karvinen 2000; Denzin & Lincoln
2003).
69
Reflective competence is linked to the other generic competences, particularly in
terms of evaluation. Students can progress further in some reflection strands
than in others. The generic competences intersect in different ways with reflec-
tive competence. The table below shows the levels of reflective competence di-
vided into evaluation, cooperation and development strands. Links to other ge-
neric competences are shown in italics (cf. Table 1).
70
Table 1. Levels of reflective competence, divided into evaluation, cooperation and devel-
opment/renewal strands.
71
Evaluating reflective competence
3. At the critical reflection level, students can fluently use different analyses in
different situations, and find several solutions to problems. They can systemati-
cally investigate and develop their actions with others. They can pose well-
founded questions and gather information in order to provide alternative an-
swers. They can work systematically according to the chosen principles, recog-
72
nising needs for development in themselves, other people, communities and or-
ganisations. They work with others and assume responsibility for their own ac-
tions and for developing operations. They can organise their time and resources
in ways required by each task. They are prepared to question their own views
and to develop them with others. They are prepared to lead activities when nec-
essary. They structure operations using relevant concepts and the links between
them. They understand the defects in earlier concepts, questioning their own
competence and seeking diverse answers to questions that have arisen, using
systematic information gathering and data analysis. They find several solutions
and alternatives to problems. They can make decisions, taking into account the
views of other people and communities. They adopt well-founded views accord-
ing to criteria that are evident to others, and can present these views clearly in
writing and graphical form in national and international contexts.
References
Barnagle, B. 2004. “Reflection on Lived Experience in Educational Research”.
Educational Philosophy and Theory (1), pp. 36, 57-67.
Belenky, M.F. & Stanton, A.V. 2004. “Inequality, Development and Connected
Knowing”. In Mezirow, J. & associates (Eds.) Learning as Transformation. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 71-102.
73
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. 2003. “The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative
Research”. In Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. The Landscape of Qualitative Re-
search. Theories and Issues. California: Sage Publications.
Dewey, J. 1963. Experience & Education. New York. Collier Books, Macmillan
Publishing Company. First published in 1938.
Schön, D.A. 1987. Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design
for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
74
Zedler, B. 1960. “Dewey’s Theory of Knowledge”. In Blewett, J. (Ed.) John
Dewey. His Thought and Influence. New York. Fordham University Press, pp.
59-84.
75
Liisa Ala-Luukko & Hannu Pirnes
Network Competence
Introduction
This requirement for good communication skills does not apply just to communi-
cation professionals; operating in a work community or any other social network
calls for good interaction and communication skills from all participants. Regard-
less of the sector, employees need diverse social skills to complete their tasks.
In all customer service situations, interaction skills are at the core of the cus-
tomer encounter, and even within a work community the social skills of members
are significant to the success of the group as a whole. Communication skills and
success in working life are linked to one another. For instance an analysis by
Payne (2005) found good communication skills and motivation for social interac-
tion to correlate with high performance at work.
The need for communication competence has been recognised in various sec-
tors. For instance in a survey of its members by the Finnish Association of
Graduate Engineers TEK, more than 90 per cent of respondents reported that
they needed interpersonal skills in their jobs constantly or often. Other important
competences mentioned included writing, presentation and negotiation skills
(TEK 2004). In a mapping of the most important qualifications of the twenty-first
century, communication skills, interpersonal skills and speaking several foreign
languages were included in the top 15 professional requirements (Confederation
of Finnish Industry and Employers 1997). Communication competence is also an
76
essential part of the qualification descriptions of various professions (cf. e.g.
Chen et al. 2004; Crosling & Ward 2002; Katz, Woods, Cameron & Milan 2004).
Communication in networks
The model proposed by Jablin and Sias (2001) distinguishes four levels of
communication behaviour. Firstly, organisations utilise communication compe-
77
tence at micro and macro levels. The micro level refers to communication be-
tween individuals in small groups; the macro level to the broader organisation as
a whole. Additionally, communication can be seen through the concepts of the
mesosystem and the exosystem. All the members of the organisation belong to
several micro level groups; the mesosystem refers to the links between these.
The exosystem, on the other hand, is a broader social system that contains for
example the political ideologies of the organisation’s operating environment, as
well as its social, technical and financial structures. Recent significant changes
at the exosystem level have been developments in information and communica-
tion technology and the globalised economy.
Networking is seen as a central and useful work method in today’s society, in in-
teraction between individuals, companies and various organisations alike. Net-
working refers to cooperation between companies and organisations, and to
partnership models that can involve participants from many areas without nec-
essarily including financial or other benefits. Strategic networks, on the other
hand, include the perspective of value production, the idea being that the more
demanding the strategic network, the greater the expectations as to the added
value it produces. Network competence refers to temporally managing internal
and external efficiency to achieve a way of operating that is significantly more ef-
ficient than traditional methods. Network competence can include networking
and network leadership. Network competence can be considered to form a part
of strategic networks. Network leadership is the model used to manage a net-
work (Pirnes 2002; Möller & Svahn 2004).
78
bility theories include Nokia, Dell, Aker, H&M and Toyota – companies that have
clearly beaten their competitors. Capability theories can be expected to spread
significantly in the future. Networking ability is becoming an increasingly impor-
tant source of competitiveness. The diversity of strategic networks under devel-
opment, and identifying the competence required by them are some of the main
challenges of the future (Pirnes 1996; 2002).
The network model is completely different from the traditional operating model.
Traditionally, organisations aimed to produce all functions centrally, in the same
location, from start to finish. The network competence model combines different
functions from different locations appropriately to achieve the best configuration
for the situation at hand. In the network competence model, core competences
are subdivided into production factors, which are then combined as needed. The
production process is constantly adjusted on the basis of new feedback. The
production process is bidirectional where before it was unidirectional, with all
functions being carried out in an internal hierarchy within the organisation.
The network competence organisation also diverges from the traditional organi-
sation model. Earlier organisation charts were hierarchical, which minimised
speed and flexibility and maximised friction. A hierarchical structure can there-
fore be a significant obstacle to an organisation’s success. The network compe-
tence organisation is function-led. This means that it allows each individual to be
innovative and take initiatives, while operating according to strict shared rules
and regulations. Routines are handled by the rule book, which frees up time for
creative activities. Flexibility arises from the fact that the members of the organi-
sation can change their status depending on their task. The network compe-
79
tence organisation therefore combines strict routine task completion by the rules
with individual freedom of action (Pirnes 1996; 2002).
Communication competence
The ability to express oneself clearly and intelligibly in various verbal communi-
cation situations is essential. We not only have to find a suitable verbal expres-
sion for our views, but also have to pay attention to the way we say things, to the
80
tone and to nonverbal communication. Situational sensitivity is an essential skill
of the communicator, i.e. knowing how to communicate appropriately in each
situation (cf. e.g. Kansanen 1997).
Listening is another crucial aspect of interaction (Isaacs 2001; Puro 2002). Good
communication skills do not relate just to putting one’s views into words; we
must also be able to actively listen to others. Then we can interpret the situation
and adapt our way of communicating to its needs. In various group communica-
tion situations, listening is one of the prerogatives of successful teamwork. Lis-
tening skills are also important in customer communications (Isaacs 2001; Kan-
sanen 1997).
Group work also requires negotiation skills. In negotiations, the most important
characteristics are willingness and ability to cooperate, anticipation skills, plan-
ning negotiation strategies and target-oriented verbal communication (e.g. Kan-
sanen 2002).
The constantly increasing amount of text also creates requirements for improv-
ing literacy. We have to sift through masses of information to find the texts that
are relevant to our objectives and place them appropriately in relation to our pre-
vious knowledge. Therefore, reading is not just about mechanically identifying
words and sentences but about interpreting and providing meaning – i.e. inter-
acting with the text. Reading and writing skills often go hand in hand (cf. e.g. Al-
asilta 2000).
Writing expertise can be seen firstly from the point of view of the process of pro-
ducing text. It could be said that an expert’s way of producing text is very differ-
ent from a beginner’s. An expert’s writing is about problem-solving and creating
new knowledge. Here, we can distinguish between two types of writing proc-
81
esses. The strategy of describing knowledge is typical of beginners’ texts. Texts
following this strategy may be formally correct (e.g. linguistically), but they are
based on repeating known routines rather than creating anything new. Expert
writers, on the other hand, follow the strategy of knowledge-building writing,
where continuous problem-solving produces continuous learning (Lonka, Kar-
vonen & Leino 1998; Ruohomäki 2003).
On the other hand, writing is always linked to a context, and therefore writing
expertise can also be seen from the point of view of the genre and of the organi-
sation or function (Ruohomäki 2003). Knowledge of genre and the ability to se-
lect the forms of expression that are best suited to the type of text and the com-
munication situation are characteristics of an expert writer, just as much as the
ability to analyse the nature of the writing task and to select the right text produc-
tion strategy.
82
The significance of communication channel management has grown with the
digitisation of communication, particularly in the form of IT networks. Digitisation
has increased the importance of the technological aspects of communication.
Some aspects of communication competence are the ability to effectively utilise
the technical tools of communication and the capacity to learn to use new com-
munication channels. The effective and purposeful use of communication tech-
nology does not directly follow from technical skills (e.g. skills in using email),
however; we also need broader awareness of the communication-related possi-
bilities of different tools and how technologies can be used in our own communi-
cations. Skills in data acquisition are also important when operating in electronic
networks (e.g. Alasilta 2000; Viherä 2000).
It is more and more common for the development and reform of established sys-
tems to take place with strategic networks. These kinds of development net-
works demand trust and openness from participants. Participants must have
their own clear areas of expertise, as well as a sufficiently broad shared knowl-
edge base in order to effectively renew their activities. Development networks
can only be managed by professionals who have good team-working skills in
addition to their own expertise. Creating development networks is like building
bridges between communities of experts, and the contact persons and team
leaders play an important role. In addition to possessing innovation and coop-
83
eration skills, the participants in the network – particularly its core unit – must be
able to assess these qualities in potential development partners.
Building and managing strategic networks aiming to create all-new concepts re-
quires several capacities that are difficult to manage. The core organisation
should be really proactive, envisioning or predicting the development of the field
in question. The initiative-taker should have the necessary knowledge and com-
petence for making the network attractive to partners. Then it can convince the
best partners to join and control the operations of the incipient strategic network
(Möller & Svahn 2004).
Network leadership
Orchestration abilities are often mentioned when talking about network leader-
ship. Orchestration requires strong visioning skills. The orchestrator must be
able to predict the possible directions in which a new field could develop. These
directions could be highly complex. By participating in several different networks,
operators acquire comprehensive knowledge, which helps in building visioning
abilities. The problem is how to utilise the knowledge of different units and indi-
viduals in an integrated way (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995; Day 1994).
In future, the ability to build and lead various strategic networks will be an in-
creasingly critical success factor for executive managers.
84
tively in various verbal and written communication situations. It is also important
to examine one’s own communication competence reflectively, as this can lead
to conscious development of the competence. Solid, varied knowledge of the
operating culture and practices of the sector forms a valuable part of personal
network competence, as does the ability to use ICT tools purposefully. Network
experts are cooperative and have the desire and courage to meet different peo-
ple in various communication situations. In other words, they can participate in a
network in an active, target-oriented role, and are committed to the operation
and shared rules of the network.
The social reformer level requires the ability to analyse the operation of entire
strategic networks in relation to their environment. People at this level are top
experts in network competence, with the highest active and cognitive skills. They
must have a broad and comprehensive understanding of the principles of the
culture and economy of the network society. They reflect on the network’s ac-
tions in relation to the surrounding community and they can influence the devel-
opment of the organisation’s operating environment. This requires the ability to
lead strategic networks (orchestration) and to anticipate complex development
trends in the sector and in society (visioning). Communication technology is
used innovatively as a tool for developing the operations of the network. Partici-
pation in international networks also requires comprehensive cultural sensitivity.
These dimensions were used to determine the three levels of Laurea’s network
generic competence (cf. Table 1).
85
Table 1. Three levels of network competence
86
REFERENCES
Alasilta, A. 2000. Verkkoajan viestintä. Tulkinta - ilmaisu - vuorovaikutus. Hel-
sinki: Kauppakaari.
Castells, M. 2000. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume
I. The Rise of the Network Society. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Jablin, F.M. & Sias, P.M. 2001. “Communication Competence”. In Jablin, F.M. &
Putnam, L.L. (Ed.) The New Handbook of Organizational Communication. Ad-
vances in Theory, Research, and Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Katz, J.R., Woods, S.L., Cameron, C.A. & Milam, S. 2004. “Essential Qualifica-
tions for Nursing Students”. Nursing Outlook 52 (6), pp. 277-288.
Lonka, I., Lonka, K., Karvonen, P. & Leino, P. 1998. Taitava kirjoittaja. Opiskeli-
jan opas. Oppimateriaaleja 54. University of Helsinki, Lahti Research and Train-
ing Centre, Helsinki.
87
Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. 1995. The Knowledge-Creating Company. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Viherä, M.-L. 2000. Digitaalisen arjen viestintä. Miksi, millä ja miten. Helsinki:
Edita.
88
Åberg, L. 1993. Viestintä – tuloksen tekijä. 4thedition. Tietopaketti.
89
Vesa Taatila
Innovation Competence
Change is the only constant in today’s society. Change affects people, organisa-
tions, knowledge and the society as a whole. On the one hand, change is a de-
sired and sought-after state, as indicated by future probes published by the EU
and in Finland; on the other hand, it is a naturally occurring, constant evolution-
ary development, an example being the continuous active adaptation process
that takes place in companies’ business operations.
Innovations are not created without active players – innovators who can direct
change to some extent. They develop their work processes, create new work
methods for organisations and provide alternative thought models for decision-
making at societal level. Laurea’s strategic aim is to produce innovators to work
90
in Finland and to provide graduates with the necessary tools for working in a
constantly changing field.
Defining innovation
The term ‘innovation’ is difficult to define exactly, as it has recently been popular-
ised in everyday speech and consequently acquired new meanings. In speech,
the term is used freely when speaking for instance of ideas, or even potential
ideas. Previously, innovations were linked to the field of technology, but nowa-
days they relate to all aspects of society. We speak for instance of innovative
regional politics or leadership innovations. Several definitions have been pro-
posed for the term, and most of them have some similarities.
In an innovation report published by the Finnish National Fund for Research and
Development (Sitra 2005, 14), an innovation is defined as the successful pro-
duction, application and utilisation of a novelty in an economy or a society.
Alasoini, Liftländer, Rouhiainen and Salmenperä (2002) give a definition by
which innovations are insights created through a search for new things, research
and learning, which are visible in the market as new products or services or
ways of producing them. Most simplistically, innovations could be seen as the
practical implementation of an idea – i.e., from a company’s point of view, the
commercialisation of ideas (Lampikoski & Korpelainen 1997, 15). Huiban and
Boushina (1998) include the concept of novelty in the term innovation, for exam-
ple in the capacity of a new characteristic in a product, process or strategy.
Kolehmainen (2001) defines innovation slightly more broadly, calling it a techni-
cal, organisational or functional solution developed by a company or adopted by
it when it is new, using it directly or adapting it for its own products, services,
production or service processes, or other contexts that are significant for its op-
erations. According to Ståhle and Sotarauta (2002), innovation consists of creat-
ing and applying new knowledge in a way that brings economic benefits. They
refined their definition further into an equation: ”innovation = new idea + imple-
mentation + value-generation” (Ståhle, Sotarauta & Pöyhönen 2004, 11).
The concept of ‘novelty’ in innovation can refer to many different levels of new-
ness. Grupp and Maital determine three levels of innovation based on novelty:
incremental innovation is producing a new version of an old product; standard
innovation refers to adding a new function to an old product; and radical innova-
tion takes place when a whole new product is created. This view is supported by
the Sitra report (2005), according to which incremental novelties can also be
considered innovations. According to Nore (2002), innovation may refer to a
whole new invention, but it can also be a new solution to a technical problem, ar-
91
rived at through product development work. Hokkanen (2001) also identifies
novelty as the central concept in innovation. According to Hokkanen, novelty can
be defined from the point of view of the diffusion of the innovation until it reaches
a certain number of potential users; in other words, an innovation can only be
considered as such until its novelty value has reduced sufficiently.
Innovation can be involved with different things. Ståhle and Sotarauta (2002)
classify all innovations as technical, economic, social or cultural. Korpelainen
and Lampikoski (1997) use a traditional classification by which innovations can
be divided into four types: industrial, commercial, service and social innovations.
According to Miettinen, Lehenkari, Hasu and Hyvönen (1999, 2), innovation has
come to mean much the same as ability for renewal, maintaining competitive-
ness or competence development. This definition has gone a step further in the
direction of productivity, getting closer to the process than the product. The
European Commission’s Green Book on Innovation describes the concept with a
focus on production, as a procedure and a result. The main aspect of the proce-
dure is turning an idea into a product or service, and a production method or so-
cial service method. Innovations are seen as belonging to all sectors, including
public services (i.e. the public and third sectors). According to this definition,
changes in social behaviour and lifestyles lies behind innovations. Thus, innova-
tion is not a synonym for technology; it can be seen more as a new kind of com-
bination of several existing factors (European Commission 1995)
The innovation process can be seen to consist of three parts. Potential innova-
tion targets are constantly evaluated to find development needs and ideas.
Constant evaluation can equally well refer to assessing the usability of an exist-
ing product as to the continuous assessment of the operation or needs of a cer-
tain group of people in order to produce radical innovations. Optimally, this
evaluation is reflective; related skills are discussed in more detail in the section
on reflective competence.
This constant evaluation leads to the production of innovation ideas. The
ideas in themselves, however, are not sufficient as innovations. They have to be
analysed to find their main factors and to set targets for the innovation imple-
92
mentation project. Constant ethical reviews are needed when assessing poten-
tial ideas and objectives for change: what is the desired change? What should
be avoided? Competences related to this aspect are discussed in more detail in
the section on ethical competence.
