Current Electricity Notes

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Introduction of Current
Part - 01
Electric Current
In previous chapters we have dealt largely with electrostatics that is, charges at rest. In this chapter we will focus on
electric currents, that is, charges in motion.
Electric Current
• Rate of flow of charge through cross-section of a conductor is called electric current.
• If moving charges are negative, the current is opposite to the direction of motion of negative charges.
• If the moving charges are positive, the current is in the direction of motion of positive charge.
  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [1]

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

vh
• If a charge Q crosses an area in time ∆𝑡 then the average electric current through the area, during this time is
∆𝑄 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑛𝑒 𝐶

𝑖𝑎𝑣 = = = = = 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡 𝑠
Classification of Current
On the basis of source
Direct current Alternating current

Source: (Battery) Source:(generator)
i i
t t
In this chapter we will deal with direct current.
On the basis of nature
Average electric current Instantaneous current

If ∆𝑞 charge flows for The value of current
∆𝑡 time interval. at particular instant
∆𝑞 ∆𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝑖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖 = lim ൬ ൰ =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Some important points about current

(1) Current is a fundamental quantity with dimensions [M0L0T0A1]
(2) Current is a scalar quantity with its SI unit being ampere and it does not follow vector law of addition.
2𝐴 5𝐴
5𝐴
8𝐴
3𝐴 3𝐴
(3) Direction of current is in the direction of flow of positive charge or we can say opposite to the direction of flow
negative charge.
(4) Slope of q – t graph gives us current.
(5) Area under i-t curve gives us total charge flown.
Ampere : The current through any conductor is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of charge is flowing per
second through any cross-section of the wire.
Illustration 1.
Current I = (2 + 4 t) A where t is in seconds, is flowing through a wire for 2 seconds. Find out amount of
charge flown through the wire .
Solution.
𝑡
𝑞 = ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝑡
2
𝑞 = ∫0 (2 + 4𝑡)𝑑𝑡
q = 12C
Alternate method
At t = 0, I = 2A and at t = 2, I = 10A
1
Area under i-t curve = total charge = (2 + 10) × 2 = 12𝐶
2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 2.
20 A current flows through a cross-section of 20cm2 for 20 msec. Find out number of free e– crossed
through that area?
Solution.
𝑄 𝑛𝑒
𝑖= =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑖×𝑡 20×20×10−3
𝑛= = = 2.5 × 1018 electrons.
𝑒 1.6×10−19
Illustration 3.
In a discharge tube 3×1018 electrons/sec are moving from right to left and 2×10 18 (+ve) ions per second
are moving from left to right. Then find current through the discharge tube.
Solution.
As current due to both type of charges will be in same direction
(𝑁𝑒 𝑞𝑒 ) + (𝑁⊕ 𝑞⊕ )
𝑖=
𝑡
3 × 1018 (𝑒) + 2 × 1018 × (𝑒)

𝑖=
1
𝑖 = 3 × 1018 𝑒 + 2 × 1018 𝑒
𝑖 = 5 × 1018 × 𝑒
𝑖 = 5 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10–19
𝑖 = 0.8𝐴
Illustration 4.
An e– revolving on a circular track of radius 1.6 cm with a constant speed of 3.14 × 10 6 m/s. Find out the
current flowing in the circle.
Solution.
2𝜋𝑟
T = time period =
𝑉
𝑒 𝑒 𝑉
𝑖= = =𝑒
𝑇 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝑉
(3.14 × 106 )
𝑖 = 1.6 × 10−19
2 × 3.14 × 1.6 × 10−2
𝑖 = 5 × 10−12 𝐴

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 5.
Graph of a current carrying wire versus time is given, find out the amount of charge flowing through the
wire in the time interval t = 2s to t = 12 s.
Solution.
t
Q = ∫t 2 i dt = Area under i-t graph
1
i(A)
10
1
(5 + 10) (4)=30
5 A1
2
A2
q = A1 + A2 = 30+30=60C
6×5=30
2 8 12 t(sec)
Flow of Electric charge in a Metallic Conductor
Classification of Materials according to Conductivity

(i) Conductors
In some materials, the outer electrons of each atoms or molecules are loosely bound to it. These electrons are
almost free to move throughout the body of the material and are called free electrons. They are also known as
conduction electrons. When such a material is placed in an electric field, the free electrons move in a direction
opposite to the field. Such materials are called conductors.
(ii) Insulators
Materials of another class are called insulators in which all the electrons are tightly bound to their respective
atoms or molecules. Effectively, there are no free electrons. When such a material is placed in an electric field,
the electrons may slightly shift opposite to the field but they cannot leave their parent atoms or molecules and
hence cannot move through long distances. Such materials are also called dielectrics.
(iii) Semiconductors
Semiconductors behave like insulators at low temperatures. But at higher temperatures, a small number of
electrons are able to free themselves and they respond to the applied electric field. As the number of free
electrons in a semiconductor is much smaller than that in a conductor, its response is intermediator to a
conductor and an insulator and hence, it is named as semiconductor. A free electron in a semiconductor leaves
a vacancy in its normal bound position. These vacancies also help in conduction and are called holes.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Assumptions about conductor

It is to be noted that we have to assume a conductor always of cylinder(solid) shape, and every conductor is
associated with numerous free e–, so we have to assume a term free e– density for every conductor.
radius = r & cross-sectional Area = r2
number of free 𝑒 − number

𝑛= =
volume of conductor m3
Where ‘n’ =free e– density or free charge density
• This free e– density is independent of shape and size of conductor and it depends on nature of material.
• Free e– density in conductor is 1028 to 1029 free electrons per unit volume
Illustration 1.
A conducting wire having material density 20g/cc and atomic mass number 200. Calculate the number
of free e– per unit volume (each atom of conductor gives 1e–).
Solution.
Let, V = volume, m = mass,  = density
m
n= n = no. of moles , M = molar mass
M
Number of atoms = nNA

𝑚 𝑚
Number of atoms = × 𝑁𝐴 = × 𝑁𝐴
𝑀 200×10−3
 200 g material having number of atom = NA

free 𝑒 − number of atoms
As each atom gives one electron =
volume volume
𝑚×𝑁𝐴 1 𝜌×𝑁𝐴  m
 × =  =
200×10−3 𝑉 200×10−3
 v 
20×10−3 6.023×1023
= (10−2 )3
×
200×10−3
= 6.023 × 1028
Discussion on conductor at room temperature: (without potential diff.)
At room temperature motion of the free e– in metal can be compared with random motion of gaseous molecule
in a container.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Thermal velocity (Vth)
It is the velocity of free e– inside the conductor due to the surrounding temperature (room temperature).
3𝐾𝑇 3×1.38×10−23 ×300 𝑘𝑚

𝑉𝑡ℎ = √ =√ ≈ 105 𝑚/𝑠 or 100 [K = Boltzmann’s constant , Me = Mass of e–]
𝑀𝑒 9.1×10−31 𝑠
Due to random motion net velocity of all the free e– is zero, so no current flows through the conductor at room
temperature.
⃗ 𝑡ℎ = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗1 + 𝑉
⃗2 + 𝑉 ⃗.
⃗3 + ⋯ = 0
Crux Pan
• If n particles, each having a charge q, pass per second per unit area then current associated with
q
cross–sectional area A is  = = nqA .
t
• If there are n particles per unit volume each having a charge q and moving with velocity v then current through
q
cross–sectional area A is  = = nqvA .
t
• If a charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed v then its time period is T = 2r/v. The equivalent current
q qv
= = .
T 2r

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Current Density, Drift Velocity and Relaxation Time

Part - 02
Mean Free Path (𝜆)

The distance travelled by free electron between two successive collision is called free path. The average of all
these free paths is called mean free path.
5
N
2
Order of  = 10Å
1
4
3
The average time taken by an electron between two successive collisions is the relaxation time ().
Behavior of conductor on applying potential difference across it at room temperature

➢ Before application of electric field between ends of conductor
Path is straight line between two successive collisions

