Assignment #1: Mitosis and Cancer Cells

Arpita Rathod
NBCC
Biology 122
September 17,2023
Answers

1.

Stages of Cell Cycle Word description of how YOU were able to determine the phase – what
features did YOU see? NOTE: Do not define each phase!

Interphase During the interphase, I notice the nuclear membrane is well

defined, the chromatin is diffuse, there are multiple nucleoli in the
nucleus, the metabolism is active, the cytoplasm is homogeneous,
and the cell size is relatively large. All of these tell me the cell is in
a pre-division state.
Prophase In prophase I see chromatin condensate into visible chromosomes.
I see the nuclear envelope break down. I see the Mitotic Spindle
apparatus emerge. I see centrioles migrate from one side of the
cell to the other. All of these things tell me the cell is moving from
interphase into the first stage of cell division.
Metaphase At the time of metaphase, I observe that the chromosome
centromeres are aligned at the equator plane of the cell, forming a
typical metaphase plate. Mitotic spindle fibers are formed and
attached to each chromosome centromere for subsequent
division.
Anaphase In the anaphase phase, I can see the separation of twin chromatids
by pulling them towards each other. The cell elongates as
chromatids are pulled apart. Mitotic spindle fibers are shortened.
The anaphase phase is characterized by a clear separation of
genetic material.
Telophase The events I observe in telophase are the opposite of those seen in
prophase:
De-consecration of the chromosome into chromatin.
Reformation of the nucleobase around each pair of isolated
chromatids.
Cleavage furrow formation in animal cells.
This phase indicates that cell division is almost complete.

2.

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total

Number of 20 10 3 2 1 36
cells
Percentage of 55.56% 27.78% 8.33% 5.56% 2.78% 100.0%
cells
3.

25

20
Number of Cells

15

10

0
Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Stage of Cell Cycles

4.

Because of their unique characteristics that make them easier to study and observe, the
microbial onion root tip cell is an excellent candidate for the identification of different mitosis
stages.

1. Consistent cell division: As the onion root grows, the meristematic portion divides
continuously. This constant division allows for continuous cell division at various stages
of the cell cycle, such as mitosis. This allows researchers to study mitosis reliably and
easily.
2. Regular cellular arrangement: Onion root tip cell division follows a linear gradient as it
divides from the meristematic zone to the elongation and differentiation zone. This
allows for easier identification of cells in various mitotic steps as they progress down
the linear gradient.
3. Prominent and Observed Nuclei: Nuclei are the largest part of the onion root tip cell
and are large enough to be seen under a microscope. These large nuclei are important
because they allow us to see what happens inside the nucleus during mitosis, such as
the order and separation of the chromosomes. Large, well-defined nuclei provide us
with a wealth of information.
4. Thin and translucent cellular structure: Onion root tip cells have thin and translucent
cell walls. The cell walls are relatively transparent, which facilitates the passage of light
through the cell. The transparency of the cell walls facilitates the identification of the
various mitotic stages, such as the nucleus and the chromosome.
5. Consistency: Because the size and shape of the immature onion root tip cells is
relatively homogeneous, researchers can pay less attention to the appearance of the
cells and concentrate on the changes that occur during mitosis.
 6. Simplified sample preparation: The onion root tip sample is quite easy to prepare. The
thin root tip can easily be cut and prepared for Microscopy. Staining techniques can be
employed to enhance the visibility of cell structure. This simplified sample preparation
facilitates mitosis study.
7. Educational value: Using onion root tip cells in biology classes is a great way to
introduce students to the concept of mitosis. The availability of these cells and their
unique characteristics make them an ideal choice for teaching students the
fundamentals of cell division..

In conclusion, onion root tip is well suited to mitosis studies due to its constant cell division
and well ordered distribution. It also has prominent nuclei and is open, uniform, easy to
prepare samples, and practical. All of these factors combine to make onion root tips
meristemical cells a valuable tool for cell biology research and education.

5.

A
Mitosis does not change the number of chromosome in a mother cell. Each new
daughter cell created by mitosis will have 10 additional chromosomes.
Mitosis is analogous to making a copy of the original cell. If the original cell had
10, each new cell will have 10. It’s like if you have 10 candy bars and make two
copies of them, you’ll still have 10 candy bars in each copy.
Mitosis may also be a means for cells to separate while maintaining the same
chromosome number.