The third phase of the cycle relates to implementing the innovation idea by car-
rying out a change project. When the change is complete, the cycle continues
with a new continuous evaluation, and so on. In practice, many change proc-
esses and other phases are carried out simultaneously in an organisation.
Levels of innovativeness
Above are several ways of defining the objects of innovation. The core curricu-
lum is meant for supporting individuals, however, so it is necessary to find defini-
tions that are as individual-oriented as possible. In this sense, there are at least
five levels at which students can implement innovations.
1. The first level consists of the individual’s own continuous innovative re-
newal, encompassing both internal changes and modifications of external
behaviour and contexts. Personal innovations largely come under the ge-
neric competence of reflective competence, so its requirements are dis-
cussed more in the relevant section.
4. The fourth level consists of innovations from the individual’s various op-
erating networks. These networks are essential in the creation of all-new,
radical innovations. New companies, for instance, can be based on innova-
tions generated by a network. The competence involved in network innova-
tions is also discussed in the section on network competence.
93
The competence requirements for the levels of innovation are not sequential in
nature; in other words, individuals can work to renew one thing while actively
opposing change in other areas. As a minimum, however, all working profes-
sionals should be able to assume responsibility for continuous personal innova-
tion, and to work amidst changes in their teams. Thus the pedagogical aim is to
make all Laurea students approach change as an opportunity and not as a
threat.
Combining the three-stage innovation process and the five individually oriented
levels of innovation results in a matrix of the competences needed for innova-
tion. Such a matrix is presented in Table 1.
94
Table 1: Matrix containing the individual-oriented innovation levels and the stages of the
innovation process.
95
The main competence requirements of each point of intersection are listed in the
matrix. The table is colour-coded according to the levels of generic competence
to facilitate reading. GREEN represents the levels of personal innovation, which
should be reached by all Laurea students. YELLOW describes the organisa-
tional innovator level, while BLUE is the social innovator level. The implementa-
tion of social innovations is left in white, because that level of competence ex-
ceeds the requirements set for Bachelor-level graduates at Laurea.
The competence requirements of this level are closely linked to those of reflec-
tive competence and ethical competence.
96
• Working in constant change.
• Encouraging a team to develop new ideas.
• Conducting a dialogue to achieve development.
• Working in a team and developing the team’s activities.
• Presenting and selling one’s ideas to a peer group.
• Leading a team’s activities.
• Working in projects.
Organisational Monitoring and analysing Gathering ideas from the Change management.
innovator a team’s operating mod- organisation and from Continuously motivat-
els. customers. ing project leadership.
Knowledge of teamwork Selling ideas within an or- Process management.
methods. ganisation. Network leadership.
Understanding the struc- Understanding an organi-
ture of people’s basic mo- sation’s strategic targets
tivations. and linking innovations to
Monitoring and analysing them.
an organisation’s operat-
ing processes and their
outcomes.
Benchmarking.
At the organisational innovator level, students should have mastered the basic
level and be able to start up innovation work in their own teams and use all the
innovation tools that exist in the organisation’s framework. In the increasingly
network-oriented operating models of the future, organisational innovators
should also support active reforms as part of more informal networks.
The competence requirements of this level are closely linked to those of network
competence.
In addition to the competences listed above for basic-level professionals, the re-
quirements for organisational innovators include:
• Monitoring and analysing a team’s operating models and work methods.
• Evaluating people’s basic motivation levels and influencing them.
97
• Measuring, benchmarking and analysing processes.
• Leading with processes and managing a process organisation.
• Gathering information on an organisation and enriching it into a concrete plan.
• Presenting and selling one’s ideas at an organisation-wide level.
• Planning and communicating an organisation’s strategy.
• Implementing change projects using the tools of change management.
• Leading projects in traditional organisations and network organisations.
98
• Linking events in one’s own area of expertise to the social context.
References
Alasoini, T., Liftländer, T. Rouhiainen, N. & Salmenperä, M. 2002. Inno-
vaatioiden lähteillä. Miksi ja miten suomalaista työelämää kannattaa kehittää?
Ministry of Labour, Finland: Helsinki.
Harris, L., Coles, A.-M. & Dickson, K. 2000. “Building Innovation Networks: Is-
sues of Strategy and Expertise”. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management,
Vol. 12, No. 2, 2000. Brunel University: Taylor & Francis Ltd., pp. 229-241.
Huiban, J.P., Boushina, Z. 1998. “Innovation and the Quality of Labour Factor”.
Small Business Economics, Vol. 10, pp.,389-400.
99
search Unit for Urban and Regional Development Studies (Sente) 12/2001.
Tampere.
Miettinen, R., Lehenkari, J., Hasu, M. & Hyvönen, J. Knowhow and creativity in
innovation networks. A study of six Finnish innovations. Helsinki: Taloustieto.
100
Table 4. Levels of innovative competence (Laurea Study Guide 2006)
Motivating commit-
ment to objectives.
Ensuring sufficient
commitment.
Benchmarking.
101
Ari Nieminen
Globalisation Competence
Introduction
Public discourse and political programmes tend to focus on a few central topics,
contentious issues or objectives, as if the matters under discussion were the
most important aspects of reality itself. A topic known as ‘globalisation’ has be-
come one of the buzzwords in the media, among politicians and in social sci-
ence since the early 1990s. We have all heard of increasing global economic
competition, outsourcing to China, multiculturalism, global environmental prob-
lems, the threat of disappearing national identities, and the beneficial and detri-
mental effects of the Internet. Indeed, in the last fifteen years the very topic of
globalisation has become globalised, spreading throughout the world.
Laurea has adopted globalisation as one of the generic competences in its new
curriculum. This competence actually also involves the theme of sustainable de-
velopment (which is a global issue), but because sustainable development is
discussed elsewhere in this publication, this article will only refer to it in passing.
This article comprises three sections. The first section presents some basic defi-
nitions related to globalisation; the main aim of this section is to broaden the
primarily economic perspective on globalisation that is often used in public con-
texts. This is why the section approaches globalisation as a multidimensional
phenomenon with historic depth. The second section defines in further detail the
forms of human interaction that make up globalisation, and the last section looks
at the status of globalisation competence at Laurea.
What is globalisation?
The word ‘global’ refers to things that encompass a whole group of objects, that
is comprehensive or complete, or that involves the whole world (globe) (Brown
1993, 1011). This is a good working definition when we look at globalisation as
the series of events and processes that cause the world to merge into a single,
all-encompassing social system (cf. Robertson 1992, 53; Waters 1995, 3). In
other words, here ’globalisation’ refers to the processes by which phenomena
102
acquire worldwide scope. ‘Global’ refers to worldwide phenomena and the out-
comes of the globalisation process – a fully integrated world.
As the above definition shows, the meaning of ‘global’ is identical to the older
social science concept of ‘universal’. The classics of social science used the
term ‘universal’ (or another similar term) rather than ‘global’ (cf. Moore 1966,
476-477; Waters 1995, 5-7). The foundations of today’s social sciences were
laid by researchers who wrote their works at a time of expanding international in-
tegration in the late nineteenth century, and their social visions were often cos-
mopolitan.
It is important to see the links between the concepts of ‘global’ and ‘universal’.
Many of the phenomena that we now understand as manifestations of globalisa-
tion were not included under that term until the mid-1980s; instead, writers
spoke of their universal nature (Waters 1995, 2). Therefore earlier research and
theoretical trends may be useful in studying globalisation, even if they do not in-
clude the term ‘global’. An example could be the debates conducted in the
1960s and 1970s on such worldwide topics as armament, non-renewable re-
sources (critiques of unlimited economic growth), environmental destruction, un-
derdevelopment and unbridled population growth (cf. Sandkühler 1990, 464).
1
’Cosmopolitan’ refers to a political and social system that covers the whole
world – even the whole Universe. The term springs from the words kosmos
(universe) and polis (state).
103
So what distinguishes a global social system from all other social systems?
What is special about globalisation? The answer to this lies in the comprehen-
siveness of the global system. If the processes of globalisation continued all the
way to their theoretical end point, the world would become a single social sys-
tem. In a completely globalised world, all social systems would be linked in one
way or another. In other words, a completely globalised world would form a sin-
gle closed social system (cf. Luhmann 1987, 555-557, 585). This means that the
global system no longer has a social environment, but includes all human inter-
2
actions within itself. This could be called the global society.
That does not mean, however, that the globalised world would be a homogene-
ous entity. On the contrary, a powerfully integrated world can consist of com-
plementary, sometimes very different sociocultural groups or economies. The
various parts of the global society can live fairly independently despite their links
to the global entity.
The broad definition of globalisation given above contains at least four subdefini-
tions of ‘global’ or ‘universal’:
1. Universal moral codes apply to all people in the same ways. The exis-
tence of global codes does not mean that a global society based on con-
crete interaction has already been created. The requirements of universal
morals apply in the same way to everyone, whether they have concrete in-
teractions or not. According to Kimminich, the ideas of a unified world, world
power and a single religion can be found in all cultures (Ritter 1974, 675).
2. The universal can refer to internal characteristics of the human race, such
as the need for food, shelter, autonomy and social fellowship, rationality,
and basic human nature as good or evil. External circumstances can also
create contexts for action that are comparable to our internal being in their
peremptory nature. Together these factors make up the universal anthropo-
logical constants that define humanity.
2
This does not mean that even in a global social system certain groups, such as
criminals or opponents of the existing system, cannot be defined as ’outsiders’ to
the legitimate order.
104
3. The global can refer to the history of humanity as a whole. Then the de-
velopment of the human race is seen as a very long series of events, includ-
ing the history of settlements, the development of various cultures through
history, etc. (cf. e.g. McNeill & McNeill 2006).
4. Globalisation currently refers more to global interactions. In this new con-
ception, the process of globalisation is generally approached either from the
perspective of today’s political and economic actors, or temporally, in terms
of written history. The study of global interactions is often also close to
‘globalism’, which refers to the various political agendas and ideologies that
strive to promote globalisation. In fact it appears that the higher individuals
and groups are located in the social hierarchy, the more prepared they are
to talk of globalisation. In that sense globalism is often a neo-liberal ideology
of the elite (cf. George & Wilding 2002, 56-57).
Although these four meanings of ‘global’ and ‘universal’ are conceptually sepa-
rable, they are often mixed up in texts and concepts concerning globalisation.
For example in studies on the global system (e.g. Immanuel Wallerstein), uni-
versal moral codes (‘do-goodism’) are mixed up with empirical research. Simi-
larly, strong anthropological background assumptions regarding the ‘rational na-
ture’ of individuals or the characteristics of ‘economic benefits’ can be discerned
in supposedly neutral studies on economic globalisation.
Probably any empirical study on global themes must always be based on certain
assumptions regarding universal morals, anthropological constants and the his-
tory of humanity, even if they are not specified explicitly. In this sense, the global
theoretical perspective relativises the differences between cultures, and is there-
fore incompatible with extreme cultural relativism (cf. requirement for multicultur-
alism).
• ‘Politics’ refers mainly to the way in which the wielding of power is regulated in
today’s societies, organised around the machinery of government. The con-
cept of politics used in each state defines the legitimate actors of politics
105
(‘citizens’), legitimate political operations (e.g. elections) and the matters cor-
responding to the field of politics (some aspects of social policy but not e.g.
companies’ investment decisions). On the other hand, the concept of politics
can also be defined more broadly to include all civic activity that affects au-
thority relationships and people’s lifestyles (‘life politics’, various international
social movements and ideologies). In terms of globalisation, the main politi-
cal issue is naturally to what extent, at what level and how global human in-
teractions should be controlled and regulated. The answers to this question
are included in a continuum of cosmopolitan and nationalist responses.
• ‘Culture’ refers to the symbols, lifestyles, philosophies, fashion, habitus and
other such aspects of social groups. Cultural globalisation naturally incites
questions regarding the positions of different cultures in relation to each
other (e.g. the idea of multiculturalism).
• ‘The economy’ can simply be defined as the production, distribution and con-
sumption of goods and services (Smelser 1965, 69). In terms of economy,
the main issues of globalisation question to what extent national economies
should be opened to international competition, to what extent and how the
global economy should be regulated, and what role national and regional
(e.g. EU-wide) competitiveness plays in economic globalisation.
• ‘Social interaction’ refers to the sociopsychological fact that social life in
groups is very important for humans. With regard to globalisation it could be
thought that socially belonging to wider regional communities such as a
peoples, or Europe, for instance, forms a major factor in the process of
globalisation. When encounters between people from different countries is
conceptualised – for example when we speak of foreigners immigrating to
Finland and their status – the event is often approached as a ‘cultural en-
counter’. This is an inopportune description, because in truth it is not the cul-
tures that meet, but individuals and groups.
• Ecological and scientific questions relate for instance to the sufficiency of natu-
ral resources and to the sustainability of human activity in the natural envi-
ronment. In addition many themes related to scientific research are global,
as nature does not follow the social and cultural boundaries set by man.
Many environmental and scientific questions are closely related to the vari-
ous forms of global social integration. For example, the issue of sustainable
development is an important theme in global politics and economy.
In using the above definitions as tools of reasoning and analysis, it must be re-
membered that they are not suprahistorical but strictly linked to the prevalent so-
cial practices of each time – i.e. the ways in which social lives are lived, organ-
106
ised, observed and represented. As historical circumstances and social prac-
tices change, so do the contents and relationships of these concepts. It is also
possible for some of these concepts to fall into disuse. Below are examples of
such historical changes.
If for example regional administration and integration (e.g. European Union) in-
crease, limiting the political sovereignty of national states, this will lead to a re-
construction of the political concepts that we are used to (cf. Nieminen 2005).
Similarly, cultural globalisation, for example in the form of Western popular cul-
ture or political democracy, can easily generate global ways of thinking, habitus
and political demands. Thirdly, the boundary between ‘politics’ and ‘economy’ is
one of the constant controversies of modern capitalist societies, which in princi-
ple separates these two arenas from each other. For instance issues related to
environmentalism, workplace democracy or consumer rights continuously re-
work the lines and conflicts of interest between politics and economy. In prac-
tice, new boundaries between these areas change the ways in which politics and
the economy are defined and understood.
In addition, globalisation competence has links and overlapping areas with other
generic competences at Laurea. Network competence is linked to globalisation
at least in the sense that it should take into account the increased integration be-
tween organisations and societies. Ethical competence is related to globalisation
in at least two ways: firstly, globalisation brings to the forefront ethical questions
that transcend national boundaries; secondly, the main modern moral values are
considered universal (e.g. various human rights), so many ethical issues are
also global issues. Network competence is closely linked to globalisation in the
107
sense that many of the social relationships considered under globalisation take
place in various networks that transcend organisational national and regional
boundaries (cf. especially Castells 1996). The links between reflective compe-
tence and globalisation competence are evident at least in the sense that reflec-
tive competence provides an improved understanding of the self in relation to
others.
At the time of writing (July 2007), I have given some lectures on the globalisation
generic competence to Laurea students. These and certain other teaching ex-
periences have led me to believe that teaching would often be more successful if
it went from the specific to the general and not vice versa. In the case of global-
isation, familiarisation with globalisation competence could start with shared dis-
cussion and analysis of certain examples of global interactions and progress to
locating these examples in the social theory context. For example, students
could follow the stages of the global creation of a Nike product manufactured in
Vietnam, starting with market research and planning in USA, passing through
the acquisition of raw materials from around the world, looking at production in
Vietnam and leading to the shelves of a Finnish sports store.
108
A third issue related to globalisation is the complexity of global interactions. The
world consists of large numbers of local and regional societies and cultures,
whose interactions are lively and diverse. Understanding these interactions and
one’s own role within them is demanding for teachers and students. These inter-
actions are particularly difficult to analyse because there are no global rules, or-
ganisations or institutions within whose frameworks they take place. For this
reason, the consequences of global interaction are often unpredictable: there is
no way of knowing in advance how people in a different social setting will react
to various actions. In fact, we should assume that the causal relationships gov-
erning interactions in the globalised world are much less clear than those we are
used to in nationally organised societies. A topical example of the unpredictable
nature of sociopolitical measures is the US invasion of Iraq. In starting a war
against Saddam-led Iraq, the Americans probably didn’t expect to cause a civil
war, strengthen the presence of Al-Qaeda or be stuck in a conflict that appears
to have no way out.
A fourth issue that makes globalisation competence more complex is the fact
that globalisation is not a specific discipline such as ethics, but a concept that
describes the development of the human race in history. Thus there are no
commonly accepted subjects one could study in relation to globalisation. It is a
highly debated topic, with a lack of consensus even on its basic definitions (cf.
Held & McGrew 2005).
109
References
Brown, L. 1993. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Princi-
ples. Volume 1, A-M. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Castells, M. 1996. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume
I. The Rise of the Network Society. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publish-
ers.
McNeill, J.R. & McNeill, W.H. 2006. The Human Web: A Bird's-Eye View of
World History (Finnish translation). Tampere: Vastapaino.
Smelser, N. 1965. The Sociology of Economic Life. Englewood Cliffs, New Jer-
sey: Prentice Hall.
110
Väyrynen, R. 1997. The Global Transformation: Economics, Politics, and Cul-
ture. Sitra 161. Helsinki: Finnish National Fund for Research and Development
(Sitra).
111
Outi Kallioinen
Through the Bologna Process, Finland’s higher education institutions have for
nearly ten years been closely involved with developing a coherent European
Higher Education Area (EHEA). This has been a very fruitful process, particu-
larly from the point of view of the development of Finnish universities of applied
sciences, because it has provided clear development structures and directions
to this new institution. Universities of applied sciences are currently undergoing
a strong and influential development phase in the Finnish higher education field
and in their production of higher education competence to meet the needs of the
society and the employment market. As a new organisation, universities of ap-
plied sciences have found it natural to participate in developing EHEA, as this
has simultaneously reinforced their identity as higher education institutions, and
linked them to similar institutions in European forums.