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
➢ After application of electric field between ends of conductor
Path is curved between two successive collisions
Relaxation time and their relation with electric current
Mean Relaxation Time (𝝉)
The time taken by free electrons between two successive collision is called relaxation time (t) and average of all
these times is called mean relaxation time.
𝜏1 +𝜏2 +𝜏3 +⋯…𝜏𝑁
𝜏= (Order of  = 10–14 sec.)
𝑁
Relation between relaxation time and current
I = neAvd
eE
Vd =
m
eE
I = neA
m
ne 2 AE
 I=
m
Note: On increasing temperature of conductor, frequency of collision increases and hence average relaxation time
decreases.
temperature ↑ , 𝜏 ↓
𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑉𝑑 = , 𝑉𝑑 ↓
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎= , 𝜎 ↓, 𝜌 ↑
𝑚
𝑒𝜏
m= ,𝜇↓
𝑚

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Drift Velocity and Mobility
Drift Velocity
• Due to application of potential difference/Voltage across conductor an electric field is produced inside the
conductor.
• Due to electric field, free electron experience force opposite to the direction electric field.
• Due to this force these electrons start drifting in the opposite direction of electric field and during motion they
face many collision with heavy positive ions in their path.
• So the velocity with which e– effectively displaced is called drift velocity.
Let us imagine at any time (t = 0), any electron moving with initial velocity Vth, now due to external electric field (E)
it experiences force opposite to direction of electric field (E)
Fe = eE …..(1)
eE
ae = …..(2)
m
Now after time t1 (say) it will be having velocity V1
eE
V1 = Vth + t1
m
Averaging over N electrons
eE
 V  =  Vth  + t1
m
eE eE
Vd = 0 + or Vd =
m m
Note: This drift velocity is very low of order 10–4 m/s but electrical appliances immediately starts working just after switch
is on because electric field propagates with the speed of light in circuit and instantly exert the fore on free electron at their
own location.
Important points about current carrying conductor

• All free e– moves with Vd (drift velocity).
• There is no accumulation of charge in current carrying conductor. This implies charges entering at one end of
conductor is equal to the charges leaving from the other end.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
• Current carrying conductor is electrically neutral.

E=0
+ –
𝐸ሬԦ
E=0
+ –
Relation between drift velocity and current
dx
+ –
r
vd ሬԦ
𝑬
Radius r and area of Cross section A
+ – l
Let ‘n’ represents number of free electron per unit volume or free electron density.
𝑑𝑥 𝑁
𝑉𝑑 = (𝑛 = = free electrons density)
𝑑𝑡 𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑛𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑒𝑑𝑁 = 𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑞 𝑒𝑛𝐴𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑖= = = 𝑒𝑛𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
Different formulas of current
(1) If 1 atom releases only 1 e–
No. of atom (N) = No. of free e–

m
No. of atoms (N) = no. of moles × NA = × NA
Mw
m
N= × NA
Mw
Free electron density (n)

N m NA ρNA
n= = ρ=
V Mw m Mw
Where  = density of material, Mw = Molecular weight

i = nAeVd
ρNA
i= eAVd
Mw

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
𝑁 𝑁
(2) 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑 = 𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑 = 𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
𝑉 𝐴×ℓ
𝑁𝑒𝑉𝑑 𝑚𝑒 𝑒
𝑖= × = (𝑁 × 𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑑 )
ℓ 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒 ℓ
(N×𝑚𝑒 Vd) = Net linear momentum of all free electrons

𝑝𝑒 𝑒
𝑖= where me = mass of e– ; ℓ = length of wire
𝑚𝑒 ℓ
Current density ( J )
• It is defined as current flowing per unit cross-sectional area of conductor.
• It gives us information about magnitude & direction of current passing through an area.
• Current density is a vector quantity having direction of electric field or direction of current flow.
𝐼
from definition of current density ( 𝐽) =
𝐴
• Remember that surface area is normal to the direction of charge flow (or current passing) through that point.
𝐼
Current density (J)=
𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐼=(𝐽)𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ሬԦ 𝐴Ԧ
𝐼 = 𝐽.
𝜃 is angle between area vector and direction of current flow.
For non-uniform distribution of current
If dI is current flowing through small elementary area then

𝑑𝐼
current density ( 𝐽) =
𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
or 𝑑𝐼=𝐽 (𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
or 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐽 (𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 1.
For conductor of non-uniform cross-sectional area, compare current density at section 1, 2 and 3.
Solution.
Current through each area of cross section is same.
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐽1 = ; 𝐽2 = ; 𝐽3 =
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝐴3 < 𝐴2 < 𝐴1 ⟹ 𝐽1 < 𝐽2 < 𝐽3
Relation between current density & electric field

𝑖 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
From 𝐽 = = = 𝑛𝑒𝑉𝑑
𝐴 𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑉𝑑
𝑒𝐸𝜏
Also 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑚
𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑛𝑒 2 𝐸𝜏
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒 =
𝑚 𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝐸𝜏
𝐽=
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐽=( )𝐸
𝑚
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
(𝜎 = is conductivity of conductor)
𝑚
• σ is constant for any conductor, is independent of shape, size, volume of conductor.

• In vector form 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸ሬԦ , this relation is known as microscopic Ohm's law.
• Conductivity is degree to which a material conducts electricity.
1 𝑚
Also 𝜌= = (ρ is resistivity of a material)
𝜎 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎 & 𝜌 are independent of conductors’ shape and size but depends on nature of material and temperature.
Illustration 2.
A current 𝑰 flows through a uniform wire of diameter d then the electrons drift velocity is v. The same
current will flow through a wire of diameter d/2 made of the same material, the drift velocity of the
electrons in second wire is
Solution.
𝐼
𝑗= = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐴
4𝐼
= 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑1 … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝜋𝑑 2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
16𝐼
= 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑2 … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝜋𝑑 2
From equation (i) and (ii)

4𝐼 𝑣𝑑1
=  𝑣𝑑2 = 4𝑣𝑑1
16𝐼 𝑣𝑑2
Illustration 3.
Figure shown above is representing a current carrying wire with having non-uniform cross sectional area
find out the relation between physical quantities on their two ends.
Solution.
(i) Electric current is the rate flow of electric charge and that is completely independent from the cross
section of given figure. Hence i1 = i2 = i
𝑖 1
(ii) 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝑣𝑑 , 𝑣𝑑 = , 𝑣𝑑 ∝
𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝐴
A1 > A2 𝑣𝑑1 < 𝑣𝑑2
(iii) 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 , 𝐽 ∝ 𝑣𝑑 𝐽1 < 𝐽2
(iv) 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 , 𝐽 ∝ 𝐸 𝐸1 < 𝐸2
Illustration 4.
The current density across a cylindrical conductor of radius R varies in magnitude according to the
𝒓
equation 𝑱 = 𝑱𝟎 (𝟏 − ) where r is the distance from the central axis. Thus, the current density is maximum
𝑹
J0 at the axis (r = 0) and decreases linearly to zero at the surface (r = R). The current in terms of J 0 and
conductor’s cross-sectional area A is.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Solution.
Here we consider elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr
Area of elementary ring
𝑑𝐴 = (2𝜋𝑟)𝑑𝑟
From 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐽Ԧ . ሬሬሬሬሬԦ
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐽𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑅 𝑟
𝐼 = ∫0 𝐽0 (1 − ) (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)
𝑅
𝑅 𝑟
𝐼 = ∫0 𝐽0 (1 − ) (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)
𝑅
𝑅
𝑅 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐽0 ∫0 (𝑟 − ) 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝐽0 [ − ] = 2𝜋𝐽0 [ − ] = 2𝜋𝐽0 [ − ]
𝑅 2 3𝑅 0 2 3𝑅 2 3
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐽0 [ ] 𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐽0 [ ]
6 6
As 𝐴=𝜋𝑅2
𝐽0 𝐴
𝐼=
3
Mobility (𝝁)
Ease of movement of charge carriers within a conductor known as mobility of charge carriers.
➢ It is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field

