Matrix

Basic Information:
Matrix: A set of mn numbers arranged in the form of an ordered set of m rows and n columns is
called m by n matrix.
Or, A matrix of order m  n (read m by n)is rectangular array of mn scalars
aij (i  1, 2,3....m; j  1, 2,3....n) arranged in m-rows and n-columns as follows.
Example:
 a11 a12 ... ... a1n 
a 
 21 a22 ... ... a2 n 
A   ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 am1 am 2 ... ... amn 

Square Matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is
called square matrix.
Or, A matrix is called a square matrix if the number of rows and columns are equal.
Example:
1 5 5
A  6 8 8
8 7 5

Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix A is called a diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements
are zero.
Or, A square matrix A=[aij] is called a diagonal matrix if aij=0 for ij.
Example:
1 0 0 
A  0 8 0
0 0 5
Scalar Matrix: If the non-zero terms of diagonal matrix are equal then it is called scalar matrix.
Or, A square matrix A=[aij] is called a scalar matrix if aij=k for i=j and aij=0 for ij.
Example:
5 0 0
A  0 5 0
0 0 5

Identity or Unit Matrix: A square matrix A is called identity or unit matrix if all its diagonal
elements are unity and non-diagonal elements are zero.
Or, A square matrix I=[aij] is called a diagonal matrix if aij=1 for i=j and aij=0 for ij.
Example:
 1 0 0 
A  0 1 0
0 0 1 

Null matrix: A matrix A is called null matrix if all its elements are zero.
Example:
0 0 0
A  0 0 0
0 0 0

Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A=[aij] is called upper triangular matrix if aij=0 for i>j.
Example:
1 5 5
A  0 8 8
0 0 5

Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A=[aij] is called lower triangular matrix if aij=0 for i<j.
Example:
1 0 0 
A  6 8 0
8 7 5

Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called idempotent if A2=A.

If AB=A and BA=B then A and B both are idempotent.
Example:
2 1  2 1  2 1   2 1 
A   A 2
  2 1  2 1   2 1  A
 2 1     
Periodic Matrix: A square matrix A is called periodic if Ak+1=A, where k is a positive integer.
Example:
 1 2 6
A   3 2 9  is periodic matrix of k  2
 2 0 3

Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called nilpotent if Ak=0, where k is a positive integer.
Example:
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 
A   A2       0 ;A is Nilpotent Matrix.
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 
Involutory Matrix: A square matrix A is called involutory if A2=I.
Since I2=I, so I is involutory matrix.
A square matrix A is involutory matrix if and only if (A+I)(AI)=0
  2 3  2  2 3   2 3  1 0 
Example: A    ; A   1 2  1 2  0 1   I
 1 2     

Transpose of a Matrix: If A=[aij] be a given matrix then the transpose of A is denoted by A and
defined by A=[aji].
1 7 
 1 2 5  
Example: A    ; then A  A  A   2 0 
t T

 7 0 1  5 1 

Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is called symmetric matrix if A=A.

The necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix A to be symmetric is A=A.
Example:
a h g 
A   h b f  is symmetric matrix.
 g f c 

Skew Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is called skew symmetric matrix if A=A.
The necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix A to be skew symmetric is A=A.
The diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
Example:
0 h g

A   h 0 f  is skew symmetric matrix.
  g  f 0 
Conjugate of a matrix: If A=[aij] be a given matrix then the matrix obtained by replacing all the
elements by their conjugate complex is called the conjugate of matrix A and is denoted by Ā.
Example:
 1 1  2i  1 1  2i 
A  then A   
 i i  1  i i  1

Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is called Hermitian matrix if Ā=A.

The diagonal elements of a Hermitian matrix are real.
Example:
 2 1 i  2 1 i  2 1 i
 
t
A  A   then A   A
1  i 3  1  i 3  1  i 3 
Skew Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is called skew Hermitian matrix if Ā=Aθ=A.
The diagonal elements of a skew Hermitian matrix are either zeros or purely imaginary.
Example:

0 i   0 i   0 i  0 i 
 
t
A  A   then A        A
 i i  i i   i i   i i
Singular Matrix: A square matrix A is called singular matrix if A=0.
Example:
2 2
A  is sin gular matrix
3 3

Non-singular Matrix: A square matrix A is called singular matrix if A0.