The aim of the Bologna process, which began in 1998, is to form a European
Higher Education Area by 2010, raising the competitiveness and attractiveness
of European higher education as compared to that of other continents. Some of
the methods used in working towards this aim are ensuring the intelligibility and
uniformity of degree structures, creating a credit system for measuring studies,
and conducting quality assessments of institutions. Higher education degree
systems have been developed greatly in the countries participating in the Bolo-
gna Process, and as a result these countries are now transferring to a two-cycle
model for degree structures (Ministry of Education 2005, 9-10).
This article looks at how the generic competences applicable to all degree pro-
grammes included in Laurea’s competence-based core curriculum (ethical com-
petence, reflective competence, innovative competence, network competence
112
and globalisation competence) relate to European and national definitions. Lau-
rea’s competence-based curriculum defines three levels of competence for each
generic competence, but they will be discussed here as single entities. Leader-
ship competence and research and development competence are included in
the curriculum as their own study units rather than as generic competences that
permeate the whole of Laurea, so they are not discussed much in this compari-
son. I conducted an analysis of the comparative data and placed it in a matrix by
generic competence. The contents of Laurea’s generic competences are de-
scribed in more detail above.
The documents/materials used for the comparative matrix were:
• European Qualification Framework (EQF): Level 6 (Bachelor),
• Tuning Generic Competences (TGC),
• Dublin Descriptors,
• Generic workplace competences as described in the Finnish ECTS project in
2006.
The European Qualifications Framework (EQF, COM (2006) 479 final) is
structured around the competence produced by each degree, which is defined
according to the competence objectives set for the degrees. The Framework
also described the general outcomes and competences of degrees (European
Commission 2006). In that sense it is useful to examine the competence pro-
duced by the generic competences in Laurea’s new curriculum by comparing
them with the objectives set in national and European frameworks. This pro-
motes the comparability of degrees and the recognition of studies, and makes it
easier to identify and reward competence.
113
Competence: In the EQF, competence is described in terms of responsibility
and autonomy. Students can manage complex technical or professional activi-
ties or projects, taking responsibility for decision-making in unpredictable work or
study contexts. They take responsibility for managing professional development
of individuals and groups.
• These include a capacity for analysis and synthesis, organisational and plan-
ning skills, general knowledge, basic professional competence, verbal and
written communication in the mother tongue, foreign language skills, basic IT
skills, information management (e.g. acquiring and analysing data from va-
rious sources), problem-solving and decision-making skills.
2) Interpersonal competences: individual abilities like social skills (social inter-
action and co-operation).
114
fields, respect for difference and multiculturalism, the ability to work in an in-
ternational environment, and work based on ethical principles.
3) Systemic competences: abilities and skills concerning whole systems
(combination of understanding, sensibility and knowledge; prior acquisition of in-
strumental and interpersonal competences required).
• These include the ability to apply knowledge in practice, the capacity for inves-
tigating and learning, the ability to adapt to new situations, creativity, leader-
ship, understanding other countries’ cultures and practices, the ability to
work autonomously, project planning and management skills, initiative, con-
cern for quality and the will to succeed.
(Ministry of Education 2005, 13)
The Dublin Descriptors, developed by an unofficial partnership (Joint Quality
Initiative, http://www.jointquality.org), contain descriptors for first-, second- and
third-cycle degrees, i.e. Bachelor, Master and Doctoral degrees.
115
that provides a basis or opportunity for originality in developing and/or apply-
ing ideas, often within a research context;
• can apply their knowledge and understanding, and problem solving abilities in
new or unfamiliar environments within broader (or multidisciplinary) contexts
related to their field of study;
• have the ability to integrate knowledge and handle complexity, and formulate
judgements with incomplete or limited information, but that include reflecting
on social and ethical responsibilities linked to the application of their knowl-
edge and judgements;
• can communicate their conclusions, and the knowledge and rationale under-
pinning these, to specialist and non-specialist audiences clearly and unam-
biguously;
• have the learning skills to allow them to continue to study in a manner that
may be largely self-directed or autonomous.
3. Qualifications that signify completion of the third cycle (Doctoral level)
are awarded to students who:
116
specific competences for graduates of universities of applied sciences (Rectors'
Conference of Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences ARENE 2007,
www.ncp.fi/ects).
• apply the value systems and ethical principles of the subject field in their con-
duct and tasks
• take responsibility for their own actions and works according to jointly agreed
principles and measures
117
• apply the principles of sustainable development in their actions
• take other people into account in their actions
Communication and social competence; students can:
• listen to others and communicate in writing, speech and visually using different
communicative styles
• function in the communicative and interactive situations typical of the field
• understand the principles of group and teamwork and work with others in mul-
tidisciplinary teams
• utilise information and communication technology the their work
Development competence; students can:
• retrieve and analyse information of their subject field, critically evaluate it and
perceive entities in a holistic way
• know the basic principles and methods of research and development and can
conduct small-scale research and development projects applying the exist-
ing knowledge of the field
• know the principles of project work and work in projects
• adopt an initiative-taking and proactive approach to work and solve problems
and make decisions in their work
• understand the principles of profitable and customer-focused operations, pos-
sess entrepreneurial skills
Organisational and societal competence; students can:
118
• understand the effects and opportunities of internationalisation in their fields
• understand the effects and opportunities of internationalisation in their fields
(ARENE 2007).
119
REFERENCES
ARENE. 2007. Rectors' Conference of Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences
The Bologna Process and Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences. Participation
of Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences in the European Higher Education
Area. Final project report. Helsinki: ARENE.
120
Insert page 121a.
The Competence-Based Curriculum at Laurea. Outi Kallioinen (ed.) 2007.
Table 1: Laurea’s generic competences compared to national and European competence descriptions (Kal-
lioinen 2007)
LAUREA LAUREA LAUREA LAUREA LAUREA
ETHICAL REFLECTIVE COMPETENCE NETWORK COMPE- INNOVATIVE GLOBALISATION
COMPETENCE TENCE COMPETENCE COMPETENCE
Tuning Generic Competences (TGC) TGC TGC TGC TGC
Interpersonal competences: Instrumental competences: Instrumental competences: Instrumental competences: Personal and communication
- acting on the basis of ethical princi- - cognitive knowledge and skills - technological and language - ability to acquire and analyse competences:
ples problem-solving and decision-making knowledge and skills information from different - respecting difference and
- respecting difference and multicultu- abilities - verbal and written com- sources multiculturalism
ralism munication in the mother - problem-solving and decisi- - ability to work in an interna-
tongue, foreign language on-making skills tional environment
Personal and communication compe- skills, basic IT skills, data
Systemic competences tences: processing
- understanding the cultures and - working critically and self-critically Personal and communication Systemic
customs of other countries and cultu- competences: competences:
res Systemic competences: Personal and communication - team-working skills - understanding the cultures
- combining knowledge, understanding competences: - ability to work in a group with and customs of other count-
and emotions; basic requirement of - social interaction and representatives of different ries and cultures
instrumental and interpersonal compe- cooperation fields
tences - team-working skills
- ability to investigate and learn - ability to work in a group
- ability to adapt to new situations with representatives of Systemic competences:
- ability to work independently different fields - ability to produce new ideas
- will to succeed - ability to communicate with (creativity)
experts from different fields - ability to apply knowledge in
- ability to work in an interna- practice
tional environment - leadership
- project planning and mana-
gement abilities
- considering quality issues
- responsibility and independence - critically understanding theories and - using logical, intuitive and
- taking responsibility for managing principles creative reasoning
professional development of individu- - having advanced skills,
als and groups demonstrating mastery and
innovation required to solve
complex and unpredictable
problems in a specialised field
of work or study
- managing complex technical
or professional activities or
projects, taking responsibility
for decision-making in unpre-
dictable work or study contexts
Generic workplace competences, Generic workplace competences Generic workplace competen- Generic workplace competen- Generic workplace
national ECTS Project 2006 ces ces competences
- Learning competence:
- Ethical competence: - self-evaluating competences and - Communication and social Development competence - Ethical competence:
- ability to apply the value systems and defining one’s development and competence: applying the principles of
ethical principles of the subject field in learning needs - listening to others and - retrieving and analysing sustainable development in
one’s conduct and tasks - recognising one’s learning style communicating in writing, information in one’s subject actions
- taking responsibility for one’s own orientation, conducting studies inde- speech and visually, using field, critically evaluating it and
actions and works according to jointly pendently and developing learning different communicative perceiving entities in a holistic - International
agreed principles and measures strategies styles way competence:
- applying the principles of sustainable - carrying out collaborative learning - functioning in the com- - knowing the principles of - understanding cultural
development in actions and sharing knowledge in teams and municative and interactive project work and work in differences and working with
- taking other people into account in working communities situations typical of the field projects people from different cultural
one’s actions - operating in changing environments - understanding the principles backgrounds
and recognising and utilising available of group and teamwork and Organisational and social - using international sources
learning opportunities and scopes for working with others in multi- competence of information in one’s field
action disciplinary teams - knowing the basic principles - understanding the effects
- International competence: - ability to plan, organise and develop - utilising information and of organisational management and opportunities of interna-
- understanding cultural differences one’s own actions communication technology in and leadership, having abilities tionalisation in one’s field
and working with people from different one’s work for supervision tasks
cultural backgrounds - planning and organising
- Development competence Organizational and societal activities
- adopting an initiative-taking and competence:
proactive approach to work, solving - knowing the socioeconomic
problems and making decisions in interdependence of or-
one’s work ganisations in one’s subject
field
- knowing the possibilities of
societal influencing for the
development of one’s field
- knowing the methods of
working life and operating in
work communities
- International competence:
- possessing spoken and
written communicative
competence in at least one
foreign language necessary
for one’s work and for profes-
sional development
Laurea's Generic Competences 2007
Ethical Reflective Network Innovative Globalisation
competence competence competence competence competence
122
Susanna Kivelä & Katri Ojasalo
Introduction
Major changes in the global economy, in social structures and in business have
brought significant challenges for developing business degrees. This article ex-
amines these challenges and gives a practical example of a response to them.
The article begins with a brief look at changes in the business world, and how
education can contribute to new kinds of business competence and innovative
regional development. After the introduction, there is a description of the practi-
cal implementation of Laurea’s curriculum reform in the Business Management
programme. Then the article presents the main aspects of the new Business
Management curriculum. We end with some conclusions.
Producing innovative added value in dynamic networks
The birth of the networked, globalised and digitised society has engendered
deep needs for changes in business operations. This section looks briefly at
changes in the business environment, derived from the following recent foresight
reports by major operators in Finnish society:
123
• Future Probe. Verkostoitumisesta voimaa osaamiseen (“Competence Strength
from Networking” [unofficial translation]) (2006). Confederation of Finnish In-
dustries EK.
• Services 2020. Competences in the International Service Society (2006). Con-
federation of Finnish Industries EK.
• Hämäläinen, T. (2006). Kohti hyvinvoivaa ja kilpailukykyistä yhteiskuntaa
(“Towards a Vital and Competitive Society” [unofficial translation]). Finnish
National Fund for Research and Development (Sitra).
• FinnSight 2015 – Science and Technology in Finland in the 2010s (2006).
Academy of Finland and Tekes.
The core resources and technologies, organisational models, and market and
demand structures of the global economy have experienced thorough changes.
Increased globalisation, the rapid development of information and communica-
tion technology, tougher competition, the shortening life cycle of products and
services, and increasing customer demands are features of the economic envi-
ronment. As a consequence, innovativeness has become a major competitive
factor for companies, networks and regions. As society shifts from the first, tech-
nology-focused stage of the information society to the second phase, which is
based on customer needs, the customer orientation of products and services will
become another big competitive advantage. The customer-oriented innovation of
products and services will begin directing companies’ operations and marking
their core processes. Customer values and cultural backgrounds are empha-
sised in productisation. The importance of environmental issues is also believed
to continue growing. Competitiveness is fostered by developing the organisa-
tion’s competences, by purposefully building new competences and by influenc-
ing whole value-generating systems.
The society and business operations are increasingly linked to possessing and
managing information. The amount of information is growing so fast that compa-
nies need new ways of thinking. This creates completely new opportunities, so
renewal is very important for existing businesses. Value chains no longer consist
just of flows of physical goods; instead such chains are accompanied by infor-
mation flows within and between companies. The functions of value chains are
being reorganised, breaking down traditional, simple and consequential divi-
sions. Companies must be able to operate in real time and according to the de-
mands of the business environment, so instead of hierarchical structures they
are increasingly adopting dynamic internal and external networks. More and mo-
re organisations consist of groupings of project teams brought together for vari-
ous tasks – teams of varying sizes, configurations and durations.
124
As the structure of industry and commerce changes, small and medium-sized
enterprises will increase in importance, when KIBS play a more significant role in
creating new jobs, particularly in the service sector. In general, networks formed
by SMEs will increase as a part of the economic system as a whole. A knowl-
edge-intensive economy is strongly export-oriented, so companies must simul-
taneously master the special demands of global marketing and invest in product
and service development. Through increased national and international network-
ing, employee social and language skills will become key factors alongside
technical knowledge.
The relationship between industry and services changes; we move from a pro-
duction culture to a service culture, also emphasising the role that services play
in competitiveness. In Laurea’s area of operation, four fifths of all jobs are in ser-
vices. Growth businesses play a central role in the metropolitan area’s competi-
tiveness; although they make up a small proportion of new start-up companies,
they generate a lot of new jobs. Identifying growth businesses and improving the
operating conditions of companies – especially ones offering knowledge- and
competence-intensive business services – are essential in terms of competitive-
ness. There is a significant volume of public sector service production in the
metropolitan area. Innovative products and methods must be utilised actively in
the public sector’s activities in order to develop public services.
New business competence and innovative regional development through
education
In creating a Business Management curriculum, the main challenge lies not only
in renewing the outcomes and contents of teaching to better respond to the fu-
ture needs of the business environment; the changes in the environment are so
large that the curriculum should also find new ways to facilitate the continuous
development of the region and of business through R&D. The aim of the curricu-
lum is therefore to create flexible conditions for the content of learning to arise
from practical activity, rather than activity receiving its content from the curricu-
lum.
125
quires an active approach, commitment, a combination of theory and practice,
collaboration, the sharing of expertise in teams, problem-solving skills and re-
flection. During the projects, students learn about things in the contexts in which
the knowledge will later be used. Students encounter problems that have not
been predefined, having to face challenges bravely and work self-directedly.
Proper project work requires flexibility and freedom from the curriculum. Stu-
dents should have the opportunity to work on long processes, in which it is es-
sential to understand things holistically, identify and solve problems (cf. e.g.
Vesterinen 2001).
During project work, students build networks with many partners. The most in-
tensive collaborations can lead to the creation of a networked school (cf. the
‘networked business school’, Moratis & van Baalen 2002) and learning alliances
(cf. Makri 1999). When permanent partnerships are built, companies become
learning partners: they achieve organisational learning at the same time as the
students learn by solving their problems (cf. Thos 2002). One of the main bene-
fits of the networked school is its ability to react quickly to changes in the envi-
ronment (Helakorpi 2001). Increased collaboration between education and busi-
ness also creates good conditions for increasing entrepreneurship (Leitch & Har-
rison 1999). The social networks created during studies are essential from the
point of view of creating new entrepreneurship: while working in these networks,
students identify new opportunities and the threshold for starting out as entre-
preneurs is lowered.
No separate vision was formulated as a foundation for the new curriculum, but
the following were some of the viewpoints taken into account in the reform.
126
ditions set for Laurea’s competence-based core curriculum. It must also al-
low students to move between fields of study.
• The curriculum must support Laurea’s role as a proactive regional operator.
Teaching at Laurea is linked to research and development and regional in-
fluence, so the curriculum must allow for research and development in ac-
cordance with the strategy, as well as the regional focus of activities. Learn-
ing by Developing (LbD) must be used as the pedagogical operating model.
• The curriculum forms a dynamic framework. Because we cannot fully foresee
the changes that will take place in the operating environment, in business
models and in future competence requirements, the curriculum must not be
set in stone or followed unconditionally.
• The curriculum is allowed to contain open issues. Because expertise does not
consist only of subject-specific knowledge and because there is less and
less use for ready-made answers, Bachelors of Business Administration
must learn skills in creative, innovative and opportune renewal. Therefore
the curriculum must not include an exhaustive or unambiguous list of the
main contents of business, but should instead define some broad themes
arising from employer needs.
Development progresses from preparation, planning and implementation to es-
tablishing a new way of working. Below is a description of the development pro-
ject, primarily the implementation phase.
The degree programme teams were asked to formulate the competence descrip-
tions needed for their degree programmes, analyse the competences shared by
all degree programmes, prepare a presentation of how the profiles of different
units were to be taken into account in the curriculum and propose a curriculum
for the degree programme. The Business Management team included represen-
tatives from the four Laurea units offering the programme, as well as from the
different areas of business. The team had nine members.
From the point of view of the team, the only predetermined factors were the ba-
sic structure of the competence-based core curriculum and Laurea’s strategies.
The inclusion of generic competences in the degree programme curriculum took
place in line with the identification of the subject-specific competences.
127
The Business Management curriculum reform was not an independent devel-
opment project but a part of a larger initiative. The degree programme team did
not work in a vacuum. As the project progressed, the team encountered uncer-
tainty and decision-making demands. Interaction was essential. The team de-
cided to accept the uncertainties related to creating the new curriculum. It was
difficult to identify the most essential and important information from a large
mass of data, and the programme-specific themes were being defined at the
same time as the generic competences, which linked these two processes. The
Business Management curriculum influenced other programmes’ curricula and
vice versa. The competence-based core curriculum that was being developed as
a whole interacted with its parts. Various content-related limitations were re-
flected in unexpected ways on the solutions that were made. Within the area of
Business Management, several different interpretations and perspectives on the
curriculum arose, and all were correct in their own ways. Some of the best solu-
tions were contradictory. At times the undertaking was characterised by ambigu-
ity regarding its bases as well as its objectives.