B.
Non-disjunction, Mitosis occurs when two sister chromatids, one from the mother
cell and one from the daughter cell, migrate to the same pole during mitosis. This
results in an uneven distribution of genetic material between the daughter cells.

For example, one daughter cell inherits an extra chromosome during mitosis,
resulting in 11 chromosomes. The other daughter cell inherits only 9
chromosomes, since it is missing the chromosome that is supposed to be there.

Mitotic errors of this kind can affect the genetic makeup of resulting cells and may
result in abnormal cell development and function.

6.

Once mitosis is complete and cytokinesis is done, the two new daughter cells look more like
cells that have just gone through interphase than like cells that are just going through
interphase. This is because mitosis is mainly about the distribution of genetic material, which
leads to the division and separation of cells during its phases. Finally, cytokinesis ends the cell
cycle by physically dividing the cells and organs to make two new daughter cells. These new
daughter cells have a full set of organs, including nuclei that have fully duplicated
chromosomes.

The cell cycle is a long, continuous process, so the daughter cells are ready to do their normal
cell functions, like growing and metabolizing, or maybe start a new cycle of division. This
continuity of the cell cycle makes the daughter cells look just like the cells that are coming out
of interphase.

7.

Mitosis is a very important process in both plant and animal cells, but there are a few key
differences between the two cell types.
Cell Wall, one of the key differences between plant and animal cells is that plant cells have a
cell wall, which plays a critical role during mitosis. Plant cells need to form a cell plate prior to
cell division, whereas animal cells do not have this requirement as they do not have a cell wall
at all. Cytokinesis, which is the process of dividing the cell into daughter cells, differs between
animal and plant. In animal cells, the cell membrane undergoes cleavage, where it pinches
inward to separate the cell. In plant cells, the cell plate forms a cell wall that eventually turns
into a cell wall and divides the cell into two cells. This is a unique feature of plant cells. Animals
and plants have different ways of organizing their spindle apparatus. Animals have centrioles,
which help organize the spindle, while plants have MTOCs, which do the same thing.
Animals have bigger vacuoles that affect how the organelle is positioned during mitosis, while
plants have smaller vacuoles or no vacuoles at all. Animals and plants both have more
noticeable changes in shape during mitosis, with animals becoming more spherical as the cell
membrane contracts at the equator, while plants keep their boxy shape. Mitosis rates can vary
between animals and plants, depending on the type of tissue and what the organism needs.
Plasminodesmata are channels that allow plant cells to communicate with each other,
something that animal cells don't have. Spindle formation is also different between animals
and plants, with some differences in the mechanisms and structures used to form spindles
and attach them to chromosomes. Basically, while the basic ideas of mitosis are the same,
there are some differences in the way each type of cell works to do its job in the body.

8.

It's important to know that herbicides like 2-4-D and 2-4-T don't helps plants divide. They're
called synthetic auxins, and they're hormones that mess with normal plant growth. Their main
purpose is to make plants grow abnormally, which can lead to death. They're called growth
regulators because they imitate the natural hormone auxin, but when they're used too much,
they mess with the hormonal balance and make plants grow in unusual and unhealthy ways.
This overgrowth, instead of encouraging healthy cell division, messes with the plant's
processes and uses up its resources, eventually leading to death.

9.

Investigating cell growth regulation is really important for cancer research because it can help
us understand, stop, and treat cancer. Here's how it can help us:
1.Discovery of anomalies: By looking at how normal cells grow, we can figure out what's wrong
with cancer cells. This usually involves finding mutations in important genes like oncogens or
suppressor genes, which can give us a better understanding of what causes cancer.
2. Tailored Therapies: By understanding the exact molecules and pathways that control cell
division, we can create drugs that target cancer cells while not affecting healthy ones. This is
especially important for drugs like Gleevec, which target specific proteins that are linked to
abnormal cell growth in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia.
3. Precision medicine: Precision medicine is becoming more and more popular in oncology
because of the role of cell growth regulation. By looking at the genetic and molecular makeup
of each tumor, doctors can tailor treatments to the unique characteristics of each person's
cancer, making them more effective and less likely to cause side effects. Knowing how cell
growth works also helps with early detection, since many cancers can be treated when they're
in the early stages. Studies on cell growth regulation help identify biomarkers and changes in
the early stages of cancer, which makes it easier to diagnose and treat. Investigating the
mechanisms behind resistance to treatments can help researchers come up with strategies to
make treatments more effective in the long run.
4. Preventive Strategies: Cancer prevention strategies are based on understanding cell growth
regulation. Knowing the risks and environmental factors that mess with normal cell growth
control can help inform public health messages and lifestyle choices that can help reduce
cancer rates.
5. Combination Therapies: Studies on cell growth regulation can help us figure out potential
drug combinations that work together. By combining different drugs with different ways of
working, we can increase the effectiveness of the treatment and reduce the risk of drug
resistance.