𝑉𝑑 1 𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑒𝜏
𝜇= = m=
𝐸 𝐸 𝑚 𝑚
➢ µ is constant for a given material (If temperature is constant)
1
➢ Electrons have more mobility than proton (µ ∝ )
mass
Illustration 5.
The number of free e– per 10 mm of an ordinary copper wire is 2 × 10 21. The avg. drift speed of e– is
0.25 mm/sec. Calculate the current flow in the wire.
Solution.
N = Total no of free e–
i = neAVd
 N 
 i=  eAVd
A 

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh

N
𝑖 = ( ) 𝑒𝑉𝑑
ℓ
2×1021
 𝑖=(
10
) × 1.6 × 10–19 (0.25) = 8A
Illustration 6.
Two wires each of radius of cross-section r but of different materials are connected together end to end
(in series). If the densities of charge carriers in the two wires are in the ratio 1 : 4, the drift velocity of
electrons in the two wires will be in the ratio :
Solution.
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
1
𝑣𝑑 ∝
𝑛
𝑣𝑑1 𝑛2 4𝑛1
= = = 4:1
𝑣𝑑2 𝑛1 𝑛1

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
Thermal speed Mean free path Relaxation time Drift speed

Terms
VT   Vd
Order of
105 m/s 10 Å 10-14 S 10-4 m/s
magnitude
• If the temperature of a conductor increases, the amplitude of vibrations of positive ions in the conductor also
increase. Consequently, the free electrons collide more frequently with the vibrating ions and as a result, the
average relaxation time decreases.
• Mean free path of conduction electrons = Drift velocity × Relaxation time.
• The conductor remains uncharged when current flows through it because the charge entering at one end per
second is equal to charge leaving the other end per second.
• Order of free e– density in conductors = 1028 electrons/m3, while in semiconductors = 1016 electrons/m3
V
• Electric field outside a current carrying conductor is zero but inside a conductor it is .
System Current carriers
A bar made of silver or any metal Free electrons

Hydrogen discharge tube Electrons and (+ve) Ions
Voltaic cell H+ and SO4–2 (Ions)
Lead Accumulator H+, SO4–2 Ions
Semiconductor Electrons and holes
Super conductor Electrons
• For a given conductor current does not change with change in its cross–section because current is simply the
rate of flow of charge. If a steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non-uniform cross-section :
(i) I is same along the wire.
(ii) Current density, electric field strength, drift velocity are inversely proportional to area.
Here I1 = I2 but A1 < A2 so J1 > J2 , E1 > E2 , vd1  vd2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Ohm’s law and V-I characteristics

Part - 03
Ohm’s Law
If physical quantities like temperature, pressure, volume, length, cross-section or nature of the material kept
constant then current through a conductor is directly proportional to potential difference applied across it. This
is called Ohm’s law.
V∝I [Ohm’s law]
V
= constant = R (Resistance)
I
I∝V V∝I
I = GV V = IR
G is constant called conductance of conductor R is called resistance of conductor
S.I. unit of G ⟹ mho (Ω )/Siemens −1
S.I. unit of R ⟹ ohm(Ω)
Slope = = tan  = G Slope = = tan  = R
Illustration 1.
R1
In the shown I-V curve will be?
R2
Solution.
Slope of given graph gives conductance (G)
1 1
tan 60° = G1 = √3 = , R1 =
R1 √3
1 1
tan 30° = G2 = = , R2 = 3
3 R2
R1 1⁄√3 1
= =
R2 √3 3

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Proof of Ohm’s Law

From microscopic form of Ohm’s law
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝐼 𝑉
=𝜎 ( )
𝐴 ℓ
𝑉 1 ℓ
=( )×
𝐼 𝜎 𝐴
𝑉 ℓ 1 𝑚
=𝜌× [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 = = 2 ]
𝐼 𝐴 𝜎 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
𝑉
= 𝑅 Ohm's law
𝐼
ρℓ
where 𝑅 = = Resistance
A
Where ℓ is length of the conductor & A is area of cross-sectional, ρ is called resistivity or specific resistance.
S.I. unit of ρ is ohm-m(Wm)
Illustration 2.
The voltage-current graphs for two resistors of the same material and the same radius with lengths,
L1 and L2 are shown in figure. If L1 > L2 , state with reason which of these graphs represents voltage
current change for L1.
V B
A
V
I
IB IA
Solution.
As RA = V/IA and RB = V/IB ,
IA R B
=
IB R A
From figure, as IA > IB , RB > RA , Since, R  L , graph B represents the voltage current change for L1 .
Illustration 3.
In the shown V-I curve will be?
(1) R3>R2>R1 (2) R1>R2>R3 (3) R2>R3>R1 (4) R1>R3>R2

Solution.
(2)
Slope of given graph gives resistance (R)
R1>R2>R3

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
V – I Characteristics (Linear and Non-linear)
(A) Linear V-I characteristics
At constant temperature, current is directly proportional to the applied potential difference. This law is called
ohm's law and substances which obey it are called ohmic or linear conductors.
(B) Non- Linear V-I characteristics

The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. In other words, if I is the current for a certain V, then
reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude fixed, does not produce a current of the same magnitude as I
in the opposite direction (Figure 1).
Negative
I(mA) Non-linear resistance
1.5 region region
Current I (mA)
-2 0.2 V
I(A)
Voltage V(V)
Figure 1 : Characteristic curve of Figure 2 : Variation of
a diode, Note the different scales current versus voltage for
for negative and positive values GaAs
of the voltage and current
The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for the same current I
(Figure 2). A material exhibiting such a behaviour is GaAs.
Illustration 4.
The I-V characteristics of a resistor is observed to deviate from a straight line for higher value of current
as shown in figure Why?
Solution.
For higher value of current, the resistor gets heated and consequently its resistance increases. The resistor
becomes non-ohmic due to which the I-V characteristic deviates from straight line thereby showing lesser
current for the same voltage.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
• Ohm's law is not a fundamental law of nature. As it is possible that for an element :-
(i) V depends on I nonlinearly (e.g. vacuum tubes)
(ii) Relation between V and I depends on the sign of V for the same value [ forward and reverse bias in diode ]
(ii) The relation between V and I is not unique. That is for the same value of I there is more than one value of V.
• Thus, Ohm’s law is not followed in the following cases :
Materials :
(i) Vacuum tubes; (ii) crystal rectifiers; (iii) transistors;
(iv) thermistors, thyristors; (v) superconductors,
Conditions:
(i) At very high temperatures
(ii) At very low temperatures (Superconductivity)
(iii) At very high potential differences
• At different temperatures V–I curves are different.

Here tan 1 > tan 2 So R 1 > R2 i.e. T1 > T2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Electrical Resistance, Resistivity and Conductivity

Part - 04
Electrical Resistance
The resistance of a conductor is the opposition to the flow of charge which the conductor offers. When a
potential difference is applied across a conductor, free electrons get accelerated and collide with positive ions
and their motion is thus opposed. This opposition offered by the ions is called the resistance of the conductor.
Unit : ohm, volt/ampere,
Dimensions = [M L2 T–3 A–2]
Resistance depends on :
• Length of the conductor R 

1
• Area of cross-section of the conductor R 
A

• Nature of material of the conductor R =
A
• Temperature
Resistance of conductor also depends on direction of flow of current.
𝜌ℓ
𝑅=
𝐴
Where ℓ is the length of conductor along which current is flowing.
And A is area of cross-sectional of conductor perpendicular to the direction of current flow.
Illustration 1.
Find R12, R34, R56 on the basis direction of current flow through different paths.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Solution.
ρ(3a) 3ρ
R12 = =
2a2 2a
ρ(𝑎) ρ
R34 = =
6𝑎2 6𝑎
ρ(2𝑎) 2ρ
R56 = =
3𝑎2 3𝑎
R12 > R56 > R34
Illustration 2.
Find out the resistance of the current flowing through hollow cylindrical conductor.
Solution.
Electric current is flowing along the length of conductor through area of cross section
𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )
If ℓ is length of conductor along current flow
𝜌𝑙
From 𝑅 =
𝐴
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝜋(𝑟22 −𝑟12 )