Markku Sotarauta (e.g. 1996) mentions ‘evil problems’ that the programme-
specific curriculum reform team encountered. Evil problems are surrounded and
approached from many directions with lots of knowledge and thoughts.
At quite an early stage of the initiative, the Business Management team carried
out an operating environment analysis to direct the work. In identifying compe-
tence requirements, the team made use of existing foresights and conducted a
survey of businesses to find out about the future demands for Bachelors of Busi-
ness Administration. A questionnaire sent to Laurea alumni asked employed
Business Management graduates about their experiences regarding the ways in
which the degree corresponded to real life and about the competences they
thought would be needed in the future. Learning by Developing, the operating
environment analysis and the generic competences formed the framework within
which content-related solutions had to fit.
128
importance?” “How does Laurea define and distinguish itself as a an educator in
Business Management?” The aim of the seminar day was to use group work to
define the main competence requirements in Business Management. These re-
quirements were then refined in the Business Management curriculum team’s
meetings. All the degree programme teams presented their competence re-
quirements to the management group at the curriculum reform interim seminar in
May 2005.
The competence requirements were then turned into themes. A theme describes
a core competence of the degree programme at a higher and more abstract
level than study units. The theme is defined as competence in relation to the
workplace. The aim of a Business Management curriculum seminar organised in
August 2005 was to come up with preliminary theme ideas on the basis of the
competence requirements. The entity formed by different themes and the study
units they contain leads to the students’ coherent professional growth, to an un-
derstanding of the broad competences needed in working life, and to a devel-
opment-oriented mastery of skills.
The degree programme curriculum team continued to refine the themes using
the double team method. The construction of themes was directed by the oper-
ating environment analysis, the generic competences and LbD. The themes
were presented to business representatives and opened up to debate in two
small-scale seminars organised in November 2005. The theme drafts were also
shown to lecturers during the Business Management curriculum seminar in De-
cember 2005. The draft was very incomplete, however, and was justifiably criti-
cised. One problem was that there was no documentation on the relationship be-
tween generic competences and themes.
The team consistently needed the support of all Business Management staff. At-
tention was paid to interaction and communication within Laurea. As the team
included representatives from all of the related units, each member was in
charge of passing on unofficial feedback and information from his or her unit to
the team. The main unofficial forum involving everyone was the Optima virtual
learning environment, but very little discussion took place there. However, the
more refined the curriculum draft became, the more concrete feedback the team
received. At the early stages of a project, it is common that the opportunities for
influencing the project are at their peak but the matter at hand is too abstract for
concrete feedback. Then, towards the end of the project there are more concrete
things to consider, but many issues have already been decided on, so there is
less scope for influence.
129
From early 2006, the project moved more clearly towards dialogue between the
degree programme teams and the management group. The curriculum drafts
were compiled into Laurea’s core curriculum. All the degree programmes’ curric-
ula were up on Optima for anyone to comment on. Once the whole had been
discerned, some solutions related to reconciliation had to be made. At this point,
decisions were made on the themes shared by all fields of study, and alternative
deepening studies for the Business Management programme were formulated.
130
from the curriculum. A flexible and empowering framework supports shared
learning and allows for dynamic unit-specific tailoring.
Some of the risks of participatory development are the unpredictability of the end
result and the ‘privileged’ status of the participants (Lanning et al. 1999). The
starting points and objectives of the curriculum reform remained unchanged
throughout the process. Certain adjustments had to be made, however, for in-
stance to the schedule. Due to a lack of resources, the participation of lecturers
was at times less active than what was hoped for. Internal development projects
have to compete for time and interest with day-to-day operations. The Business
Management team’s members were privileged. Working to the combined re-
quirements of a tight schedule and the expectations of the management group
and other lecturers was a stressful but educational experience for the team.
The fact that changes become established does not imply an immediate shift to
new and better things. There is often a period of discouragement between giving
up the old and adopting the new. The study units of the old Business Manage-
ment curriculum cannot be discerned in the new curriculum. The new structure
allows for and requires new kinds of work methods. The structure of the old cur-
riculum became supported by a tissue of habits, behavioural norms and recipro-
cal roles. Initially, old work methods may live on in the new structures. The op-
portunities of the new curriculum can be utilised fully when the shared lecturer-
ship and Learning by Developing included in the curriculum have become estab-
lished. Laurea’s new Business Management curriculum is empowering. Now that
the necessary flexibility and freedom have been achieved, our work can adapt to
its new empowering and adaptable scope.
131
tence in business and can apply it to developing and reforming the operations of
various organisations. Expertise in the field relates increasingly to redefining en-
tire value-generating systems. Value generated for customers is examined from
the perspective of a broad selection of services produced by an entire network,
in which innovations are increasingly important.
Business competence is built through six themes, of which the first three are
compulsory for all students:
• Networked Business Operations
• Innovative Business Models
• Strategic Business Development
• Investigating and Developing Services in Projects
• Effective Business Competencies
• Innovative Value-Generating Systems
Towards the beginning of the degree programme, students acquire skills in us-
ing a number of tools needed in learning and at work. They learn to apply these
skills particularly in relation to the LbD model. In addition to methodological skills
in investigative learning, students receive other necessary skills in tasks such as
project work methods and diverse types of communication. At the same time,
they begin to familiarise themselves with the substance of business manage-
ment. Knowledge-based professional challenges focus initially on describing
business management and its operating environment, and on completing pro-
fessional tasks. The expertise of a Bachelor of Business Administration is based
on varied business theories. The recent great paradigms of business theory de-
velopment can be divided into the periods of industrial and transitional econo-
mies and the period of information economy. The industrial and transitional
economies were characterised by contingency theory thinking, according to
which a company or organisation must adjust its activities to respond to outside
influences. In the information economy, on the other hand, capability theory
thinking has taken ground. According to the capability theory, companies and
organisations can influence their own surroundings by utilising their capabilities.
Capability theory, which began being widely accepted in the twenty-first century,
forms the basis for the knowledge-based professional competence of Business
Management graduates (cf. also Möller & Svahn 2003).
132
opment problems and creating various kinds of working theories and explana-
tions regarding phenomena under investigation. Students test and examine vari-
ous concepts and interpretations together. A core competence is strategic busi-
ness development. Strategic development is based on managing networked op-
erations and business models. Important skills related to this lie in understanding
the structure of the operating environment; analysing and utilising dynamic
forces; developing, commodifying and commercialising key business functions
and processes; knowing about customer and partnership relations; entrepre-
neurship; and responsible leadership.
Optional advanced studies help students to develop into innovators in their field.
Students deepen the knowledge-based and skill-based competences acquired in
earlier studies in accordance with their personal study plans. They are encour-
aged to adopt the role of experts in developing innovative and anticipatory un-
derstanding, knowledge and working theories. The thesis works towards these
same aims, giving students opportunities for refining their career paths. Gradu-
ates in Business Management understand the opportunities of continuous re-
newal, and see their degrees as part of a lifelong learning process. Support for
professional growth is based on a holistic conception of humanity, on multidisci-
plinary learning environments and on learning by developing in authentic work-
place projects.
A major skill related to reforming business operations lies in developing the vari-
ous competences and innovative value-generating systems in business. The de-
velopment of effective business competence is based on professional skills re-
lated to customer relationship management, continuous innovation, financial
administration, and using and developing information technology. Business
Management graduates understand value-adding chains and networks, can re-
form business operations through growth and internationalisation, and know how
to evaluate the opportunities created by new value-generating systems. The pro-
fessional growth produced by Laurea’s generic competences progresses in line
with knowledge-based and skill-based professional competences throughout the
degree.
Conclusions
133
makes it easier to link to genuine business contexts. Learning by Developing
and Laurea’s learning environment allow students to grow professionally into re-
search-oriented developers of their own work and of the workplace.
From the point of view of Business Management students, the core of knowl-
edge-based and skill-based professional competence will continue to be strongly
rooted in basic business skills. However, a global, networked and increasingly
knowledge-intensive economy implies the need to understand more complex
structures and processes than before, as well as the ability to act both as a prob-
lem-solver and as a reformer who can identify opportunities and produce added
value. The research conducted as a basis for the Business Management curricu-
lum reform found a need for comprehensive business competence with an em-
phasis on innovativeness, change management and anticipation skills. The inte-
gration of research and development, regional development and education is an
essential starting point when developing these competences required of future
graduates.
The curriculum provides a good setting for instruction and planning. Now that the
curriculum is being implemented it is important not to see it as something set in
stone, which must be complied with unconditionally. During the implementation
phase, the Business Management curriculum should be evaluated openly and
critically. Reality and multiple challenges cannot be subjected to a model that
has been created for them; written text never has this power, even when it con-
tains future plans. The lecturer collaboration required by the new core curriculum
and the employer partnerships required by Learning by Developing provide ex-
cellent opportunities for continuously developing the curriculum and our teaching
in Business Management.
134
REFERENCES
Aurand, T.W., DeMoranville, C. & Gordon, G.L. 2001. “Cross-Functional Busi-
ness Programs: Critical Design and Development Considerations”. Mid-
American Journal of Business 16 (2), pp. 21-30.
FinnSight 2015 – Science and Technology in Finland in the 2010s. 2006. Acad-
emy of Finland and Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation.
Lanning, H., Roiha, M. & Salminen, A. 1999. Matkaopas muutokseen. Miten ke-
hittää organisaatiota tehokkaasti. Helsinki: Kauppakaari.
Leitch, C.M. & Harrison, R.T. 1999. “A Process Model for Entrepreneurship Edu-
cation and Development”. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour &
Research 5 (3), pp. 83-109.
Moratis, L.T. & van Baalen, P.J. 2002. “The Radicalization of the Multiversity: the
Case of the Networked Business School”. The International Journal of Educa-
tional Management, 16 (4), pp. 160-168.
135
Palvelut 2020, Osaaminen kansainvälisessä palveluyhteiskunnassa. 2006. Con-
federation of Finnish Industries.
Thos, J.C. 2002. “Active Learning for Organizational Development Students, The
Masterpiece Project”. Organizational Development Journal 3 (3), pp. 8-17.
Virkkunen J., Engeström Y., Pihlaja J. & Helle M. 2001. Muutoslaboratorio. Uusi
tapa oppia ja kehittää työtä. Helsinki: Edita.
136
Paula Lehto & Pirjo Tiirikainen
137
Figure 1. Theoretical basis of the degree programme in Nursing
138
• leadership
• anticipating future trends of the profession and the society
• welfare technology
(e.g. Ministry of Social Affairs and Health 2001)
Professional expertise comprises broad-based practical knowledge and skills for
acting as an expert in the field of choice (Polytechnics Act 351/2003, Section 4).
Nursing experts have a broad understanding of the position and significance of
their field in society, as well as in national and international employment con-
texts. Thus they are able to work independently in tasks requiring expertise in
the field (Polytechnics Decree 352/2003). Directive 2005/36/EC of the European
Parliament and Council regulates the professional competence of nurses and
the training received by nurses in charge of general practice nursing.
The themes of the Degree Programme in Nursing (210 cr) are: Investigating and
Developing Nursing in Projects (30 cr); Humans and the Human Environment
(30 cr); Encountering Clients and Empowerment (30 cr); Assistance Methods in
Health Promotion (30 cr); Guidance and Consulting Methods in Health Promo-
tion (30 cr); Customer-Oriented Nursing (30 cr); and Innovation and Expertise in
Welfare Service Provision (30 cr) (Figure 2).
139
Research- and development-oriented nursing expert
Network competence
Reflective competence
Ethical competence
Globlisation competence
Encoutering
Humans being
Clients and
Research and the
Empowerment
and Develop- Environment
ment Activities
The curriculum process was initiated in the spring of 2005 with the establishment
of the Nursing curriculum team. The purpose of the team was to create a pro-
posal for the Nursing curriculum with a basis in Laurea’s competence-based
core curriculum. The team consisted of senior lecturers, principal lecturers and
140
students from the Nursing degree programme, an expert from the world of nurs-
ing work, and a third-sector expert providing the customer’s point of view.
The starting points of the Nursing curriculum project can be described from onto-
logical, epistemological and methodological perspectives. The ontological basis
was in the holistic nature of human beings, where this holistic nature or com-
pleteness is understood as a dimension of corporality, consciousness, situation-
ality and spirituality (Rauhala 1989; 1995). In the Nursing curriculum, the holistic
nature of human beings is seen from the perspectives of the customer/patient,
the nurse or student and the teacher or researcher (cf. Leino-Kilpi 2003).
The studies focus on information gathering skills right from the start. A research-
oriented, developmental approach to learning nursing requires the ability to be
critical, to make ethical decisions and to be innovative. Methodological compe-
tence is acquired for instance in learning health promotion assistance methods.
Encountering customers in interviews or observation correspond to the data col-
lection stage of a research and development project (Figure 3).
141
CONTEXT
health promotion
e.g. at a hospital
outpatient CONTENT
assistance methods in
nursing
information
e.g. initial interview
gathering
PROCESS
information Guiding customers
retrieval met- in home care
hod
analysis and
transferability
Below the Nursing curriculum reform process is briefly seen through the follow-
ing dimensions of LbD: authenticity, research orientation, partnership, experienc-
ing and creativity.
Authenticity refers to the fact that the curriculum, its implementation and its de-
velopment take place in genuine workplace projects. Thus the implementation
and the evaluation process interact continuously. The application of the content-
related and methodological competence in the curriculum is immediately trans-
ferred to the workplace through LbD, when various different operators actively
work together. Authenticity also means that feedback on nursing competence is
142
received immediately during the studies. Through research and development
projects, students acquire competence in real situations.
Experiencing emphasises the active and responsible role that each par-
ticipant must assume for his or her own work, as well as participation in
shared activities. Shared reflection on experiences and a search for signifi-
cance promote understanding of the knowledge that exists in workplace compe-
tence and the recognition of new know-how. The importance of experiencing
arises particularly in relation to evaluation and knowledge-building (Raij 2006).
Experiencing is a basic principle in Nursing. The significance of nursing
competence is reflected in the choices of theme contents and in methodological
solutions, where learning and the development of competence are built around
reflection and ethics (cf. Karseth 2004). Optimally, the parallel nature of the stu-
dents’ learning objectives and the learning environment’s own objectives in-
creases the students’ motivation and understanding of nursing (Sarajärvi 2002;
Sarajärvi & Isola 2006). The role of work placements that promote professional
skills in various operating environments allows for competence development,
with support from peers and mentors (cf. Coetzee, Britton & Clow 2005).
143
genuinely shared participation and expertise. The development of curricula to-
gether with students, workplace representatives and experts in learning also
promotes the creation of a new culture of learning. The aim and duty of the cur-
riculum team was to be in charge of evaluating and examining the curriculum,
the competence it produces, solutions, contents and methods for each unit. The
team held regular meetings, preparing for them in advance by agreement with
other lecturers. Partnership also meant that the team and shared seminars also
involved experts from the employment market and the third sector, and a student
representative.
The next challenge is to evaluate the curriculum and the nursing competence
produced by it, to examine the collaboration between different operators during
the programme, and to develop even newer learning environments. It is essen-
tial to observe and develop the usability and process of the LbD model. There is
also a very current need for focusing R&D operations on evaluating Laurea’s
success in competence production, on developing R&D methodologies, and on
forecasting the future.
144
REFERENCES
Polytechnics Act 351/2003
Benner B. 1984. From Novice to Expert. Excellence and Power in Clinical Nurs-
ing Practice. Menlo Park, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Coetzee M., Britton M. & Clow S.E. 2005. “Finding the Voice of Clinical Experi-
ence: Participatory Action Research with Registered Nurses in Developing a
Child Critical Care Nursing Curriculum”. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing
21(2), pp. 110-118.
Paukkunen L., Turunen H., Tossavainen K., Taskinen H. & Sinkkonen S. 2003.
“Interpersoonalliset prosessit ja yhteistyöosaaminen sosiaali- ja terveydenhuol-
lossa”. Hoitotiede 2 (15), pp. 74-88.
145
Raij K. 2000. Toward a Profession. Clinical Learning in a Hospital Environment
as Described by Student Nurses. Research Reports 16. University of Helsinki,
Department of Education.
Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland, 2001. Health 2015 Public Health
Programme. Publications 2001:4. [pdf file]
<http://www.terveys2015.fi/terveys2015.pdf>
Zhang Z., Luk W., Arthur D., & Wong T. 2001. “Nursing Competencies: Personal
Characteristics Contributing to Effective Nursing Performance”. Journal of Ad-
vanced Nursing 33(4), pp. 467-474.
146
Arja Piirainen, Mikko Julin and Päivi Immonen-Orpana
Introduction
Global changes in social structures, cultures and lifestyles pose challenges even
for training in physiotherapy. The aim of this article is to examine these chal-
lenges with a basis in the Physiotherapy curriculum. The article begins by look-
ing at developments in the Finnish society and population, and how expertise in
physiotherapy can affect this.
The life expectancy of Finns rose throughout the twentieth century, and appears
to continue increasing by about one year every decade. The life expectancy of
men is increasing relatively faster than that of women. In 2025, people aged
over 65 are expected to account for 25 per cent of the population (National Pub-
lic Health Institute 2006). The longer our lives are, the more important quality of
life and sustainable development become. Sustainable development is an ex-
tensive social change that relates to more than just environmental management,
reactions to climate change and global concern for natural resources (Sustain-
able Development in Education 2006).