An n-square matrix A is called non-singular if its rank r  n .
Example:
3 2 
A  is non sin gular matrix
3 3 
Inverse of a Matrix: If A and B are two square matrices such that AB=BA=I, then B is called
inverse of A and we write B=A-1. And the matrix A is also inverse of B.
adj A
A 1 
A
The inverse of a matrix is unique. Every square matrix does not possess an inverse.
A matrix A has a inverse if A is square and non-singular.

Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AA  I .

Unitary Matrix: A square matrix A is called unitary if At A  I .

Example:
i 0 
A  is unitary matrix
0 i 
Adjoint Matrix: Let A be a square matrix then the adjoint of A is the transpose of the matrix
formed by the cofactors of elements of A .

Rank of a Matrix: A non-zero matrix A is said to have rank r if at least one of its r-square
minors is different from zero while every r  1 -square minor, if any is zero.
The rank in Echelon form is equal to the number of non-zero rows in that matrix.
A zero matrix is said to have rank 0.

Trace of a Matrix: The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called the trace of
that matrix.
Example:
1 5 7 
A  6 8 5  ; Trace of matrix  1  8  5  14
8 7 5 
Equivalent Matrix: Two matrices A and B are called equivalent if one can be obtained from the
other by a sequence of elementary transformation.
Example:
 1 2 1 4   1 2  1 4  1 2  1 4  1 2  1 4 

A 2 4 3 
5 ~0 0 5  3 ~ 0 0 5  3 ~ 0 0 5  3
 1  2 6  7  1  2 6  7 0 0 5  3 0 0 0 0 

Normal form of a Matrix: Any matrix A of rank r  0 can be reduced to one of the forms
 I 0 I 
Ir ,  r  , I r 0,  r 
 0 0 0
are called its normal form.

Commutative Matrix: Two square matrices A and B are called commutative if AB  BA .

Characteristic Equation of a Matrix: Let A be a square matrix, then the characteristic equation
of A is A  I  0 .
Theorem:
1. Proof that ( A  B)t  At  Bt
2. Proof that ( AB)t  Bt At
3. If A is any n  n square matrix, then show that A  At is symmetric matrix.
 
t
4. If A is any n  n square matrix, then show that A  A is Hermitian matrix.
5. Show that every square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a Hermitian and skew
Hermitian matrix. imp
6. Show that every square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and skew
symmetric matrix. imp
7. If A and B are orthogonal then show that AB is orthogonal.
8. If AB=A and BA=B then show that A and B are idempotent.

Question:
2 3 5
1. Show that the matrix A   1 4 5  is Idempotent Matrix.

 1 3 4
3 3 3 3
 5 1 1 
1 3
2. Show that the matrix A  is orthogonal Matrix.
6 3 1 1 5
 
3 1 5 1 
 1 2 2 
1
3. Show that the matrix A 
 2 1 2  is orthogonal Matrix.
3
 2 2 1
 5 8 0 
4. Show that the matrix A   3 5 0  is involutory.
 
 1 2 1
 1 2 3
5. Show that A   1 2 3  is a nilpotent matrix of order 2.
 
 1 2 3
6. Find the value of trace  Bt At  2C t 
 3 0  6 1 3
  1 4 2
Where A  1 2 , B  
   and C   1 1 2
 1 1  3 1 5   4 1 3
1 1 i 
7. Show that the matrix A    is unity
2  i 1
 2 2  3i 3  5i 

8. Proof that A  2  3i 3 i  is Hermitian.

 3  5i i 5 
 1 2 3 
9. If A   2 3 1 then find out A2  3 A  9 I 3 .
 
 3 1 2 
1 2 
10. Show that the square matrix A    can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and
3 4 
skew symmetric matrix
1 2 4 
11. Show that the square matrix A  6 8 1  can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric
 
3 5 7 
and skew symmetric matrix
1 1  a 1
12. If A    ,B    and ( A  B)  A2  B 2 .Find a and b.
 2 1  b 1
Md.Nurul Alam
Lecturer(Mathematics)
Barishal Engineering College, Barishal