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Note : Similarly we need to remember some standard value of resistances of standard conductors.
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝜋𝑟1 𝑟2
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE
Before stretching V1 = A1 l1 After stretching V2 = A2 l2
Volume of wire remains same in stretching
A1 l1 = A2 l2
𝜌ℓ1
Initial resistance of wire : 𝑅1 =
𝐴1
𝜌ℓ2
Final resistance of wire : 𝑅2 =
𝐴2
𝑅1 𝜌ℓ1 𝐴2 ℓ1 𝐴2 ℓ12
= × = × =
𝑅2 𝐴1 𝜌ℓ2 ℓ2 𝐴1 ℓ22
𝑅 ∝ ℓ2
If ℓ2 = 𝑛ℓ1
𝑅2 𝑙 2 𝑛ℓ1 2
= ( 2) = ( ) = 𝑛2 𝑅2 = 𝑛2 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝑙1
Also
𝑅2 𝑙2 2 𝐴1 2 𝑟1 4
=( ) =( ) =( )
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝐴2 𝑟2
1 1 1
R ∝ ∝ ∝
A2 r4 D4

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 3.
Three copper wires have their lengths in the ratio 5 : 3 : 1 and their masses are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5. Their
electrical resistance will be in the ratio
(1) 5 : 3 : 1 (2) 1 : 3 : 5 (3) 125 : 15 : 1 (4) 1 : 15 : 125
Solution.
(3)
l1 : l2 : l3 :: 5 : 3 : 1 And m1 : m2 : m3 :: 1 : 3 : 5
ρℓ ρℓ ρℓ2
𝑅= = ℓ =
A V m
ℓ2
R ∝ [density = Constant]
m
25 9 1
R1 : R 2 : R 3 = : : = 125 : 15 : 1
1 3 5
Note :
(1) On stretching: ℓ↑, A↓, R
(2) If percentage change in length is less than 5% than percentage fractional change in resistance of wire will be
∆𝑅 ∆ℓ ∆ℓ
× 100% = 2 ( ) × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 ℓ ℓ
(3) Similarly for area

∆𝑅 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
× 100% = −2 ( ) × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝐴 𝐴
(4) Similarly for radius
∆𝑅 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
× 100% = −4 ( ) × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟
(5) If percentage increase in dimensions is greater than 5% than percentage fractional change in resistance will be
∆𝑅 𝑅𝑓 − 𝑅𝑖
× 100% = × 100%
𝑅 𝑅𝑖
Illustration 4.
A wire is stretched by 30% of its original. Find % increase in resistance.
Solution.
Let original length be l, Final length will be 1.3l
As we know 𝑅 ∝ ℓ2
𝑅2 𝑙2 2 1.3𝑙 2
=( ) =( ) = 1.69
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝑙
𝑅2 = 1.69 𝑅1
∆𝑅 1.69 𝑅1 − 𝑅1
× 100% = × 100% = 69%
𝑅 𝑅1

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 5.
A wire is stretched so that its radius is decreased by 3%. Find % change in its resistance.
Solution.
We know that here radius is decreased by 3% then % change in resistance is given by the formula.
∆𝑅 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
× 100% = −4 ( ) × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟
∆𝑅
× 100% = [−4(−3)×100]%=+12%
𝑅
Electric Resistivity and Conductivity
Resistivity :
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a material is equal to the 1m
resistance of a wire of that material with unit cross sectional area
and unit length. 1m
R=
 = RA/ if = 1 units, A = 1 units then  = R units 1m
From Ohm’s law
𝑉 𝐸ℓ 𝐸ℓ 𝑚𝑒 ℓ
𝑅= = = = 2
𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑 𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝜏
𝑛𝑒𝐴 ( )
𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑒 ℓ
𝑅= ( 2
)×
𝑛𝑒 𝜏 𝐴
𝜌ℓ
𝑅=
𝐴
𝑚𝑒
Where 𝜌 = ( ) , Resistivity
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
S.I. unit of resistivity is = Ωm.
1
Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity  =

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Where 𝜎 = is Conductivity of a material
𝑚
Conductivity is degree to which a material conducts electricity.
Resistivity () and conductivity () depends on :

(i) Nature of material
(ii) Temperature of material
Resistivity and conductivity does not depend on the size and shape of the material because it is a characteristic
property of the conducting material.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
• If a wire is stretched to n times of its original length, its new resistance will be n 2 times.
1
• If a wire is stretched such that its radius is reduced to th of its original value, then its new resistance will
n
increase to n4 times; similarly resistance will decrease to n4 times if radius is increased to n times by contraction.
• If x % change is brought in length of a wire, its resistance will change by 2x %. (if change is very small)
• alloy > semiconductor > conductor
• Temperature coefficients of alloys are lower than pure metals.
• Resistance of most of non-metals decrease with increase in temperature. (e.g. carbon)
• The resistivity of an insulator (e.g. amber) is greater than a metal by a factor of 10 22.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Carbon resistors and Color code for Carbon resistors

Part - 05
Carbon Resistors, Color Code for Carbon Resistors
Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon resistors are compact, inexpensive and thus
find extensive uses in electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their values are given using
color code.
TABLE : RESISTOR COLOR CODES
Color Number Multiplier Tolerance (%)
Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 5
Silver 10
No colour 20
Here is a mnemonic to memorise the names of colours in sequence.

BBROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife.
The resistors have a set of co-axial coloured rings on them whose significance are listed in Table. The first two
bands from the right end indicate the first two significant figures of the resistance in ohms. The third band
indicates the decimal multiplier (as listed in Table). The last band stands for tolerance or possible variation in
percentage about the indicated values. Sometimes, this last band is absent and that indicates a tolerance of
20%.
For example, if the four colours are orange, blue, yellow and gold, the resistance value is 36 × 10 4 , with
a tolerance value of 5%.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 1.
A carbon resistance has following colour code the value of resistance is -
Violet
Yellow Brown Gold
Solution.
Violet
Yellow Brown Gold
4 7 101 ±5%
Colour coded resistance R = 47 × 10  ± 5 %
1

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Temperature Dependence of Resistance

Part - 06
Temperature dependence of resistivity and resistance
The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature over a limited range of temperatures
(not too large). The resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately given by
T = 0 [1 + (T − T0 )]
Where T is the resistivity at a temperature T and 0 is the resistivity at a reference temperature T0. Here,  is
called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
For conductors
Resistance / resistivity
For alloys such as

manganin, constantan,
nichrome, eureka
For semiconductors,
carbon and insulators,
and also electrolytes
Temperature
1
Unit of  is
C
Resistance corresponding to temperature difference (T) is given as
RT = R0 (1 + T)
Where, RT = Resistance at T° C,
R0 = Resistance at 0° C
T = Change in temperature,
 = Temperature coefficient of resistance
For metals :  is positive

For semiconductors and insulators :  is negative
• Resistance of the conductor decreases linearly with decrease in temperature and becomes zero at a specific
temperature. This temperature is called critical temperature. Below this temperature a conductor becomes a
superconductor.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 1.
The temperature coefficient of resistance for a wire is 0.00125/°C. At 300K its resistance is 1 ohm. The
temperature at which the resistance becomes 2 ohm is
(1) 1154 K (2) 1100 K (3) 1400 K (4) 1127 K
Solution.
(4)
R = R0 (1+t)
t = 300 – 273 = 27°C
R 1 (1 + t1 )
=
R 2 (1 + t 2 )
1 (1 + 0.00125  27)
=
2 (1 + 0.00125  t)
t = 854C  T = 1127K
Illustration 2.
If the resistance of a conductor is 5 at 50oC and 7 at 100oC then the mean temperature coefficient of
resistance of the material is
(1) 0.008/oC (2) 0.006/oC (3) 0.004/oC (4) 0.001/oC
Solution.
(1)
Using R = R 0 [1 + (T2 − T1 )]
 R100 = R 50 [1 + (100 − 50)]
 7 = 5[1 + (  50)]
(7 − 5)
 = = 0.008 / o C
250
Crux Pan
• Temperature coefficient () of semiconductor including carbon (graphite), insulator and electrolytes is negative.
• The heating element devices like heater, geyser, electric iron (usually known as press) etc are made of nichrome
because it has high resistivity and high melting point. It does not react with air and acquires steady state when
red hot at 800°C.
• Fuse wire is made of tin lead alloy because it has low melting point and high resistivity. The fuse is used in
series, and melts to result in an open circuit when current exceeds the safety limit.
• Resistances of resistance box are made of manganin or constantan because they have moderate resistivity
and very small temperature coefficient of resistance. The resistivity is nearly independent of temperature.
• The filament of bulb is made up of tungsten because it has low resistivity, high melting point of 3300 K and
emits light at 2400 K. The bulb is filled with inert gas because at high temperatures tungsten reacts with air
forming oxide.
• The connection wires are made of copper because it has low resistivity.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Series Combinations of Resistors