To sum up, cell growth regulation is important in cancer research because it helps us
understand what goes wrong with cancer and how to fix it. This helps us create better targeted
therapies, better precision medicine, better early detection techniques, and ways to fight
cancer resistance. All of these things can help us get better cancer outcomes and make life
better for our patients.

10.

If you're looking for a way to treat cancer without surgery, here are three options. We'll explain
how each one works to get rid of cancer cells.

1.Chemotherapy is a type of treatment that uses drugs to target and get rid of cancer cells
that are growing quickly. It can be given either by mouth or through an injection, and it stops
the cancer cells from multiplying. It can also affect healthy cells, but it has a bigger effect on
cancer cells because they divide so quickly. The goal of the treatment is to get rid of the cancer,
get rid of the symptoms, or get the patient ready for something else like radiation or a stem
cell transplant.
2. Radiation therapy is a type of treatment used to treat cancer. It works by damaging the DNA
inside cancer cells, which stops them from growing and reproducing. Unlike chemotherapy,
which can affect the whole body, radiation is usually limited to the area affected by the cancer.
It can be done externally, like with a machine, or internally, like with radiation therapy.
 3. Immunotherapy is a type of treatment that uses the immune system to target and get rid
of cancer cells. It works by boosting the body's natural defence against cancer and has been
proven to be successful in treating certain types of cancer, like melanoma, lung, and
lymphoma. It's also known as biologic therapy.
These treatments offer different ways to fight cancer, either by targeting the cancer cells
directly or by using the body's natural defence. In most cases, these treatments are used in
combination or with a personalized treatment plan, depending on the type and type of cancer
and the patient's needs and how they respond to treatment.

11.

Mitosis

What type of cellular reproduction is the mitosis Mitosis, also known as asexual reproduction or
process? somatic cell division, is a type of cellular reproductive
process in which a single cell divides into a pair of
daughter cells. These daughter cells are identical to
the original parent cell. Mitosis occurs in the majority
of an organism’s cells and plays an important role in
processes like tissue growth, tissue repair, and tissue
maintenance.

When does replication of DNA occur? DNA replication takes place during interphase, which
is the first step in the cell cycle. Interphase is made up
of three steps: G1, G2, and S.

During interphase, each chromosome duplicates itself

by creating a new complementary strand of DNA. This
replication plays a critical role in ensuring that each
daughter cell created during cell division, whether
mitotic or meiotic, obtains the same set of genetic
instructions. This fidelity plays an important role in
maintaining the stability of the organism’s genetic
blueprint.

After DNA replication in interphase, cells move into

the G2 stage, where they make preparations for
future cell division.
How many divisions are there? There are two main types of cell division: mitosis (one
division event) and meiosis (two divisions).
How many daughter cells are formed? Mitosis is a solitary division that results in the
formation of two daughter cells, each with the same
number of chromosomes as its parent cell.
How many chromosomes are in each daughter cell (in In human cells that undergo mitosis each daughter
human cells)? cell has the same number of diploid chromosomes as
 its parent cell. As a result, each human daughter cell
in mitosis usually has 46 diploid chromosomes, as
long as there is no genetic abnormality or mutation.
This number matches the number of diploids in
humans because humans are diploids.
what is the genetic composition (i.e., ploidy) of the two Diploid (2n) is the genetic makeup of the daughter
daughter cells? cells formed by mitosis. This means that each
daughter cell has a full set of chromosome numbers
and types identical to the parent cell. For example, in
humans, where a diploid number of 46 is common,
each daughter cell formed by mitosis also has 46
chromosomes, maintaining the genetic integrity and
consistency of the organism’s genome.
During which phase do the double stranded Metaphase is the phase during which the double
chromosomes align on the equatorial plate? stranded chromosome aligns at the equator plate
(also called metaphase plate). During the Metaphase
phase of cell division, the replicated chromosome is
arranged along the cell’s equator plane. Each
chromosome is made up of two twin chromatids
(chromatids) joined by one centromere. This exact
alignment is critical for the balanced distribution of
chromosome to daughter cells during the next stage
of cell division (Anaphase).
When do the sister chromatid separate? Sister chromatids are separated during cell division in
a process called “Anaphase”. During cell division,
whether it is mitotic or meiotic, anaphase is the stage
at which sister chromatids that were previously
connected by centromere are separated and migrate
to opposite poles of a cell. Sister chromatids must be
separated in order for each daughter cell to obtain a
complete and identical set of chromosomes during
cell division.
State the three main purposes of the mitosis process. Mitosis plays three key roles:

1.Helps with tissue growth: Mitosis increases the

number of new cells, which helps with tissue and
organ growth. As organisms grow, new cells are
produced, resulting in overall tissue growth.
2.Help with tissue repair: Mitosis helps with tissue
repair and regeneration. Mitosis replaces damaged or
damaged cells with new healthy ones, which helps
with healing and tissue function.
3.Mitosis helps with tissue maintenance: Mitosis
helps maintain the integrity and function of tissues
within an organism by replacing old or deteriorating
cells. For example, mitosis is responsible for the
 constant cell turnover in digestive tract lining, skin,
and other tissues.
Comment on the process of reproducing successive Mitosis is the process of creating new generations of
generations of daughter cells from an evolutionary daughter cells. It has important consequences, such
perspective. as:
1. Mitosis preserves genetic stability: daughter
cells inherit from the parent cell the same
genetic traits. This genetic stability is essential
for maintaining beneficial traits and
adaptations in a population over an
evolutionary period. Species that are able to
faithfully replicate their genetic information
via mitosis are far more likely to maintain their
beneficial characteristics across generations.
2. 2. Preservation of genetic information: Mitosis
facilitates the transfer of genetic material from
one generation to another with minimal
changes. This conservative nature of mitosis is
essential when stable, well-adapted
characteristics have developed. It ensures that
descendants maintain the successful genetic
makeup of their predecessors, thereby
promoting a species' survival.
3. Cellular restoration and maintenance: Mitosis
plays an essential role in the continual
regeneration and maintenance of the tissues
and organs of multi-cellular organisms. Mitosis
plays a role in the long-term health and
longevity of organisms, which can affect their
reproductive performance and the transfer of
genetic material into future generations.
4. Mitosis facilitates tissue growth: As an
organism grows, its tissues and organs
enlarge. The growth of these tissues and
organs is necessary for the growth and
development of a body that is suitable for
reproduction and survival. Larger organisms
may have advantages in obtaining resources,
mating, and general fitness.
5. Redundancy and error correction: Mitosis
includes mechanisms for correcting errors
during the replication and division of DNA.
This redundancy helps prevent the
accumulation of harmful mutations in
daughter cells, and over time, contributes to
the genetic health and stability of the
population.
 6. Adaptive responses to environmental
conditions: Mitosis allows organisms to create
new cells that can respond to environmental
conditions and stressors. This flexibility can
help species survive and reproduce in dynamic
and changing environments.
To sum up, mitosis is a fundamental process that
promotes the development, correction, and
preservation of organisms while also playing an
important role in the transfer of genetic information
between generations. Mitosis’ emphasis on genetic
integrity, correction, and flexibility contributes to the
evolution and survival of species.
 References

1. NBCC. (2018). Module 1: Genetic Continuity (Weeks #2-5), Mitosis (week #2).
Accessed on May 21-28, 2023 from Mitosis (week #2) - Biology 122 (1234-1024)
(nbcc.ca)
2. http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/activities/cell_cycle/cell_cycle.html
3. https://byjus.com/biology/study-of-mitosis-in-onion-root-tip-cells/
4. Hyams JS & Brinkely BR (eds) (1989) Mitosis: Molecules and Mechanisms. San Diego:
Academic Press
5. https://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/151/151F14_mitosis2.pdf