According to the Health 2000 study, the state of health and functional ability of
adult Finns have clearly improved. As life expectancy increases, the functional
ability of the elderly is an increasingly significant definer of the needs for auton-
omy and services. Approximately 80 per cent of people aged 30-54 in Finland
have good working capacity. However, only just over half of all people aged 55-
64 consider themselves to be capable of work. Therefore it appears that the
health of the Finnish population is improving. As life expectancy increases and
quality of life and sustainable development become more important, we are chal-
lenged to develop innovative rehabilitation and health services, as well as social
services to support them. Rehabilitation is expected to improve both the working
capacity of people of working age and the activity of the aging population (Na-
tional Public Health Institute 2002).
147
Starting points for the competence in the Physiotherapy curriculum
The aim of Laurea’s curriculum reform (Raij 2007) was to produce a core cur-
riculum shared by the whole of Laurea, built of degree programme themes and
generic competences common to all programmes. In early 2005, a generic com-
petence team and degree programme teams were established. The generic
competence team formulated the shared competences and their requirements
(cf. Chapter II). The task of the degree programme teams was to create pro-
gramme-specific competence descriptions and to analyse the competence areas
shared by all programmes. The team designed to create the curriculum for the
degree programme in Physiotherapy, belonging to the Social Services, Health
and Sports field, involved lecturers and students from the Otaniemi unit, as well
as representatives from the employment sector, for a total of ten members.
The Physiotherapy curriculum was based on the idea of expertise that renews it-
self in time through various research and development projects taking place in
148
operating environments. Renewable expertise in physiotherapy requires open,
shared and in-depth competence in physiotherapy, customer relationship man-
agement, strategy, innovation and research (Eräsaari 2002; Hakkarainen et al.
2004; von Krogh et al. 2000; Ruohotie 2000). A physiotherapist is a legally quali-
fied health care professional who works in the fields of rehabilitation, social ser-
vices, health care, education, fitness and culture, independently or as an em-
ployee and a developer. Physiotherapy customers are individuals, communities,
companies and organisations. Physiotherapy works with a basis in the values of
sustainable development (Ministry of Education 2006) to influence society by
producing and developing physiotherapy services and raising their quality, taking
into account the changing needs of the users and the national and international
development challenges in the field.
149
a research-oriented approach to work; networking skills in rehabilitation; and the
ability to plan, evaluate and develop physiotherapy work. FAURA is used as a
basis for the definition of physiotherapy expertise applied by the Hospital District
of Helsinki and Uusimaa, and its descriptions also correspond to the core com-
petences in physiotherapy defined by WCPT (2005).
5. Rehabilitation Networks
6. Developing Operations
7. Expertise in Physiotherapy
150
physiotherapist’s job. Another differently named area of competence in the cur-
riculum is synthetic skills (the ability to itemise, combine and critically evaluate
information).
Scientific orientation
Pedagogical
skills
Discursive orientation Cognitive orientation
Manual-
Synthetic technical
skills skills
Core competence
in physiotherapy
Skill-based professional
competence
Systemic orientation Experiential orientation
151
Knowledge-based and skill-based professional competences in the
Physiotherapy curriculum and their levels
152
Table 1. Levels of knowledge-based professional competences in physiotherapy
Scientific ori- System- Experiential Cognitive orien- Discursive orientation
entation theoretical orien- orientation tation
tation
Advanced Can justify new Can develop Can develop Can justify new Can develop discursive ac-
level measures in physiotherapy in physiotherapy measures in tion in physiotherapy with
Can develop physiotherapy the welfare service from an experi- physiotherapy various communities
and produce from a scientific system ential point of from a cognitive
new analyses point of view view point of view
for physio-
therapy
Intermediate Understands Understands and Understands and Understands and Understands and can ex-
level and can explain can explain can explain the can explain the plain the significance of
Understands the significance physiotherapy as a significance of significance of discursion in physiotherapy
and can ex- of biology in part of welfare experience in cognition in (e.g. Lundkvist)
plain the physiotherapy service systems physiotherapy physiotherapy
physiotherapy (e.g. Jette, (e.g. Hislop, Cott) (e.g. Roxendal (e.g. Talvitie,
knowledge Verbrugge, and Rosberg) Lundy-Ekman)
base from ICF)
various view-
points
Basic level Can identify Can identify and Can identify and Can identify and Can identify and describe
Can identify and describe describe the sys- describe the sig- describe human the principles of human in-
and describe human move- temic structure of nificance of ac- activity from teraction
the principles, ment from bio- human movement tivities as ex- cognitive per-
knowledge logical perspec- and activity perienced by spectives
base and con- tives others
cepts of hu-
manity of the
different ap-
proaches
153
At the time of writing, the new curriculum has been in use for six months. As yet,
we have too little experience of the practical suitability of the curriculum to draw
any conclusions. Practice has shown, however, that the new curriculum de-
mands more cooperation skills than ever before of students, employees, lectur-
ers and tutors, when learning takes place in the integrative learning environ-
ments of research and development projects. Feedback received from students
encourages us to stay on course, despite some initial hiccups.
Conclusions
154
References
Hakkarainen, K. & Lonka, K. & Lipponen, L. 2004. Tutkiva oppiminen: Järki, tun-
teet ja kulttuuri oppimisen sytyttäjinä. Helsinki: WSOY.
Von Krogh, G., Ichijo, K. & Nonaka, I. 2000. Enabling Knowledge Creation: How
to Unlock the Mystery of Tacit Knowledge and Release the Power of Innovation.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
155
Teemu Rantanen
The degree programme in Social Services produces experts to fill diverse jobs in
the welfare sector. In the past, a large number of graduates have found em-
ployment in child welfare and kindergarten teaching. Currently, many are be-
coming advisers and instructors in different areas of the social services. The So-
cial Insurance Institution, employment offices, various projects and the private
sector are becoming increasingly important employers (Lindberg & Tolonen
2005).
This article looks at the curriculum reform work conducted in Laurea’s degree
programme in Social Services between 2005 and 2006. Firstly, the topic is
viewed from the perspective of welfare competence. Laurea’s strategies list wel-
fare competence as one of Laurea’s four expertise sectors. In this respect, the
curriculum reform was partly about analysing future needs for welfare compe-
tence. This perspective was emphasised particularly at the early stages of the
initiative in spring 2005, and even before that in the preparation work carried out
for the welfare competence network.
156
ticularly topical with the completion of the long-awaited new act on qualification
requirements during the curriculum process.
My own position was that of the chairman of the Social Services curriculum
team, so this article is written from that point of view. The article is not based on
empirical materials but represents one viewpoint.
Future competence in the welfare sector as a basis for the curriculum re-
form
Most written studies define welfare on the basis of needs and resources. The
concept of welfare combines an external, objective perspective and an experien-
tial, subjective idea of well-being. Welfare is related not only to living standards
but also to quality of life. The curriculum process analysed welfare competence
from the point of view of social science studies, as well as by creating forecasts,
reflections and reports on the future competence needs of social services and
health care.
157
• promoting the welfare and health of the aged and the disabled
• mental health work, substance abuse work, treating various illnesses and pre-
venting marginalisation
Needs for changes in specialist competence also arise from:
According to Metsämuuronen (2000), the future needs of the social services and
health care sector will focus particularly on technical competence, international
competence and entrepreneurship competence. According to Pelttari (1997), the
qualification requirements for nurses emphasise and will continue to emphasise
interpersonal competence – interaction skills, empathy, friendliness, responsibil-
ity, caring, the ability to encounter and assist people with multiple problems ho-
listically, and the capacity to act as an advocate for the customer/patient. Also
important are multicultural abilities, health promotion skills, keeping continuously
abreast of developments, a willingness to develop and change management. In
future there will be an increased focus on multidisciplinary collaboration, re-
search and information gathering skills, leadership skills, the ability to support
customer/patient self-care and quality management.
The government’s decision in principle on the Health 2015 public health pro-
gramme (2001) and the final report of the national Social Welfare Development
Programme (2003) specify challenges related to specific age groups. Work with
children and adolescents will be characterised especially by preventive work and
early interventions. Family work and the development of its different forms (cf.
e.g. Heino, Berg & Hurtig 2000) will increase in significance. Competence in
family work will also be needed outside actual family work, for instance at day
care centres, maternity and child welfare clinics, and hospitals. Challenges re-
lated to working-aged people will spring from an increased working pace (Marte-
lin, Karvonen & Koskinen 2002, 91) and the need to stay at work until a later age
158
(Government Decision in Principle 2001, 15). The national Social Welfare De-
velopment Programme (2003, 21-25) also draws attention to services for the
disabled, the long-term unemployed and substance abusers.
Perhaps the greatest challenges of the welfare state are related to the aging of
the population. A major aim in health policy (Government Decision in Principle
2001, 15) is to improve the functional ability of the elderly. Geriatric care will
have to focus particularly on helping the elderly to live at home and on building a
service system to support this (National …, 2003, 26). Other challenges spring
from developing other living, service and care environments, from service in-
struction and from quality assessment. Some important areas of development
are increasing the coverage of home care and addressing the staff shortages in
institutional and outpatient care (National …, 2003, 29). Geriatric care will also
demand seamless cooperation between health care and social affairs (e.g. Na-
tional …, 2002).
Different analyses have defined the future competence needs of social services
and health care in slightly different ways. On the basis of research and reports it
appears that skills in encountering customers and cooperating in a work com-
munity, and a research-oriented, developmental approach will continue to be
central aspects of welfare competence. These were some of the starting points
for the Social Services curriculum. There is also a focus on expertise, multidisci-
plinarity and lifelong learning. Other future needs relate to entrepreneurship
skills, internationalisation and technological advancements. Further challenges
arise from the aging population, the well-being of families with children, sub-
stance abuse and other issues related to adult marginalisation. These chal-
lenges related to different population groups formed another central approach
for the curriculum reform.
159
• knowing the operating environment and developing services
• knowledge-based and ethical competence
• methodological competence
Core skills include:
There is fairly little research data on the competence of a Social Services gradu-
ate. On the other hand, analyses of social work competence can also be applied
to Bachelors of Social Services. Particularly research on professionalism and
work methods in social work are applicable. Sipilä (1989) distinguishes between
bureaucratic work, service work and psychosocial work. Of these at least service
work is important in social services. The service work carried out in social ser-
vices could be analysed for instance from the point of view of individual service
guidance.
160
personal interaction tradition, the administrative measure tradition and the social
change tradition.
161
around these areas. Development competence and leadership were also in-
cluded as the fourth area of expertise common to all Bachelors of Social Ser-
vices. A further four optional themes were identified. (The final themes of the
curriculum are shown in Figure 1.)
TEET
WELFARE SERVICES AND
SOCIAL INFLUENCE 25 CR
ENCOUNTERING THE
CUSTOMER 30+15 CR
i
ELECTIVE
STUDIES 20 CR
FOUNDATIONS OF WORK IN
SOCIAL SERVICES 10 CR
Preliminary texts for the study units and themes of the curriculum were produced
by theme groups appointed for this purpose from among the programme’s staff.
The theme groups set to work for a couple of months in autumn 2005 once the
main competences of Social Services had been identified and the curriculum’s
themes had been named. Each group had the task of formulating the objectives
for one theme, splitting the theme into study units, and writing up the learning
outcomes and contents of the study units. The curriculum team compiled the
theme group texts and worked on them to make them compatible and uniform.
Throughout the project, the stages of the curriculum process were discussed at
staff meetings at each unit. Regional ideas were then reported to the curriculum
162
team for processing. Before the themes were named, there was also an em-
ployer seminar involving experts from various parts of the employment market.
The seminar was used to discuss the contents of the preliminary themes, to
come up with new themes and to connect them. Towards the end of the curricu-
lum process, there was a shared curriculum seminar for the whole of Laurea’s
Social Services, Health and Sports field of study.
The question of generic competences was discussed relatively little in the Social
Services curriculum process. In themselves, the generic competences selected
for Laurea represent some of the core competences in social services, so they fit
nicely in the curriculum process. Ethics and reflection are particularly essential
parts of social service expertise. They appear at individual level in encounters
with customer, and later at organisational and social level in terms of welfare
services and social influence. In fact, ethics and reflection had been included as
core competences that progressed throughout the degree already in the previ-
ous curriculum dating from 2001. Globalisation is included in the degree pro-
gramme in Social Services particularly in relation to encountering multicultural
customers and to global welfare policy. The network competence perspective
arises especially in networked cooperation with customers and authorities. Inno-
vative competence, on the other hand, relates particularly to a research-oriented
and developmental approach and to developing welfare services.
Naturally, some tensions arose in the Social Services curriculum process, mainly
in relation to the core competences of a Bachelor of Social Services and the re-
lationships between specialist skills. The question of guaranteeing early eligibility
to future students, and the decision to stop offering the Creative Functions spe-
cialisation option as a separate specialisation option were critical. There were
also some conflicting views between the experts of the curriculum team and
theme groups. Some criticism was received for the fact that the Social Services
curriculum team modified the learning outcome and content descriptions made
by the theme groups, sometimes considerably.
One difficult choice included in the process was how to approach specialist
competence. One traditional approach is sector-specific, allowing students to
specialise for instance in child welfare, early childhood education or substance
163
abuse and criminal work. However, the curriculum team specifically decided that
this perspective does not necessarily correspond to future competence needs.
One specific point made by experts from the world of work was that it does not
make sense to separate child welfare and early childhood education from each
other. Child welfare work requires lots of competence in pedagogy and special-
needs education; similarly, early childhood education is increasingly linked to
child welfare and working with parents. One option would have been to use the
work orientations included in the Social Work 2015 Action Programme (Kar-
jalainen & Sarvimäki 2005, 42) – rehabilitating social work, community work,
structural social work, and prevention and early intervention. However, the team
decided to base its work on the special challenges identified in the analysis of fu-
ture challenges for welfare competence: the aging population, supporting the
well-being of children and families, and marginalisation. In addition, specialisa-
tion was allowed in functional and creative orientations.
Considerations
The Social Services curriculum process managed to distance itself from tradi-
tional sector-specific thinking while still maintaining the social services sector’s
own framework. The curriculum is not a generalised welfare competence or in-
novation curriculum, but still contains the value-based and social visions of the
social services field. The degree programme produces experts in social services
who can work in various tasks in the welfare society, also outside the traditional
social sector.
The curriculum is partly based on the context of social work, but the final version
has an emphasis on customer work and individual visions. The social perspec-
tive was eventually limited to a fairly narrow scope. The radical perspective of
social work that aims for social changes proposed by Malcolm Payne (1991)
was observed less in the curriculum process, although it may be emphasised in
some studies specialising in marginalisation.
A project entitled The Bologna Process and Finnish Universities of Applied Sci-
ences (2006) identified six degree-programme-specific competences for Social
Services:
164
• community competence and social influence
The competence areas identified in Laurea’s curriculum process are largely par-
allel to these. The competences in customer work, development and leadership
are included in the finished curriculum as themes, whereas ethical competence
and reflective competence are generic competences. The other competences
identified in the project were included under the same theme (Welfare Services
and Social Influence).
According to Merja Borgman (2006, 209), knowledge and awareness related to
groups and communities forms an essential part of the core competence of a
Bachelor of Social Services, and will only increase in importance between now
and 2015. In Laurea’s curriculum process, however, group- and community-level
competence was not recognised as a separate area of competence. Instead the
process showed that this competence is linked to encountering customer
groups, social influence and developing work.
All in all, the curriculum process was collaborative. The distribution of work and
the progress of the project weren’t always completely clear and many changes
took place along the way. However the structure by which the degree pro-
gramme curriculum team was in charge of the curriculum, which was then dis-
cussed in many contexts with all teachers and making use of specialist exper-
tise, was very apt.
REFERENCES
The Bologna Process and Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences. “Pro-
gramme-Specific Competences”, 04/2006. Degree Programme in Social Ser-
vices.
165
(SOTENNA). Final project report. University of Jyväskylä, Social Work Publica-
tion Series 4. Tampere.
Heino, T., Berg, K. & Hurtig, J. 2000. Perhetyön ilo ja hämmennys. Lastensuoje-
lun perhetyömuotojen esittelyä ja jäsennyksiä. National Research and Develop-
ment Centre for Welfare and Health, Aiheita 14/2000.
Horsma, T. & Jauhiainen, E. 2004. Final Report of the Project for developing the
Structure of Tasks and Professions in Social Care. Ministry of Social Affairs and
Health, Finland, Working Group Memorandum 2004:10. Helsinki.
National Project on Safeguarding the Future of Health Care Service. 2002. Min-
istry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland, Working Group Memorandum 2002:3,
9 April 2002.
166
Martelin, T., Karvonen, S. & Koskinen, S. 2002. “Työikäisten hyvinvointi”. In
Heikkilä, M. & Kautto, M. (Eds.), Suomalaisten hyvinvointi 2002. National Re-
search and Development Centre for Welfare and Health (STAKES). Jyväskylä:
Gummerus.
Murto, L., Rautniemi, L., Fredriksson, K., Ikonen, S., Mäntysaari, M., Niemi, L.,
Paldanius, K., Parkkinen, T., Tulva, T., Ylönen, F, & Saari, S. 2004. Eettisyyttä,
elastisuutta ja elämää. Yliopistojen sosiaalityön ja ammattikorkeakoulujen
sosiaalialan arviointi yhteistyössä työelämän kanssa. Publications of the Finnish
Higher Education Evaluation Council 5:2004.
167
Maarit Fränti
Introduction
This article looks at the process of reforming the curricula for Hospitality Man-
agement as part of Laurea’s curriculum development process. The article fo-
cuses on the starting points of the reform, on the process, on the resulting cur-
ricula and on the new competence generated through them. The article seeks to
describe the day-to-day aspects of the development project and the models that
were found for solving problems, discussing the causes and reasoning leading
to certain decisions. The solution models are also described.