Part - 07
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Series Combination
Let’s see circuit diagram and formulas used in series combination
1. In series, I → same
If V is P.D. of source and V1 ,V2 and V3 is potential drop across each resister then
V = V1 + V2 + V3
IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
2. Voltage divider rule

Since I is same; V ∝ R (As V = IR)
𝑉1 : 𝑉2 : 𝑉3 ⟹ 𝑅1 : 𝑅2 : 𝑅3
In series combination voltage drop across resistors is in the ratio of resistance.
Also 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 and 𝐼 = 𝑉battery /𝑅𝑒𝑞

𝑅1
𝑉1 = × 𝑉battery
𝑅𝑒𝑞

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
3. For n identical resistances in series:
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑅
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑛 =
𝑛
4. 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 > (𝐑 𝐦𝐚𝐱 )𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Illustration 1.
In given network find out equivalent resistance of network. Also find P.D. across each resistor.
Solution.
All resistances are in series so we use
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Req = 5 + 2 + 3 = 10
Current supplying by source will be
30
𝐼 = 𝑉battery /𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝐼 = = 3𝐴
10
V1 = 3×5 = 15 Volt
V2 = 3×2 = 6 Volt
V3 = 3 × 3 = 9 volt
Illustration 2.
Two wires of equal diameters, of resistivities 1 and 2 and lengths l1 and l2, respectively, are joined in
series. The equivalent resistivity of the combination is
 1 l1 +  2 l 2  1 l 2 +  2 l1  1 l 2 +  2 l1  1 l1 −  2 l 2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
l1 + l 2 l1 − l 2 l1 + l 2 l1 − l 2
Solution.
(1)
1l1  2l2
R1 = and R2 = .
A A
In series Req = R1 + R2
 eq . (l1 + l 2 )  1 l1  2 l2
= +
A A A
 1 l1 +  2 l 2
  eq =
l1 + l 2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
• If n resistance (each R) are connected in series their effective resistance will be nR.
• When resistors are connected in series in a battery circuit then the ratio of potential differences across the
resistors is equal to ratio of their respective resistances.
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
V
V1 : V 2 : V 3 = R1 : R 2 : R3
R1 R2 R3
V1 = V ; V2 = V; V3 = V
R1 + R 2 + R 3 R1 + R 2 + R 3 R1 + R 2 + R 3

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Parallel Combinations of Resistors

Part - 08
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Parallel Combination
Let’s see circuit diagram and formulas used in parallel combination
1. In parallel V is same across all resistors but current will be different if all resistors are different
If I1, I2 and I3 are the currents through resistors R1, R2 and R3 then
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
or = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
= + +
For n resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
2. Current divider rule :

1
Since V is same, 𝐼 ∝
𝑅
1 1 1
𝐼1 : 𝐼2 : 𝐼3 ⟹ : :
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
3. In case of 2 resistance
1 1 1 𝑅1 𝑅2
= + ⟹𝑅=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2
4. If n equal resistance are connected in parallel
Req = R/n
𝐼total
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑛 =
𝑛
5. Req < (Rmin)combination
Illustration 1.
In given network find out equivalent resistance of network. Also find current passing through each
resistor.
Solution.
1 1 1 1
All resistances are in parallel so = + +
1 1 1 1 1+2+3
= + + =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 6 3 2 6
 R eq = 1
V 24
I= =
R eq 1
 I = 24 A
P.D. across each resistor will be 24 V
24
Current through 2 resistor will be 𝐼2𝛺 = = 12𝐴
2
24
3
24
6

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Problems of combination of resistors

Illustration 2.
In given network find out equivalent resistance of network. Also P.D. across each resistor.
Solution.
Equivalent resistance between A and B is RAB
1 1 1 1
= + +
R AB 2 3 6
1 3 + 2 +1
=
R AB 6
R AB = 1 
Given network can be reduced as
Equivalent resistance of network is 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (1+3) = 4 Ω

24
Current supplying by source will be 𝐼 = 𝑉battery /𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝐼 = =6𝐴
4
P.D. between A and B will be 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 6 × 1 = 6 𝑉
P.D. between B and C will be 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 6 × 3 = 18 𝑉
Illustration 3.
Find equivalent resistance across (i) RAB & (ii) RAC
Solution.
(i) RAB

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
𝑅1 𝑅2 3𝑅×𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 3𝑅+𝑅
3𝑅
𝑅𝐴𝐵 =
4
(ii) RAC
𝑅1 𝑅2 2𝑅×2𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 2𝑅+2𝑅
RAC = R
Illustration 4.
Find equivalent resistance across A & B -
Solution.
Illustration 5.
Find equivalent resistance across (i) RAB & (ii) RAD
Solution.
(i) RAB

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
3R
R AB = R + +R
4
11 R
R AB =
4
(ii) RAD
RAD = 3R

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 6.
Find current supplied by battery in given network ?
Solution.
Now all resistances are in parallel so

1 1 1 1 1 1+4+4+1 10
= + + + = =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 16 4 4 16 16 16
16
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = 1.6𝛺
10
16
𝐼= = 10𝐴
1.6
Illustration 7.
Find equivalent resistance across O and A (ROA) ?
Solution.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 8.
Find VA – VB ?
Solution.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + +
𝑅 24 24 6 4 2
1 1 1 4+6+12
= + + or R=1
𝑅 24 24 24
Rnet = 2 + 1 + 4 = 7 
The ratio of resistance between C and D is
24 ∶ 24 ∶ 6 ∶ 4 ∶ 2 = 12 ∶ 12 ∶ 3 ∶ 2 ∶ 1
The ratio of current between C and D will be
1 1 1 1
: : : : 1 = 1 ∶ 1 ∶ 4 ∶ 6 ∶ 12
12 12 3 2
𝐼 = 24 𝐴
𝑉 = 24 × 7 = 168 𝑉

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Alternate method
𝑉 = 1 × 24 = 24𝑉 𝑅=1
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼 = 24 𝐴
𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 + 4 + 1 = 7 𝛺
𝑉 = 24 × 7 = 168 𝑉
Illustration 9.
𝟔
A wire of resistance 𝛀/𝒎 is bend to form a circular loop of radius (r = 1m). Find equivalent resistance
𝝅
of the loop between two diametrically opposite points.
Solution.
Both upper and lower part will be in parallel so it can be treated as
6
Resistance of 1m length is Ω
𝜋
6 6
Resistance of 2r length will be Ω × 2𝜋𝑟 = Ω × 2𝜋(1) = 12 Ω = 2 R
𝜋 𝜋
R = 6

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 10.
A uniform wire of resistance 18  is bent in the form of a circle. Calculate effective resistance across the
points a & b.
Solution.
5R R
R1 .R2 . 5R 5
R ab = = 5R6 6
R = = × 18 = 2.5
R1 +R2 + 6×6 36
6 6
Illustration 11.
Calculate effective resistance across the points a & b.
Solution.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
R eq R R R R
R
R eq =
4

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 12.
Two wires of same material and length are having cross-section in the ratio 1 : 2. Now, thin wire is cut
into 3 equal parts and arranged to form a bundle and connected in series with thick wire. If resistance of
the thick wire is 18 Then find resistance of the given combination.
Solution.
𝜌𝑙
As resistance of wire is =
𝐴
Let us assume resistance of wire A (thin) is R then resistance of wire B (thick) will be R/2
When thin wire (A) cut in three equal parts resistance of each part will be R/3
𝑅
3 𝑅
𝑅𝑋𝑌 = =
3 9
𝑅 𝑅 11𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + =
2 9 18
Concept of Short Circuit

It both terminals of a resistance are connected with a conducting wire then potential of both terminals will
become same. In this condition no current will flow through the resistance & we can remove them from the
circuit, this process is known as short circuit and that resistor is called short circuited or by pass resistor.
➢ Both terminals of a resistance are connected with a conducting wire.

➢ No current will flow through the resistance.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 13.
If circuit is short circuited between A and B then what will be current supply by source.
Solution.
After short circuiting equivalent resistance will be
Req = 2 R
Current supplying by source will be

𝑉
𝐼=
2𝑅
Illustration 14.
Find out equivalent resistance between A and B.
Solution.
In given circuit all the points connected by straight conducting wire are at same potential.
𝑅
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = + 𝑅
2
3𝑅
𝑅𝐴𝐵 =
2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 15.
Find out equivalent resistance between A and B.
Solution.
RAB = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
R
• If n resistances (each R) are connected in parallel then their effective resistance will be .
n
• The equivalent resistance of parallel combination is lower than the value of the lowest resistance in the
combination.
• When resistors are connected in parallel in a battery circuit then the ratio of currents through them will be the
ratio of reciprocals of their respective resistances.
I1
R1
I I2 R2
1
I1 R 1 R 2
= =
I2 1 R 1
R2
R2 R1
I1 = I ; I2 = I [I = I1 + I2]
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Kirchhoff’s laws
Part - 09
Kirchhoff’s Laws
There are two laws given by Kirchhoff for determination of potential difference and current in different branches
of any complicated network.
Kirchhoff’s First law :

This law is also known as junction law or current law (KCL). According to it –
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero.
or
Sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to sum of the currents leaving the junction.
i2 i3
 i=0
O
i1 – i2 – i3 – i4 + i5 = 0  i1 + i5 = i2 + i3 + i4
i1 i5
This is based on law of conservation of charge.
i4
Illustration 1.
Calculate the values of currents I1, I2, I3, and I4 in the section of networks shown in figure.
15A A I2 B 3A
R1
8A I3
I4
D C
5A I1
Solution.
The distribution of currents in different resistances can be calculated using Kirchhoff’s junction rule. We will
apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule at junctions A, B, C and D as shown in figure.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
I2+8=15; I2=7A I2+3=I3; I3=10A

15A A I2 B 3A
R1
8A I3
I4+5=8; I4=3A I1=I3+I4 ; I1 =13A
I4
D C
5A I1
Illustration 2.
Figure shows three resistances are connected with switch S. Initially the switch is open. When the switch
S is closed find the current passing through it.
20V 2 4 5V
A B
2
Solution.
Let V be the potential of the junction as shown in figure.
20V 2 V 4 5V
A i1 i2 B
I3
2
0V
Applying junction law, we have

i1 + i2 = i3
20 − V 5 − V V − 0
 + =
2 4 2
 40-2V+5-V=2V
 5V = 45 or V = 9V
V
 i3 = = 4.5A
2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Kirchhoff’s Second law :

This law is also known as loop rule or voltage law (KVL) and according to it in any closed circuit the algebraic
sum of e.m.f. and algebraic sum of potential drops is zero.
IR + E = 0 .
R2 C
B
R1 i1 i2 + E
1
A –
D
I4 i3
R3
R4
–
E3 + E2
In the following closed loop,

−i1R1 + i2 R 2 − E1 − i3R 3 + E2 + E3 − i4 R 4 = 0
Sign convention for the application of Kirchhoff’s law :

For the application of Kirchhoff’s laws, the following sign conventions are to be considered.
❖ The change in potential in traversing a resistance A i + R – B A i – R

+ B
in the direction of the current is –iR, while in the
opposite direction it is +iR. VA–iR=VB VA+iR=VB
❖ The change in potential in traversing an emf A  B A  B

+ – – +
source from negative to positive terminal is +e,
while in the opposite direction it is -e irrespective VA–=VB VA+=VB
of the direction of current in the circuit.
❖ The change in potential in traversing a capacitor C C

A + – B A – + B
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
q q
is +q/C, while in the opposite direction it is -q/C.
VA–q/C=VB VA+q/C=VB
Illustration 3.
Find the current through 12 resistor in figure.
2V
6
12 4
15V 3V
8
4V

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Solution.
Let V be the potential at P; then applying KCL at junction P, we get 2V
I = I1 + I2 + I3
6
15 − V V − 2 V − 3 V − 4 I1
 = + + 12 I 4
12 6 4 8 15V 3V
P I2
68 I3
 V= V
15
15 − (68 / 15) 157 8
and I= = A
12 180
4V
Illustration 4.
In the circuit shown in figure, find the current through the branch BD.
6 B 3
A C
15V 3 30V
D
Solution.
Applying KVL along the loop ABDA and moving in the clockwise direction, we get,
-6I1 -3I2 + 15 = 0
 2I1 + I2 = 5 …(i)
Applying KVL along the loop BCDB, we get
–3(I1 – I2) – 30 + 3I2 = 0
 –I1 + 2I2 = 10 …(ii)
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) for I2, we get I2 = 5A.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Symmetric Circuits and Infinite Circuits

Part - 10
Symmetric Circuits
Mirror Symmetry
(1) It is applied along perpendicular bisector of line AB (A and B are the points about which Req. is to be calculated).
(2) We can remove resistances and junctions which are on the line of symmetry.
(3) Points on line of symmetry are equipotential points.
Folding symmetry:
(1) It is applied along line AB.
(2) We can fold the circuit about line of symmetry.
(3) When we fold the circuit, the parallel combination of resistance can be solved easily.
Illustration 1.
Find equivalent resistance across point A and B ?
Solution.
Points C, D and E will be equipotential points so there is no current flowing from resistances connected between
these points.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
1 1 1 1
= + +
R AB 2R 2R 2R
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 2R/3
Illustration 2.
Find equivalent resistance across point A and B ? (all resistances are R)
Solution.
1 1 3 2 3
= + = +
𝑅𝐴𝐵 2𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅
4𝑅
𝑅𝐴𝐵 =
5

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 3.
Find reading of ammeter and voltmeter if switch S is open and then closed.
Solution.
When switch is open
Equivalent resistance of network is Req = 5 

20
Current supplying by source is I = =4A
5
So Ammeter reading will be = 4 A
Voltmeter reading = 4 × 1 = 4 V
When switch is closed
C and D will be same potential point so network can be shown as

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Equivalent resistance of network is Req = 4 

20
Current supplying by source is I = =5A
4
So Ammeter reading will be = 5 A
Voltmeter reading = 5 × 1 = 5 V
Illustration 4.
A frame of cube is made by wires each of resistance r then find -
(a) Resistance between two nearer corners (R12)

(b) Resistance across face diagonal (R13)
(c) Resistance across main diagonal (R17)
Solution.
(a) Resistance between two nearer corners
1 4 3
2
5 6
8 7
7
Equivalent resistance between 1 and 2  R12 = r
12
(b) Resistance across face diagonal

Given circuit can be drawn as
4
3 3 3 3
2r
8 7
3r
  
5 6
2r
1
2 1 1 1
3
Equivalent resistance between 1 and 3  R13 = r
4
(c) Resistance across main diagonal

The given circuit can be simplified as follows

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
r r r
R17 = + +
3 6 3
5r
 R 17 =
6
Infinite Circuits
Illustration 5.
In the figure, the value of resistors to be connected between C and D so that the resistance of the entire
circuit between A and B does not change with the number of elementary sets used is
R R R R C
A
R R R R R
B
R R R R D
(1) R (2) R( 3 − 1) (3) 3 R (4) R( 3 + 1)

Solution.
(2)
Cut the series from XY and let the resistance towards right of XY be R0 whose value should be such that when
connected across AB does not change the entire resistance. The combination is reduced to as shown below.
E R X R R R C E R
A A
R R R R R = R R0
B B
F R Y R R R D F
R
The resistance across EF = R EF = (R 0 + 2R)

(R 0 + 2R)R
Thus R AB =
R 0 + 2R + R
R 0 R + 2R 2
R0 =
R 0 + 3R
 R 02 + 2RR 0 − 2R 2 + 0
 R 0 = R( 3 − 1)

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Working of Electric Cell

Part - 11
Internal resistance of a cell, Potential difference and EMF of a cell
Electro motive force (E.M.F.)