The degree programme structure of the field is unclear and it appears that the
same competence is being offered under different degree titles at different
schools. For instance, competence in food and nutrition can be acquired either
in Service Management, Tourism or Hotel and Restaurant Management, de-
pending on the school. This conflict also exists at Laurea. Competence in food
and nutrition is studied in Järvenpää under Service Management and in Espoo
under Hotel and Restaurant Management. Until 2005, the competence areas
168
were organised in the degree programmes as specialisation options. The spe-
cialisation options in Service Management were Facility Management, Catering
Service Management and Consumer Services. The specialisation options in Ho-
tel and Restaurant Management were Hotel and Conference Service Manage-
ment and Catering Service Management. The degree programme in Tourism
had no specialisation options.
The growth in importance of the service sector has long been a central trend in
industry and commerce, and it is closely linked to the increasing wealth of soci-
ety and the progressiveness of the economy. Some of the factors fuelling the
growth in services directed to consumers are the regional concentration of popu-
lations, the increased purchasing power of consumers, changes in consumption
habits, and the aging population. Service production offers a wealth of opportuni-
ties but also great challenges. Demands placed on municipal services (e.g.
equality of citizens) and the nature of the services means that personal services
must be produced in addition to automated ones (National Consumer Research
Centre 2003).
A study (“Kauas kaikki karkaa – vai karkaako?”) by the National Consumer Re-
search Centre looks at the information society as a service society undergoing a
period of radical change. It examines not only traditional personal services, but
also the automated services typical of an information society, which offer alter-
native service forms as well as opportunities for location-independent services.
In the study, welfare services are used to mean any services that promote the
psychological, social or physical well-being of individuals and families, offered
municipally by social, health and education departments. Many other services
169
are needed in addition to these basic services, and they are generally offered on
the market (National Consumer Research Centre 2003).
Some of the major future trends that will cause changes to the operating envi-
ronment, particularly in real estate and facility management, are the transforma-
tion of customer relationships into partnerships, and the use of technology to
create new products and business processes. The main areas of development
will be service technologies and an increasingly far-reaching change in property
and support structures. This will also lead to the development of competence-
intensive service concepts. Environmental values will be emphasised and the
global responsibility of companies for the impact of their operations will be fo-
cused on from the point of view of environmental and consumer values. Global-
isation has already led to international real estate ownership in Finland. This
trend will continue, leading to increasing internationalisation of investments and
business (Rakli 2004).
170
Internationalisation will be a major characteristic of future services. The world’s
tourism industry is partly hypercyclical. Earlier earnings principles no longer ap-
ply as they did to the traditional service production-oriented, highly mechanised
economy. In a ‘chaos economy’ just one change driver (e.g. a bomb explosion)
can have an impact on the whole. Tourism organisations and their processes
are so closely linked together, that if one airline goes down, for instance, it can
cause a domino effect that quickly affects all other companies in the service
chain (Heikkinen 2003).
The development and marketing of services are key factors in the competitive-
ness of future services. Branding and productisation are thought to be two of the
major trends in the sector, particularly due to internationalisation (Services 2020,
2005). Future development is also linked to the use of technologies. There will
be increased emphasis on the development of new production and service proc-
esses using novel technologies (Harju-Autti 2003). New software and hardware
can boost the efficiency of companies’ internal and external data transfer.
Internationalisation will increase competition within the sector and play its part in
driving development. Organisations in the sector must follow global develop-
ments but be able to build customer-oriented concepts that work in their local
regions (global + local Æ glocal). The success of large companies is affected by
international phenomena. Small businesses must find their own product and
service concepts. The most important thing is customer satisfaction and distin-
guishing services from mass production. Internationality will soon make its mark
on the business ideas of companies in the restaurant industry. Some of the main
success factors in the sector will be employee competence, a readiness to
change, and the ability to predict trends and operating environments. In terms of
production, the restaurant industry must become networked with supporting in-
dustries. Networking is expected to take place through joint acquisitions made
by small businesses. Electronic commerce will expand as the Internet allows for
direct contact with consumers, e.g. in the form of takeaway orders and table
bookings (Ministry of Labour 2003). Keywords for the sector include polarisation,
catenation, brands and continuous renewal. Europe already has a strong food
and drink, retail, wholesale and restaurant chain cluster in the catering industry.
171
from industrial structures to the self-organising structures of the information so-
ciety (religion, professions, lifestyles, cultures and races). The aging of the popu-
lation and the increase in leisure time will cause rising demand for tourism ser-
vices, while competition will be ever tougher. Short breaks taken by the working-
aged population will become more common and increasingly linked to business
travel (Häyhä 2000).
Public-private partnerships (PPP) will increase the efficiency of the services of-
fered. In these partnerships, the public sector sets the objectives for a project,
which is then funded together with the private sector. In other words, this is one
form of privatisation (an example being the Areena-halli arena). Private finance
initiatives (PFI) are one embodiment of the PPP model, sometimes called private
funding, the life cycle risk model or the life cycle model. In this model, public in-
vestments are funded, implemented, temporarily managed and often even
planned by a private project company (examples from the UK include roads,
schools, hospitals, council housing, etc.; examples from Finland include the Hel-
sinki-Lahti motorway and the Espoo Upper Secondary School). The aim of the
PFI model is to save on costs, improve the quality of the service chain reaching
from design to maintenance, and customer orientation. An example of the in-
creased competition in the public economy and of the significant participation of
the third sector in the market comes from galleries and museum and other non-
profit organisations that have diversified their services. They seek additional in-
come by running cafés, restaurants, gift shops and even hotels.
172
Area development projects, the extended scope of universities of applied sci-
ences’ tasks and Laurea’s strategic choices regarding its operating environment.
The main challenges were producing competence through the development of
instruction and curricula, supporting the integration of the pedagogical, regional
development and R&D tasks in Laurea’s operations, and promoting the spread-
ing and establishment of the LbD model. The curriculum reform also wanted to
develop and strengthen the type of higher education offered at universities of
applied sciences. The connecting thread throughout the initiative was recognis-
ing competence needs by anticipating future requirements.
Before this reform took place, the curricula used in the Hospitality Management
field of study dated from 1997. They had been revised in 2001 in conjunction
with the degree programme structure reform, and reviewed somewhat each
year. However, those changes were minor and the main approach of the curric-
ula remained fairly unchanged. The curricula still had some characteristics of the
vocational education offered before polytechnics started, evident for instance in
specialisation options and traditional competence area structures. Therefore one
of the challenges of the curriculum reform was to identify a way of defining ser-
vice competence that could be shared by the whole field of study and that corre-
sponded to future competence needs. A particular difficulty in the process con-
sisted of problems in the degree programme structure of the field.
173
The specialist competences for the degree programmes in Hospitality Manage-
ment are:
The generic competence team was tasked with proposing the shared generic
competences and setting their competence requirements. The degree pro-
gramme teams were asked to formulate competence descriptions for each de-
gree programme together with students and representatives from the employ-
ment market, making use of available forecasts, analysing the generic compe-
tences together and proposing degree-programme-specific partnerships. The
teams were also asked to create a proposal for the profiles of the different units
and to make a presentation of each degree programme’s new curriculum in time
for them to be confirmed in March 2006. A separate team was appointed for
each of the Hospitality Management degrees, with a total of 13 members from
Järvenpää and Leppävaara. Although each degree programme had its own
team, it was clear from the start that the reform would largely involve the whole
of the Hospitality Management field.
174
The curriculum reform process was a highly diversified development project,
with controlled development events at its core. Collaboration took place in ex-
tensive curriculum seminars for all Laurea staff, and during development days
held for each field of study and unit. It was essential for the reform process to in-
volve the whole of Laurea’s staff in the initiative, and to create genuine dialogue
across degree programme boundaries. Heikkilä and Heikkilä (2001) define dia-
logue in relation to ordinary discussion in terms of their objectives. According to
them, ordinary discussions focus on promoting the speaker’s views, whereas
dialogue aims at finding shared meanings and creating new openings and
broader visions together. The collaborative nature of the project had good foun-
dations, because members of staff were interested in the curriculum process. It
was the task of the degree programme teams to facilitate this dialogue and to
channel it into the reform work. The process also involved students in various
capacities.
The main pillars of the curriculum reform were Laurea’s strategic intent and the
LbD operating model, which stated that competence development should be
based around regional innovation. In practice, work began by carrying out an
analysis of the service sector operating environment. The analysis was based on
national and regional operating environment and forecast reports and strategies,
and consultations with employment market representatives. Students conducted
a separate review of the visions of employer representatives, alumni and lectur-
ers from the degree programmes, and of professional publications and research.
The analysis also made use of extensive competence requirement mappings
made in autumn 2004 in conjunction with planning the Master of Hospitality
Management degree.
The operating environment analysis was used to determine the expertise gener-
ated in the degree programmes and the competence requirements of the future.
The main aim became the creation of extensive service competence. The inclu-
sion of the generic competences in the degree programme curriculum took place
in line with the identification of the subject-specific competences. The compe-
tence requirements that had been defined were turned into themes and study
units. The themes describe core competences of the degree programme at a
higher and more abstract level than study units. The skills produced by the ge-
neric competences ran right across the themes and study units. The basic struc-
ture of the curricula was created by determining a professional growth process
on the basis of the competence requirements.
175
Curriculum reform as a competence management tool
The curriculum process offered Laurea a challenge and an opportunity for an ex-
tensive competence management project. It would be justifiable to call the core
curriculum one of the main management tools of an educational organisation, so
reforming it is a process that strongly affects the whole organisation. Change
management was conducted on multiple levels at Laurea. Some of the change
managers were teams appointed specifically for this initiative: the project team,
the management group, the generic competence team and the degree pro-
gramme teams. Partly, change management was conducted by the normal or-
ganisation, i.e. Laurea’s line managers and experts.
The curriculum reform was a change management process. For many develop-
ers, the existing curricula were ones they had developed themselves, putting in
a lot of hard work over the years. They also represented safe and familiar ways
of thinking. Therefore the management had to get the staff to commit to the
changes and support unlearning. Järvinen (2002) lists the following as some of
the challenges of change management: explaining why the change makes
sense to staff, providing enough support, and making it evident that the staff
maintain their autonomy. All these elements were visible in this process. At the
beginning of the reform, the sense of the initiative was questioned widely, but as
the process went on, it received increasing support from staff. The framework
and limits set by the management group were partly criticised, but they were
also needed to support the development work. The management was expected
to commit to the reform process, providing its support. A specific support meas-
ure was a Coping with Change training event for all staff.
A development measure aimed at the reform process itself was an external
evaluation of the process, reviewing its progress with an interim assessment be-
gun in October 2005. The assessment focused particularly on the change proc-
ess and made suggestions to promote the success of the reform. The assess-
ment began with a detailed plan of the process together with Laurea representa-
tives, and with a review of the documentation describing the reform. Novem-
176
ber/December 2005 was the time for gathering data, which were analysed and
reported in January 2006. The outcomes of the assessment provided excellent
support for change management and for the completion of the reform. Many
supporting measures were taken for the change process as a result of the as-
sessment. They included increased development resources, and improved re-
porting on the reforms and their effects to existing Laurea students. The as-
sessment process continued during the curriculum implementation phase in the
spring of 2007.
In many ways, the curriculum reform took place as an innovation process. One
of the greatest management challenges in terms of promoting renewal was to
create the necessary conditions for innovation. It was hoped that the process
would lead to new ways of thinking. It seemed important to review even incom-
plete ideas and development proposals. Ståhle, Sotarauta & Pöyhönen (2004)
mention people and the work atmosphere as two factors that on the one hand
promote the innovation process and on the other hand restrain it. According to
them, internal motivation plays a central role as an innovation engine. Although
the conflicts arising from the meeting of different opinions and approaches form
an essential driving force for innovation, it is important to make sure that they
remain intellectual, and that the critiques that are made are constructive. The in-
novative organisations they studied were characterised by an ample use of net-
works and external stakeholders. Himanen (2004, 13) also emphasises the fact
that work culture and atmosphere are crucial in an economy where growth is in-
creasingly based on innovation. A major task for management is then to support
creativity. A central management principle is increasingly often to set ambitious
objectives that create motivation. Work culture issues become an essential
competitive factor. Therefore, in order to generate creativity, the management
had to create a safe and interactive environment for the development work,
where things could be discussed openly through genuine dialogue.
Heikkilä & Heikkilä (2001) claim that a functioning dialogue is a dynamic process
that offers its members new, possibly first-time opportunities to reflect on, inter-
pret and compare their conceptions with others’ conceptions. This allows indi-
viduals to develop their views and competence constructively and safely, with
help from the other members of the community. Dialectic ability is by no means
self-evident in an organisation; achieving it is often the result of target-oriented,
consistent work. Dialogue is the key to innovation and it supports the process of
cultural dynamics.
177
Reformed curricula produce top-level service experts
The new curricula of the Hotel and Restaurant Management, Service Manage-
ment and Tourism degree programmes are an apt reflection of the multidiscipli-
nary, networked character of the service sector, which can be seen from many
perspectives. It was decided that competence development would focus on ap-
plying service knowledge to tourism, hotel, restaurant and facility services as
part of the tourism, catering and economics sector. Competence is based on an
in-depth understanding of service, leading to broad-based service competence.
It emphasises holistic business competence through an understanding of the
significance of different services and technical applications. The primary compe-
tence development targets are the human and the human environment, and the
secondary ones are products, services, machinery, equipment and tools. The
approach of the degree programmes is to promote sustainable and experimental
ways of working.
178
Developing Services in Projects theme also works on the shared competence
base.
The special profiles of each degree programme are then achieved through dif-
ferent choices made for applying service competence. The perspective of Hotel
and Restaurant Management arises form network competence, created through
the Service Network Competence and the Investigating and Developing Ser-
vices in Networks themes. The focal point of the Service Management pro-
gramme is environmental competence, which is created in the Service Environ-
ment Competence and Investigating and Developing Services in Environments
themes. Tourism, on the other hand, is seen through tourism competence, ac-
quired through the Tourism Competence and Investigating and Developing Ser-
vices in Tourism themes. Specialisation is also promoted by the implementation
environments of the themes, which are relevant development projects. The
themes contain all the practical work necessary for supporting the acquisition of
personal competence.
179
Innovations, Service Innovations in Business Development and Entrepreneur-
ship. The first of the three study units is compulsory for all students, whereas the
other two are elective. The competence acquired in Developing Service Innova-
tions can be complemented with the elective study units, which optimally lead to
innovation-based entrepreneurship. Some of the development projects focus on
Laurea’s operating environment and targets defined together with partners. Their
outcomes are used to benefit the chosen organisation.
Conclusions
The themes and study units are described at a fairly general and conceptual
level, leaving plenty of room for diverse implementations that make use of the
best competence available at each time. The general nature of the descriptions
ensures that the curricula can adapt to passing time and changes in the envi-
ronment. It also allows for the application of the LbD model.
The conflicts arising from the new core curriculum structure decreased as the
new curricula were completed. A broad service competence base was deter-
mined for all three degree programmes through the four shared themes. The
competence of the Hospitality Management field at Laurea is embodied in the
Service Culture Competence, Business Competence, Leadership Competence
and Investigating and Developing Services in Projects themes. The shared
themes account for 90-130 credits, as chosen by the students.
The curriculum reform process demonstrated Laurea’s ability to reform and re-
new itself. The main objectives were met and the new curricula have been
adopted with very positive expectations. The tight schedule at the end of the de-
velopment process meant that the Hospitality Management curricula could not
180
be refined as carefully as it was hoped, so there is still plenty to do in terms of
refining the details. This will be done in the annual development initiatives, which
will be structured around implementation assessments and quality seminars fo-
cusing on the curricula.
References
Southern Finland’s Regional Structure in 2030, working document. 2004. Ver-
kostoitunut, yhteistyökykyinen ja monipuolisia vahvuuksiaan hyödyntävä Etelä-
Suomi. South Finland Regional Alliance.
Innovation Strategy for the Helsinki Region. 2005. Yhdessä huipulle. Culmi-
natum.
181
National Consumer Research Centre. 2003. Kauas kaikki karkaa – vai karka-
ako? : Summarised report of the Services in the Information Society research
project.
RAKLI. 2005. Vision 2010: Foundations for Good Life, The Finnish Real Estate
and Construction Clusters Vision for 2010. Finnish Association of Building Own-
ers and Construction Clients (RAKLI).
Future Probe 2004. Success Clusters Today and in 2015: Facts and Visions to
Support Anticipating Competence. Interim Report 1. Confederation of Finnish
Industries EK. Helsinki.
182
Anne Virtanen
Introduction
Background conditions
The curriculum reform complied with certain general marginal terms, some of
which were principles common to all of Laurea’s curriculum efforts, while others
183
were related specifically to sustainable development. The curriculum work was
based on the idea of identifying the most relevant competence for a Bachelor of
Natural Resources to work in the future. In other words, there was a shift from a
subject-based approach to a search for competence. In addition, the work had a
future-oriented approach, because the students who learn according to the cur-
rent curriculum do not graduate into the world of work for several years. A con-
stantly changing employment market requires new kinds of competence, so one
of the challenges was to anticipate future needs. Since Laurea operates in the
region of Uusimaa, attention was paid to the development orientation, strategies
and programmes of the Helsinki metropolitan area.
Below is a description of the process from the establishment of the project team
to the adoption of the curriculum (Figure 1).The curriculum process was also
supported by the simultaneous ECTS Project to define programme-specific
competences. Further support was provided by participation in curriculum devel-
opment days organised by Laurea.
184
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT CURRICULUM PROCESS
1. Establishing
the project team
The curriculum process started with the appointment of people to carry it out.
Naturally, the project involved Sustainable Development staff, but it also in-
cluded a representative from the degree programme in Rural Economics to in-
crease collaboration and idea exchange. The project team participated in Lau-
rea’s general curriculum seminars and development days, which helped in shar-
ing the view of other fields.
The task of defining the expertise of a Bachelor of Natural Resources was ap-
proached by being in close contact with representatives from the employment
market. Several (10) focused interviews were carried out, investigating the views
of different organisations on the competence that experts in sustainable devel-
opment should have in the future. Approximately half of the interviews were
conducted with companies (from the environmental field and other sectors), and
185
the other half with public sector organisations (Ministry of the Environment,
Uusimaa Regional Environment Centre, Uusimaa municipalities).
The focused interviews examined views of the expertise needed in the environ-
mental sector and more generally in the workplace of the future. Figure 2 has a
summary of the answers (evaluations on a scale of 1-5, where 5 = Very impor-
tant and 1 = Least important). Due to the limited number of interviews it may be
dangerous to make generalisations, but the interviews did give a clear indication
of workplace-relevant competence. The most important skill according to the in-
terviews was project management competence, but subject-specific competence
(i.e. environmental competence) was also seen as important. Other generic
skills were IT competence and administrative and public authority-related com-
petence, which also contain subject-specific competence (environmental soft-
ware, environmental administration, etc.). Commercial and technological skills
were seen as the least important of the listed competences. One of the inter-
viewees explained that business and commercial competence is already present
in other employees, so when recruiting an environmental specialist the company
looks specifically for relevant competence.
186
Project management competence 4.9
IT competence 4
Completence related to
administration and the authorities 3.8
EU competence 3.3
F inancia l and
business competence 2.9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The interviews also brought up other skills such as understanding of global is-
sues, interpersonal skills, skills in chemistry and biology, communication skills
and legal knowledge. A larger number of interviews with a larger number of or-
ganisations would probably have expanded on the definitions of the necessary
competence. However, the essential fact was to realise that while subject-
specific core competences are important, they must be complemented by ge-
neric workplace skills.
187
In addition to these interviews, the process of defining expertise in Sustainable
Development used existing literature and the participants’ own expertise. A good
knowledge base was provided by strategies and programmes formulated for the
Uusimaa region, as well as national sustainable development strategies and
programmes.
The competences defined for Sustainable Development for the whole higher
education sector in Finland, listed in Table 1, were used as aide in the descrip-
tion process.
188
Table 1. Competences for the degree programme in Sustainable Development
(source: Participation …)
Competence profile Competence description
Degree programme in (knowledge and skills)
Sustainable Development
1. Knowing the processes • Students are familiar with the basic mechanisms of
of the natural environ- the natural environment and can identify and im-
ment and improving its prove its state.
state
2. Generating operations • Students can promote sustainable development by
in sustainable develop- influencing people’s attitudes and behaviours, and
ment can identify and organise alternative operating
models for supporting the sustainability of environ-
ments and societies.
3. Managing planning • Students know the principles of planning and de-
processes and methods velopment work and can use various planning
methods in practice.
4. Applying economic • Students know the rules governing the economy
steering methods and can apply this knowledge to the operations of
companies and organisations.
Formulating themes
Once the expertise had been defined, the team began to think about how to cre-
ate a three- or four-year learning process that would lead students to fulfil the set
targets for expertise. A natural starting point was that students should first learn
about the state of the environment and the factors that affect it, after which they
can learn to apply this knowledge and become an environmental developer. Ac-
cording to the principle of sustainable development, graduates must have a
globalised understanding of things, but local environmental planning and devel-
opment are also a central competence area. First-year students become familiar
with the processes of the natural environment, with the themes of sustainable
development and with social influencing methods. In the next year, students can
189
specialise either in rural environmental matters or more generally in environ-
mental monitoring and restoration methods. In the third year, students learn
about entrepreneurship and how to work as planners and developers in rural
and urban environments. Job placements that provide orientation in and in-depth
knowledge of work in the field are crucial points of contact with the employment
market, achieved through project-based learning.
The curriculum was put into writing as a result of the work discussed above, on
the basis of the instructions provided for curriculum reporting. The main chal-
lenge was to make the text focus on competences, where before it had been
closely linked to subjects. Thanks to the extensive preparation work, however,
writing the curriculum was fairly easy and consisted mainly of recording the out-
comes of the earlier stages of the process.
The new curriculum was adopted in the autumn of 2006, so only preliminary
comments can be made on its success. One area of improvement has been the
collaborative planning and implementation of study units. Lecturers have also
had to learn to shift their focus away from specific disciplines and subjects. A fur-
ther challenge has been for lecturers to weave the curriculum into the teaching
so that the generic competences and the sustainable development themes are
linked together naturally. Initial experiences of the new curriculum have varied,
but we can safely say that despite their challenges, new methods and objectives
are always a learning and development experience, even for teachers.
190
Conclusion
References
Participation of Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences in the European Higher
Education Area. 2006. [online] <http://www.ncp.fi/ects>
191
IV LEARNING BY DEVELOP-
ING AS AN OPERATING
MODEL
This chapter discusses the development of the Laurea Library and the practical
implementation of the new core curriculum using the LbD model.
192
Hanna Lahtinen
A library is still often seen as a service for taking out and returning books. The
basic concept of finding information has remained the same for centuries, but
great changes are taking place in the library sector, requiring critical analysis of
the existing services, functions and competence. Changes are necessary due to
general social developments, by which the industrialised society is transforming
into a knowledge society. Laurea’s general changes have also affected the Lau-
rea Library’s operations.
This article describes the changed day-to-day operations of the Library and how
they mirror the development of Learning by Developing at Laurea. The article is
based on a survey of library employees in conducted December 2006. The re-
spondents were seven information specialists and they answered questions re-
garding the Library’s service operations, collection work and management.
Laurea has encouraged and facilitated the participation of Library staff in its
shared LbD seminars and core curriculum reform days. A new kind of coopera-
tion has begun to appear between the Library, lecturers and R&D through this
participation.
We took part in the core curriculum planning meetings with varying attendance.
We were present at the initial meetings, but once the work began to focus more
on specific subjects we stopped attending. In addition we participated in plan-
ning a study module involving information gathering. (Laurea information spe-
cialist)
The topic was also discussed extensively in the Library’s internal meetings, with
the aim of understanding the challenges posed to our operations by LbD and the
new core curriculum. The effects have been noticeable particularly in the Li-
brary’s collection work – i.e. the selection of materials to acquire – and in the
193
forms of guidance provided in information seeking. There have also been more
profound effects on the basic aspects of the Library’s operations: library ser-
vices, work processes and competence requirements. These effects are de-
scribed at the end of the article.
The Library has always acquired materials to meet the needs of the fields of
study, and more specifically the degree programmes and their specialisation op-
tions. Course textbooks on which examinations are based have also made up a
major part of the collection.
Through LbD, the Library gave up on the old-fashioned course textbook idea
with the aim of promoting the varied use of materials. The concept of short-loans
was adopted to cover the core materials related to the phenomena under study.
The first change was a technical one, changing textbooks to short-loans. The
change was visible for instance when retrieval materials in the Library’s data-
base. After the completion of the new core curriculum, the Library’s staff have
been working with lecturers to determine which basic materials are linked to
which generic competences and themes.
A good example of the new collaboration is the new kind of acquisition event or-
ganised in the workroom of the Leppävaara library. The local information spe-
cialist invited book agents and lecturers to attend at the same time. The agent
brought along sample books and a number of catalogues. Speaking with the lec-
turers, he could suggest suitable materials from different publishers’ lists. This
gave lecturers a quick look into the new literature available in their fields, includ-
ing international publications. At the same time, the agent received a better un-
derstanding of the lecturers’ needs and library staff saved time by making acqui-
sition decisions in a single process. The event attracted a large number of lec-
turers, which is a reflection of the changes taking place in the reference materi-
als on which teaching work is based.
194
ing for someone to select and translate it or adapt it to Finnish circumstances.
The increased demand for electronic materials also showed a shift of focus to
new international information resources. Content-wise the acquisitions were cen-
tred on business and welfare-related materials.
More requests for acquisitions are coming to the Library than ever before, some
of them from students. Most of the newly acquired books are lent. There has
been an increased need for business literature, even though the unit teaches
four theoretically separate subjects.
More materials have to be acquired outside the field of nursing. There has been
an emphasis on materials related to the generic competences.
There has been a slight increase in and diversification of materials related to re-
search methods.
Use of materials
In 2005, the amount of loans grew by 26 per cent over the previous year, proba-
bly due to the development of teaching according to the LbD model and to the
curriculum reform work. In the same period, borrowing from all libraries at Fin-
nish universities of applied sciences grew by 1.2 per cent. Without Laurea, the
total number of loans from libraries at universities of applied sciences would
have fallen; a few other libraries demonstrated increases but they were not as
significant.
In 2006, growth continued strongly at Laurea, at 10 per cent over the previous
year. The biggest growth took place in the general collection, at a rate of 14 per
cent, whereas the increase in short-term loans was only 1.6 per cent. The use of
the main collection reflected the diversification of the need for materials. It also
followed from the period of change at Laurea, as the core materials for each cur-
riculum had not all yet been assigned, and some students were still following the
old curriculum.
Borrowing has increased. First-year students are taking out books other than
those on which they will be examined, showing a diversification of the types of
materials needed (videos, factual books, magazine articles). To me, this clearly
reflects the adoption of the LbD model.
Students want to find more information and more in-depth information from
sources other than those on which they will be examined.
195
The need for material acquisitions and the amount of loans are growing particu-
larly in those fields and Laurea units where LbD has been under development
the longest. Statistically, Laurea’s staff have also been borrowing significantly
more materials in the last couple of years. LbD-related partnerships are attract-
ing external users to the Laurea Library, and the number of loans by people from
public administration, industry and commerce doubled in 2005-2006.
The LbD model demands more independence than before from students. This
does not mean working alone but in groups. Students are present more at the
units when participating in shared projects. The change in work methods is visi-
ble in some overcrowding at the Library’s workstations. For example at Kerava,
the library was used mainly for taking out books a few years ago, but last au-
tumn the library’s premises suddenly became too small as students used mate-
rials for various projects. The number of library users has increased and the
uses have diversified.
The questions received by the Library’s customer services have become more
difficult and complex. Students need guidance with issues related to information
more often and more in depth than before. The Library has started to play a big-
ger role in the students’ learning process and in creating new knowledge.
The Library has reacted to these changes for instance by developing its teaching
in information seeking. The Laurea Library was the first library to systematically
develop online Information Seeking studies for all students. These studies were
not interesting and flexible enough to succeed as mass studies, however, so the
Library decided to stop offering them. The development of LbD began to specify
needs and the new competence-based core curriculum gave the final impulse
for giving up the mass studies in order to leave room for renewal. The online ma-
terials can still be used where applicable, however, and new components have
been added to them from the online studies in information gathering developed
for the Virtual Polytechnic.
A new kind of teaching in information seeking was decided on during Laurea’s
curriculum process. Tutoring is now provided in five different ways and it is no
longer compulsory. It is integrated flexibly into other studies, so that information
specialists can help students in depth with real problems and authentic work-
place needs. In addition, the Library’s customers can come and visit the informa-
196
tion specialists to discuss information-related needs more personally and in
depth than the busy customer services are able to do. Visits are made by stu-
dents and staff alike.
The basic studies in Information Seeking were no longer compulsory for Busi-
ness Management students, which made them harder to organise. On the other
hand, project-related teaching is organised more and more, and the students are
much more motivated for that.
There has been no change yet, but the need for it is evident. With the new
pedagogical theory, presentational teaching (the kind mainly used for the Infor-
mation Seeking course) has become outdated. I am moving more towards work-
shop teaching. For instance, as of March 2007, tutoring in Information Seeking
for theses will be organised in a workshop where students work with methods
relevant to their fields. The information specialist is present throughout the ses-
sion to discuss any problems that arise together with the students. In addition we
aim to introduce students to information seeking more from the point of view of
the workplace and of knowledge management.
Customer-oriented development
The Library has started playing a bigger role in the students’ learning process
and in creating new knowledge. That means that it must know its customers’
needs and the changes taking place in the operating environment even better
than before. As students learn through projects completed for employers, they
must be supported by quick, accurate and in-depth identification of information
sources. The reaction to these changes in customer service has perhaps been
insufficient so far, although it has begun with a needs analysis and the investiga-
tion of a new kind of service culture. The changes are supported by a biennial
customer satisfaction survey and the Library Objectives for 2010 plan, which is
based on Laurea’s strategic intent, tasks and action plans. Objectives were set
with a view to responding to the new knowledge-building challenges of the
pedagogical model and Laurea’s R&D work.
197
ple in relation to maternity clinics, crisis management, innovation, portfolio work
and LbD work.
The Library’s internal work processes are developed to support the production of
high-quality, efficient services. The aim is also to come up with new ways of
working or new service forms.
Quality, efficiency and functionality have been worked on for a long time by col-
laborating with other university libraries. The most visible results of these part-
nerships have been in acquisitions. Individual libraries could not have acquired
the library system, information search portal, electronic materials and statistical
database that are currently in use, including their related technologies and sys-
tems, so they were purchased together with other libraries. High-quality systems
and work methods have created a good infrastructure, so in developing its op-
erations the Library has been able to focus on local needs and circumstances.
Local needs include the new opportunities opened at Laurea by LbD, the core
curriculum and R&D activities. The Library has carried out its own experimental
activities in developing the information environments conceptually and in con-
tent. The library at Hyvinkää, for example, has studied and independently devel-
oped some tools and work methods related to the information environments –
including the use of graphic organisers such as Gowin’s vee map in mapping
subject matters, and the introduction of conceptual mapping software into the in-
formation seeking and knowledge-creation process.
Kerava has developed the role of library staff as a part of the innovation envi-
ronment. This has opened up a partnership with the Velo unit that coordinates
Laurea’s R&D activities in Central and Northern Uusimaa. Another experiment is
the Tea Room, a space for interactive knowledge and encounters in Kerava.
Competence development
The implementation of LbD, the core curriculum and research programmes are
changing the Library’s services and work methods in ways that require staff
competence development. Competence can be increased through participation
in processes, functions and networks outside the Library. It is important to en-
counter experts with diverse competence; these encounters may generate new
thoughts and actions that develop the Library’s competence, work processes
and services.
The Library processes changes through its competence teams. The competence
teams run vertically and horizontally, seeking deep competence in their own
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fields and broad, multiple competences in the operating environment’s proc-
esses. The Library can participate as an operator with multiple competence for
instance in the various stages of knowledge creation. The Library’s roles can in-
clude affecting what tools are used, helping people to find information sources,
participating in structuring data and modifying metadata, and promoting the dis-
tribution of new knowledge.
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Pauliina Nurkka
This article describes the process of rewriting the curriculum for the Service
Management degree programme from the point of view of a participating senior
lecturer, and analyses the implementation of the Learning by Developing (LbD)
model in the study units included in the new curriculum. At the end of the article
an example is given using one of the study units that I have taught in. I chaired
the Service Management curriculum team during the curriculum reform process
from the spring of 2005 to the spring of 2006. The curriculum was taken into use
in the autumn of 2006.
LbD is seen here as Laurea’s method for integrating education, research and
development and regional development. Model can be called development-
based learning. Some of the central elements of the model are the authenticity
of projects, which leads to the production of useful results and competence; en-
counters, which are embodied in continuous assessment and interaction be-
tween all parties; and a research-oriented, developmental approach to activities,
which will optimally generate innovations.
The process took somewhat more than a year. In that time, the team created a
description of the operating environment for the service sector, defined the ex-
pertise and competence of the service sector, and described the expertise
growth process in the field. In doing this, the team was in contact with workplace
experts, gathered tacit knowledge from the degree programmes, talked to senior
lecturers, principal lecturers and students, and analysed research studies and
200
other topical materials on the field. These were used to determine the curriculum
themes and study units, as well as the generic competence levels to reach in
each study unit.
In the author’s opinion, the most significant difference between the old and new
curricula lies in the new curriculum’s extensive modules. While before study
units used to form entities of 3-6 credits, the new curriculum’s study units are all
10-15 credits in scope. As described above, these units combine to form 30-45-
credit themes (except for the thesis, which forms its own 15-credit theme in all
degree programmes).
201
ganisation that commissioned the project. One weakness in the old curriculum
was the fragmented nature of the study modules. The academic year was di-
vided into four 8-10-week periods. Students could ‘complete’ as many as six or
eight study units at a time, which scattered their resources over a wide area of
study. Another problem arose from the fact that by the time the students and the
lecturer in charge understood what the optimal objectives were for learning and
its outcomes, the study unit was over. This put an end to competence develop-
ment and development work towards a project’s objectives. Thus the new cur-
riculum with its large modules allows for long-term development; students can
work on one project from their first year to their fourth year, if necessary, while
growing into experts in the field under observation.
A clear difficulty still remains in how to implement study units and themes in
practice so that a 10-credit study unit is not fragmented into smaller entities con-
trolled by different lecturers. In making the implementation plan it should always
be kept in mind that as the owner of the learning process, the student takes cen-
tre stage. Previously it was thought that the lecturers know best what the stu-
dents should learn, and this may have placed the focus too firmly on lecturers.
Thus, from the student’s point of view the danger lies in lecturers planning these
202
extensive modules from their own points of view and their own fragments, forget-
ting that their combination may not generate competence in the student.
Whole calendar days set aside for study units facilitate implementation. Each
study unit must not have too many lecturers, so that it can be controlled by one
person as a whole. A ‘responsible lecturer’ system is probably necessary, even
in cases where there are only two teachers for a study unit. It would make it eas-
ier to define and manage the unit as a whole. At the time of writing, in January
2007, there was no information yet on completed themes, but the same factors
should naturally be taken into account on this larger scale.
In implementing the new curriculum, lecturers should also remember that LbD
does not mean providing students with a task and then leaving them to work in-
dependently. According to the cycle of investigative learning defined by Hak-
karainen, Lonka and Lipponen (2005, 300), shared expertise belongs to every
stage of the cycle, from creating the context to determining problems, and from
analysing the problems to creating new working theories. This requires commit-
ment and a leap into the unknown, not just from students but also from lecturers.