The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is not delivering any current is called emf of the
cell. The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole circuit (including the cell) is called the
emf of the cell.
• emf depends on :
(i) nature of electrolyte
(ii) metal of electrodes
• emf does not depend on :

(i) area of plates
(ii) distance between the electrodes
(iii) quantity of electrolyte
(iv) size of cell
Internal resistance
Resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell when an electric current flows through it is known as internal
resistance.
E r
Dependency of internal resistance r :

• Distance between two electrodes increases  r increases
• Area dipped in electrolyte increases  r decreases
• Concentration of electrolyte increases  r increases
• Temperature increases  r decreases
Terminal potential difference (V)

E r
terminal voltage

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
• When current is drawn through a cell or current is supplied to it then the potential difference across its terminals
is called terminal voltage.
• When I current is drawn from cell then terminal voltage V is less than its e.m.f i.e., V = E – Ir
(a) When cell is discharging :

E r
Current inside the cell is from cathode to anode.
E
Current  = I I
r+R k R
 E = R + r = V + r
 V = E – r
When current is drawn from the cell, potential difference across the cell is less than the emf of the cell. Greater is
the current drawn from the cell, smaller is the terminal potential difference. When a large current is drawn from a
cell its terminal potential difference is reduced appreciably.
(b) When cell is getting charged : E r
Current inside the cell is from anode to cathode.

I I
V −E
Current  = k + –
r
 V = E + r V
During charging terminal potential difference is greater than the emf of the cell.
(c) When cell is in the open circuit :

In open circuit R = 
E
 I= = 0 V = E
R+r
In open circuit, terminal potential difference is equal to emf and is the maximum potential difference which a cell
can provide.
(d) When cell is short circuited :
In short circuit R = 0
E E
I= = and V = R = 0
R+r r
Note : In short circuit, current from the cell is maximum and terminal potential difference is zero.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 1.
A current of 1A is flowing from (+)ve to (–)ve terminal inside the cell of emf 4.5 V and internal resistance
0.5 then find potential of the negative terminal if potential of positive terminal is 10V.
Solution.
Terminal Potential Difference V = E + ir ( cell is charging)
 V+ – V– = 4.5 + 0.5
 10 – V– = 5V
 V– = 5V
Illustration 2.
When a resistance of 4 is connected to a cell then a current 2A flow through it. If the cell is connected
to a resistance of 9 then current is decreased by 50%. Find current through the cell if its terminals are
directly connected by a connecting wire.
Solution.
E
i= = 2A
R+r
E
i= ….(i)
4+r
i E  50 i 
i' = = …(ii) i ' = 100 i = 2 = 1A 
2 9+r  
(i) / (ii)
2 E 9+r
= 
1 4+r E
 8 + 2r = 9 + r
 r = 1
From eq. (i) 2(4 + 1) = E
 E = 10V
E 10
Current through cell during Short circuit = = = 10A
r 1
Crux Pan
• At the time of charging a cell, when current is being supplied to it, the terminal voltage is greater than the
emf E.
V = E + Ir So V>E
• Series combination is useful when internal resistance of the cell is less than external resistance.
• Parallel combination is useful when internal resistance of the cell is greater than external resistance.
• Internal resistance of an ideal cell = 0
• If external resistance is zero, then current delivered by the battery is maximum.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Combination of cells in Series and Parallel

Part - 12
Combination of cells in Series and in Parallel
A. Series Combination
When cells are connected in series the total emf of the series combination is equal to the sum of the emf's of
the individual cells and the internal resistance of the cells will also be in series.
Eeq. = E1 + E2 + E3 …… En
req. = r1 + r2 + r3 …….rn
Req. = r1 + r2 + r3 ……rn + R
Eeq.
Current i =
req. + R
nE
If all n cells are identical then i =
nr + R
E
• If nr >> R , i = = current from any cell when shot-circuited.
r
nE
• If nr << R , i = = n × current from any one cell, when connected with the external resistance.
R
When cell support each other
𝐸1 +𝐸2
𝑖=
𝑅+(𝑟1 +𝑟2 )
T.P.D. of first cell = E1 – ir1

T.P.D. of second cell = E2 – ir2
When cells are connected with opposite polarity
Let E1 > E2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
E1 − E 2
i=
R + (r1 + r2 )
T.P.D. of first cell = E1 – ir1

T.P.D. of second cell = E2 + ir2
Illustration 1.
Find readings of voltmeter V1 and V2
Solution.
𝐸𝑒𝑞 15−10 5
𝑖= = = = 1𝐴
𝑅+𝑟1 +𝑟2 5 5
TPD of 15 V emf cell is = 15-1×1 = 14V

TPD of 10 V emf cell is = 10 + 1 × 1 = 11V
Illustration 2.
Reading of volt meter = ?
Solution.
E 10 − 4 1
Current flowing in the circuit i = = = A
R 20 + 10 5
1
 VB − 10  +10 = VA
5
 VA − VB = 8V
B. PARALLEL COMBINATION

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3
+ + .....
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
𝐸𝑒𝑞 = 1 1 1
+ + .....
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
1 1 1 1
= + + . . . ..
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
TPD (V) = Eeq – ireq
When cell support each other
𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1
𝐸𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 +𝑟2
When cells are connected with opposite polarity
Let E1 > E2
𝐸1 𝑟2 −𝐸2 𝑟1
𝐸𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 +𝑟2
Note – If n identical cells are connected in parallel and then :-

E ⁄r
Eeq = n
n ⁄r
Eeq = E
r
req =
n
E nE
Current in the circuit i = =
r nR + r
R+
n
If r << nR i = E/R = Current from any one cell when connected with the external resistance
nE
If r>> nR i= = n × current from any cell when short-circuited
r
Illustration 3.
Reading of Ammeter = ?

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Solution.
𝐸𝑒𝑞 = 2𝑉
𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 + 1 = 3𝛺
2
𝐼= 𝐴
3
2
Hence reading of ammeter = A
3
Illustration 4.
If VB – VA = 4V then x will be ?
Solution.
𝐸2 𝑟1 +𝐸1 𝑟2
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑟1 +𝑟2
5𝑥+20
4 = 10+𝑥
 4(10 + 𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 20
 40 + 4𝑥 = 20 + 5𝑥
 𝑥 = 20
Illustration 5.
In the given diagram potential difference between A & B is 5V. Now terminals of the 3V cell are reversed
then find new potential difference between A & B.
Solution.
𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1
𝐸𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟2 +𝑟1
6𝑥+9
5 = 3+𝑥
 15 + 5𝑥 = 6𝑥 + 9
 x=6
Reversing the terminals :-

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
36−9
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐸𝑒𝑞 = = 3𝑉
6+3
Circuit Analysis involving combination of cells
If n identical cells are connected in series and there are m such branches in the circuit then
Total number of cells in this circuit = nm
Internal resistance of the cells connected in a row = nr
total e.m.f. of the cells connected in a row = Enet = nE
E r E r E r
E r E r E r
I
E r E r E r
R
Since there are m such rows,

nr
Total internal resistance of the circuit rnet =
m
Total e.m.f. of the circuit = total e.m.f. of the cells connected in a row = Enet = nE
E net nE
Current in the circuit I = =
R + rnet nr
R+
m
Note : Current I in the circuit is maximum when external resistance in the circuit is equal to the total internal resistance
of the cells.
Special case
If in a battery of n identical cells, m cells are wrongly connected.
Let m be the number of wrongly connected cells.