The lecturers must be present, available, committed to providing feedback, and
ready to work towards objectives. More than anything, lecturers must be pre-
pared to step out of their comfort zones to a zone with no ready-made answers,
or even ready-made questions. There cannot be any ready-made answers if we
are to aim for innovation.
Feedback gathered on the Coordinating a Service Event study unit in late Janu-
ary 2007 showed that the LbD model has been adopted fairly well and accepted
as a work method among first-year students. The following open-ended feed-
back demonstrates that the curriculum succeeded in facilitating the LbD model:
The idea behind the study unit was very good, I felt I’d really DONE something
rather than just sat at lectures.
The project was good. I hope there will be more large modules in the future, be-
cause they teach you the most.
A good idea and a brave cold start to the autumn. Team-building was inevitable
and the team spirit quickly improved when it had to.
The work was effective because the subject and tasks were useful and interest-
ing. My competence has developed on this course, because it made it easier to
relate theory to practice. Being allowed to participate in lots of things has made it
easier.
203
Most of the feedback received on project work was positive. In terms of the qual-
ity of education, above-average satisfaction was shown in tutoring and the
growth of innovativeness. Students were also satisfied with the development of
reflective competence as required by the study unit, and considered their knowl-
edge-based and skill-based professional competence to have improved. The
best ratings were given to the development of work methods and taking into ac-
count the needs of customers, but fairly high points were also awarded to the
gaining of skills required for the procession, the application of theoretical knowl-
edge to practical work, and the ability to create new competence.
Some particular areas for improvement that were identified were the evaluation
of the study unit and portfolio work.
They didn’t tell us enough about what to do and how. LbD didn’t work at all in
this study unit.
The generic competences and portfolios confuse the studies more than direct
them. They should explain the generic competences and their purpose better to
students before the studies begin. More guidance is also needed for portfolio
work.
The evaluation method is also strange, when you don’t get scored on exams but
you do on projects, were someone may have done more work than others but
everyone gets the same grade.
The division of the teaching into small fragments was bizarre. There were big
gaps between teaching sessions. It was hard to understand their links to the unit
as a whole.
The positive feedback indicates that the study unit implementation is on the right
track. In developing implementations we must remember not to develop things to
the detriment of the students’ success. As a member of the study unit’s team of
lecturers, I agree with the areas of improvement that were mentioned and will do
my best to further the development of the curriculum and the LbD model. The
evaluation and feedback practices were confusing due to the large number of
lecturers participating in the study unit, and portfolio work probably suffered from
the lecturers’ lack of knowledge and experience regarding this generic compe-
tence evaluation tool. Evaluation processes should probably be developed more
systematically towards developmental evaluation, which will require further
analyses of the research and writings of evaluation experts. The portfolio work
will most likely develop through the experiences gained in the first year of the
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use of portfolios in evaluating the generic competences. We should not take this
for granted, however; every lecturer should commit to producing and evaluating
the generic competences.
Conclusion
Although one of the forty students who provided feedback said that ‘LbD has not
contributed to my studies in any way’, in general the feedback received on the
study unit mentioned above confirms my experience and feeling of the fact that
teaching and learning according to LbD and the new competence-based core
curriculum have mostly been a success. The resources spent on the curriculum
reform were definitely not wasted. As a participant in the curriculum project, I am
relieved to see that the emphasis has been on the right, big issues. The stu-
dents’ experiences will probably be more comprehensive once they have com-
pleted the whole theme. After that, hopefully even that one abovementioned stu-
dent can state that competence has been created thanks to the LbD model and
the new curriculum.
There are plenty of challenges, but the benefits in terms of the implementation of
LbD and competence development are clear in comparison with the earlier,
fragmented curriculum. Therefore the curriculum can be said to support the im-
plementation of LbD in instruction. Naturally, our development work must con-
tinue in order to turn the education, research and regional development activities
demanded by the model into a systematic work method that produces useful,
regionally developmental innovations and competence in all of Laurea’s fields of
study and degree programmes.
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Tarja Rinne
206
Jointly formulated competence-based core curriculum
The first year for all Hospitality Management degrees involves the Service Cul-
ture Competence theme as a whole, and parts of the Business Competence and
Leadership Competence themes. The Service Culture theme contains three
study units: Coordinating a Service Event, Quality of Customer-Oriented Service
and Service Culture, all 10 credits in scope. These three study units were mainly
implemented in Järvenpää before Christmas.
In the second week of study, the students attended an intensive camp in Märkiö,
and received an introduction to the new curriculum. At the camp, students were
divided into five groups, mixing Tourism and Service Management students in
each. The groups drew one or more words out of a hat (quite literally). Inspired
by this word and with the assistance of 100 euros in resources provided by Lau-
rea, the groups had to plan, organise and implement a public event. All the study
units included in the theme in the autumn semester were centred around this
event.
Innovative events
The implementation of the events was scheduled to around Christmas time. The
timing was criticised in the autumn, but provided to be a good choice later. The
words given in the autumn were modified as the work progressed, and the lec-
turers’ original ideas regarding the future events were modified. Below are the fi-
nal titles of the events and a short description of each.
The main idea was to present different religions to students of the upper
secondary school in Tikkurila. The event was held in Tikkurila on 8 Decem-
207
ber 2006 and it began with a round table discussion in an auditorium. The
auditorium was packed full with about 500 people, who got to follow a high-
level discussion on conceptions of religion between a Hare Krishna, a Mus-
lim, a Jew, a member of the Salvation Army, a Lutheran and a secondary
school student. One of the main attractions of the event was TV personality
Ruben Stiller. After the round table, attendants continued to the school’s
gym, where there were colourful stalls presenting different religions, enter-
tainment for students and Christmas-themed fare.
The main idea of the event was to organise an exhibition of art by visually
impaired children. The works of art were created at the Finnish Federation
of the Visually Impaired during a ‘Different School Day’ managed by the
team’s students. The event was recorded on video and broadcast later at
the exhibition. The atmospheric exhibition was held at Kerava Manor on 12
December 2006. Guests were led by an avenue of candles to the venue
that contained mulled wine and biscuits, a beautiful display of the children’s
work, examples of teaching materials used for visually impaired children,
video displays and interviews with visually impaired kids.
The main idea was to organise an event for 13-16-year-olds presenting the
world of dance and young people’s interest in it. The event was organised at
Järvenpää Vocational Institute on 14 December 2006. The main partner for
the dance even was Keto, the Central Uusimaa Dance School, whose
dancers took care of the dance teaching and demonstrations. One of the
main attractions was the compere, Jani Toivola, known from his work as the
presenter of the Idols TV programme. In addition to dance teaching and
demonstration, this event also included plenty to eat and drink, as well as a
music quiz.
208
addition there was a flea market, the Track Café and a chill-out music cor-
ner. Two of the partner organisations were the Kerava Youth Centre and the
Ministry of Education.
Inspired by this line from a Christmas carol, the team organised a photogra-
phy contest for higher education students in Uusimaa. The theme was the
title of the event. The contest period was 25 September-28 November 2006
and there were 60 entries. The opening of the photography exhibition and
the award ceremony were held at Johto Café in Kamppi shopping centre,
Helsinki. The exhibition was inaugurated and awards were handed out by
Laurea President Pentti Rauhala on 16 December 2006. The excellent
prizes included a digital camera and glass products from Iittala. The exhibi-
tion was on until 15 January 2007 and the public were invited to vote for
their favourites.
The planning and implementation of the events organised in accordance with the
LbD model were tied to studies so that there were occasions that offered chal-
lenges that were addressed using individual reasoning resources. Throughout
the autumn, the students participated in a continuous problem-solving process,
with a focus on research, development and generating new competence.
Knowledge and skills were closely interwoven through lectures and assignments
that supported the event planning project, which was undergoing all the time.
The teamwork and learning forum was the Optima online learning environment.
Laurea’s network includes a ready-made LbD project tool that directs and can be
used to direct project work. The tool splits the project into different phase folders
(planning, implementation, evaluation, documentation), and the subfolders for
each phase direct the work included in it. The beginning of each folder includes
relevant questions that the teams seek to answer using their day-to-day knowl-
edge; this increases interest and motivation and helps in understanding the
phase as a whole. Next, the folder contains supplementary materials in the form
of theory and practical cases that help the teams to find well-founded answers to
the questions. In addition, each folder contains tools related to the phase, with
instructions, such as a Mind Map template, a Gantt chart, a financing plan
model, contract and minutes models, etc. Each event team had its own project
tool folder and also read-only rights to the other teams’ folders.
209
The lectures were used to ponder the core concepts in event planning, providing
a knowledge base for the assignments and linking back to the project tool’s
phases. The target-orientation of the learning and study process became evident
in the documentation included in the project tool and visible to all teams. The
documentation was studied in order at workshops. Each event team had a cor-
responding commenting team, which prepared questions and comments on the
event team’s documentation. Workshops were used to compile things into whole
entities, identify problems and make more specific questions to direct the pro-
gress of the event planning. If necessary, students were guided onto new paths
for solving problems or building competence.
The project tool also included a discussion forum for students and tutors, but its
use was scant because everyone met almost daily. At the different stages of the
project, students were asked to provide open-ended feedback on each other’s
teamwork and to evaluate their own work in the teams using a feedback form.
The feedback was used in discussions between lecturers and students on the
phenomena that affected the work positively, and on measures that might lead
to developments in teamwork. At the end, all the members of each team got to-
gether for a peer evaluation, grading each member for their teamwork and pro-
viding written explanations of their grades.
210
formed a basis for explaining the causes and consequences of practical phe-
nomena. The background of students who had completed vocational qualifica-
tions was taken into account and they were given specific roles in planning,
guiding and evaluating the studies.
In addition the students increased their competence by completing basic service
process tasks in professional kitchens run as businesses in the catering service
sector, for two days every other week. In these authentic operating environ-
ments they learnt to understand the phases of the service process and the fac-
tors that affect them; they improved their skills; and they tested their theoretical
knowledge in an industrial kitchen. The studies aimed to support the formation of
personal competence objectives and a personal study plan, and to awaken in-
terest in the future themes in business and leadership competence, where the
same places could be used as project environments. Assessment was based on
self-evaluation, peer evaluation and shared evaluation, encompassing the com-
petence of individuals and groups.
The aim of portfolio work is to support learning, provide evidence of one’s own
learning and work, linking the knowledge, skills and experiences received from
practical work and event planning to the studies at the university of applied sci-
ences (and vice versa), and improve self-evaluation.
211
The portfolio makes learning, the learning process and competence develop-
ment visible to the student and to others. In the study unit folders, students save
individual assignments they complete as part of the subject-specific studies, as
well as their self-evaluations and peer evaluations that are meant for others to
see. At the end of each study unit, students write a professional growth essay to
demonstrate their development during the study unit.
Making a study unit portfolio furthers the studies effectively, because students
have to go back through their knowledge and link it to the correct contexts. They
also have to see the study unit process as a whole, linking meta-competence
(generic competences) to the professional setting. As the meta-competences
develop, the students’ performance generally improves and their independent
learning skills develop. Working on their portfolios makes the students aware of
their own learning and development needs. At the same time they see their per-
sonal study programmes as a succession of study units.
Detailed syllabuses for each study unit are available online before they begin.
The syllabus contains descriptions of the content and aims of the study unit, a
timetable, a description of the learning process, bibliographies, evaluation con-
tents and criteria, and delineations of the general workplace skills obtained. It
defines the generic competence to be evaluated as concretely as possible and
linked to other learning. Students are directed to complete their study unit portfo-
lios (professional growth essays) using these elements as a basis. The main tu-
tors of the study unit read the essays, after which all the lecturers from the study
unit conduct an evaluation discussion, grading students for their subject-specific
competence and awarding them a pass/fail grade on the specified generic com-
petence. Thus the portfolio integrates teaching and evaluation.
Evaluation
During that autumn, it is almost certain that all participants – lecturers, students
and employer representatives – experienced professional growth. The most im-
portant thing was team-based learning, followed by increases in the teams’ in-
ternal motivation and collaboration, with different experts working together in dif-
ferent roles. In LbD we talk of exceeding oneself and even of learning with no
upper limits. These things could be perceived by everyone who participated in
the autumn’s events. The main challenge for the future will probably be to iden-
tify and carry out increasingly challenging development projects.
Working in Optima demanded that students be independent, active and respon-
sible for their own studies and learning. It forced them to study reflectively and
212
interactively. The discussion forum was not interesting to students, because they
met reach other and their tutors regularly.
During the autumn I have understood the point of Laurea’s new curriculum, at
least on general terms. I find learning in authentic workplace projects to be
highly motivating. The responsibility that was given to students in the projects
motivated us to learn and taught us self-directedness. I have realised that not
everything can be learnt through theory. Team-working skills can only be ac-
quired by working in teams on genuine projects. I feel that the curriculum re-
sponds well to today’s workplace challenges and requirements. (Tourism stu-
dent 2006)
This autumn I have learnt, among other things, to consider things from many dif-
ferent perspectives, and to map risks. We have also gone through different ways
of coming up with new ideas. We practised acquiring information, for example in
the assignments received during globalisation lectures, where we had to find in-
formation on a subject and analyse other people’s opinions. (Managing Nutri-
tional Services student 2006.)
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Marianne Nurmi & Tea Sutinen
What do we do?
How do we learn?
In practice we are taking study units belonging to the Human Resource Manage-
ment specialisation option by analysing our partner company’s development ar-
eas in a theoretical framework we determined ourselves. On the basis of the the-
ory we have learnt and field studies we have made, we will make development
proposals to the company. This structure helps us to understand the process as a
whole and makes our theoretical studies more meaningful. Regular contact with
the partner company has also taught us interaction skills and shown us the im-
portance of networking in a whole new way.
Learning in our team takes place through identifying problems, making our own
concepts and explanations, and finding information independently. We try to
compile the information we have found into larger entities that we can then use in
planning practical applications. In other words, this is research-oriented learning
in its purest form. The role of the tutor in giving feedback and providing coaching
in our learning process has significantly improved the quality of our learning.
Because the learning model does not provide us with digested information from
teachers or textbooks, our information gathering sills have improved; in addition
to actively using Laurea’s library services, we have found information online and
also simply by asking the people who know – experts and employers from vari-
ous sectors – either face to face or by email.
214
In terms of teamwork, learning to cooperate, take initiatives and work self-
directedly helps in sharing the load and using resources equitably and in using
each person’s strengths in a meaningful way. Some things we have learnt
through mistakes, but they are probably the things we have learnt the best. As we
were the ‘guinea pigs’ of the entrepreneurship-related themes, there was no
ready-made operating model, so we have developed the process and ourselves
with the support of the tutor. It has also been important to understand that as well
as aiming for the destination, we should enjoy the journey of learning – this can
be easy to forget when unrealistic schedules are made and there is too much
stress. We would like to see a more innovative and brave approach to the practi-
cal implementations to ensure the learning outcomes are fulfilled, so that is an
area for future improvement.
In the traditional model, subject matters were often left as separate performance-
oriented tasks, with a focus on achieving a grade and gathering credits. The
added value brought by Learning by Developing to our team in comparison with
older teaching practices is indicated by the following personal experiences:
The LbD model suits me personally better than the old model because it is not
tied to a specific time and place like traditional lectures were. Freedom, responsi-
bility, creativity, research, producing new knowledge and meeting people from
outside the university have motivated me to find my own R&D objects and to de-
velop further.
215
current circumstances allow me to study full-time so for a workaholic like me this
learning model is the best thing to sink my teeth into by starting to dig up informa-
tion and refine it further. (Marianne Nurmi)
Thinking about my future working life, I feel I am better prepared thanks to the
LbD model than I would have been by just attending traditional lecture series. For
me, challenges are motivational, and I must admit that there have been a few.
The workload has been significantly greater than in the two years of traditional
study I completed before.
Working with the same team colleague has taught us a lot about our own team-
working skills, and our competence-related strengths and weaknesses. Open dia-
logue and ample feedback between the team members has allowed us to de-
velop our weaknesses and strengths. In teamwork carried out on traditional
courses, half the time was wasted on getting to know the other team members
and learning work methods, so there was never time for a conscious utilisation of
each member’s strengths.
The workload and the challenges have also brought a degree of freedom, which I
have found to be motivational for my studies. This freedom, coupled with Learn-
ing by Developing, has allowed me to distinguish myself from other Bachelor of
Business Administration students. Although the work is not over yet, I know I
have chosen the right study path. The LbD model has provided me with diverse
competence In addition to theoretical knowledge. (Tea Sutinen)
216
In the higher education arena of the Helsinki metropolitan area, Laurea plays a significant
societal role as a research-oriented developer that produces added value and competence for
its operating environment and influences its surroundings. The region contains a significant
cluster of higher education institutions, research institutions, innovative businesses and
participants in the national innovation system, making up both formal and informal innovation
networks. If higher education is to be based on the demands of the employment market and its
development, universities of applied sciences and employers must work closely together.
Laurea’s strategic choice is to integrate its three main tasks – education, research and
development, and regional development. This means making a solid connection between the
three tasks such that all students, lecturers and other staff can participate in all three at the
same time. Laurea has created the Learning by Developing (LbD) model as a tool for reaching
its strategic intent and implementing its strategies in practice. In the LbD model, the innovation
system permeates the students’ everyday lives. As an innovative model, LbD also implied a
reform of the competence-based curriculum. By increasing the flexibility of curriculum structures,
Laurea has made workplace-oriented research and development work based on its strategic
choices an essential part of the students’ studies. This improves Laurea’s ability to respond to
topical regional challenges.
This publication describes the main elements of Laurea’s competence-based core curriculum. It
provides a vision into the extensive and challenging process that led to a new competence-based
curriculum of which we can be proud. The publication’s authors are experts from Laurea.
ISSN 1458-7238
ISBN 978-951-799-128- 5
www.laurea.fi