Number of cells helping one another = (n-m)
Total emf of such cells = (n-m)E
Total emf of cells opposing = mE
Resultant emf of battery= (n-m)E – mE = (n-2m) E
Total internal resistance of cells = nr
( resistance remains same irrespective of way of connections of cells.)
Enet = (n-2m)E (Condition n > 2m)

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
(𝑛 − 2𝑚)𝐸
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
Illustration 6.
54 identical cells each of internal resistance 3 are connected so that they provide maximum current to
a load resistance 2 Find no. of cells in a row.
Solution.
𝑛𝑟
For maximum current through load resistance =𝑅
𝑚
𝑛(3)
 𝑚
= (2)
3𝑛
 𝑚= 2
Total no. of cells N = 54 = nm

3𝑛
 54 = 2
(𝑛)
 𝑛 = √36 = 6
And m = 6
Illustration 7.
12 identical cells are connected in series with some cells wrongly connected. The arrangement is
connected in series with an ammeter and two such more cells in series forming a battery. Current is 3 A
when cells and battery aid each other and is 2 A when cells and battery oppose each other. The number
of cells wrongly connected is
Solution.
Let n be the number of wrongly connected cells.
Number of cells helping one another = (12-n)
Let emf of one cell = E
Total emf of such cells = (12-n)E
Total emf of cells opposing = nE
Resultant emf of battery= (12-n)E – nE = (12-2n) E
Total internal resistance of cells = 12r
(a) Total e.m.f. of cells when additional cells help battery = (12-2n) E + 2E
Total resistance = 12r + 2r = 14r
(12−2n)E + 2E
=3 ….…(i)
14𝑟
(b) Similarly when additional cells oppose the battery
(12−2n)E−2E
=2 ……(ii)
14r
Solving (i) and (ii), n = 1

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
• In series grouping of cells, their emfs are additive or subtractive, while their internal resistances are always
additive.
Eeq = E1 + E2 and req = r1 + r2
Eeq = E1 − E2 (E1 >E2 ) and req = r1 + r2
• In Parallel grouping of two identical cells having no internal resistance, we have the situation in figure.
• When two cells of different emf and no internal resistance are connected in parallel then equivalent emf is
indeterminate.
• Note that connecting a wire with a cell but with no resistance is equivalent to short-circuiting. Therefore, the
total current that will be flowing will be infinite.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Wheatstone Bridge
Part - 13
Wheatstone bridge
It is used to find unknown resistance in circuit.
None of the shown resistance are in series and none of them are in a parallel.
Balancing condition
𝑅1 𝑅3
(1) If [ = ] then bridge is said to be balanced, in this case:
𝑅2 𝑅4
[𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑦 ]
Thus, no current flows in xy branch.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Proof
In balancing condition
𝑖𝑔 = 0 i.e. Vx = Vy
 V − Vx = V − Vy
𝑖1 𝑅1 = 𝑖2 𝑅3 …(i)
similarly
Vx − 0 = Vy − 0
𝑖1 𝑅2 = 𝑖2 𝑅4 …(ii)
On dividing eq. (i) from (ii) we get
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
or R 1 R 4 = R 2R 3
𝑅1 𝑅3
(b) If < ; then VX > Vy
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅1 𝑅3
(c) If > ; then VX < Vy
𝑅2 𝑅4
Illustration 1.
Find current in 2 resistance?
Solution.
The given circuit is not WSB
Req = 2
10
𝐼= = 5𝐴
2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 2.
A balanced WSB is shown. If we interchange the position of battery and galvanometer then find current
in galvanometer :
Solution.
After interchange it will still remain balanced WSB so there will be no current flowing through G.
Illustration 3.
If reading of voltmeter of V is zero find equivalent resistance between A and B (RAB).
Solution.
20𝑥
5 20+𝑥
=
7 21
20𝑥
⇒ 3×5=
20+𝑥
⇒ 300 + 15𝑥 = 20𝑥
⇒ 300 = 5𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 60𝛺
Illustration 4.
Find equivalent resistance across point A and B ?

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Solution.
Balanced wheatstone bridge
Illustration 5.
All resistances of network are R, Find RAB = ?
Solution.
Balanced wheatstone bridge

2R  2R
R AB = =R
2R + 2R
Crux Pan
• The wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when the resistances in all its four branches are almost equal.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Electrical Energy and Power

Part - 14
Electrical Energy and Power
Cause of Heating
1. When current passes through the conductor then drifting electrons transfer their energy to atoms in
collisions which increases thermal energy of the conductor, results in increase in temperature. Energy is lost
in surroundings in form of heat.
2. Heat energy released from the conductor is equal to work done by the battery .
3. Let voltage 'V' is applied across the conductor of resistance R and a charge dq flows through it in time dt
the work done by the battery in time dt is –
𝑑𝑊 = (𝑑𝑞)𝑉 = (𝑖𝑑𝑡)𝑉 = (𝑖𝑑𝑡)(𝑖𝑅) = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡
𝐻 = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 (as H = heat released = W)
If I = constant
2
𝑉
H = i Rt =
2
= 𝑉𝑖𝑡
𝑅
SI unit : joule
Practical Units : 1 kilowatt hour (kWh)
1kWh = 3.6 × 106 joules = 1 unit
1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = 1055 J
4. Power delivered to the load resistance.

𝑑𝑤 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑉2
𝑃= = = 𝑖 2𝑅 = = 𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅
SI unit : Watt
The watt–hour meter placed on the premises of every consumer records the electrical energy consumed.
5. Maximum power transfer theorem –

2
 E 
(a) P = i R = 
2
 R
R + r
If P = max
dP
Then =0
dR

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
d  E  
2
 R = 0
dR   R + r  
On solving R = r
So, to deliver maximum power to the load resistance. Load resistance should be equal to internal
resistance of the cell.
E E E
(b) i P(max) = = = where iP(max) = current in case of max. power delivered.
R + R 2R 2r
2
 E 
(c) P(max) = i 2 R   R
 2R 
E2 E2
P(max) = =
4R 4r
(d) P – R graph
Illustration 1.
If power consumed by 4W resistance is 36 watt then find :
(i) Power consumed by 3W resistance
(ii) Value of E
(iii) Total power consumed in the circuit
Solution.
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑉2
 36 = 4
 V = 12
𝑉𝐴2 144
𝑃3𝛺 = = = 48
𝑅 3
2
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (24)2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = = = 96𝑊
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 3 + 3

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
• Resistance of a bulb (or other appliances) : Let a bulb be designed to operate on a

voltage V0 and its power indicated on it be P0 (See figure) The resistance of the bulb
is given by R = V02 / P0
Now let a potential difference of V is applied across this bulb, then power consumed
V2  V 
2
V
is given by P = =   P0
R  V0 
• An electric appliance consumes the specified power P0 only if it runs at the specified voltage V0. If the
applied voltage VA is greater than the specified voltage, the appliance may get damaged as in this situation,
I = VA / R will exceed its current capacity IC = V0 / R. Further, if an appliance is made to run at a voltage
lower than the specified then true power consumption will be less than the specified value.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Electric Bulbs and Heaters

Part - 15
Applications to Electric Bulbs and Heaters
If VA > VS , then electrical device will not work or will be fused.
• Resistance of an electrical device

𝑉𝑠2 𝑉𝐴2 𝑉𝑆2 𝑉𝐴2
𝑅=
𝑃𝑠
=
𝑃𝐶
 𝑃𝑆
=
𝑃𝐶
𝑉 2
Hence 𝑃𝐶 = ( 𝐴 ) 𝑃𝑆
𝑉𝑆
1
As Vs = constant ⇒ 𝑅 ∝
𝑃𝑆
𝑃𝑆 ↑ , 𝑅↓ , thickness of filament ↑
For example : R40W > R100w
• Combination of bulbs
(a) Series combination

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
R = R1 + R2
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉32
= +
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
(When rated voltage is not given, take it equal to applied voltage.)
1 1 1
= +
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
In case of n-identical bulbs
𝑃
𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 =
𝑛
Note: Brightness  Power consumed by bulb  R  1 .

Prated
Bulb of lesser wattage will shine more.
For same current P = I2R so P  R  R , P
(b) Parallel combination
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
= +
𝑉𝑠2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑉𝑠2
P = P 1 + P2
In case of n-identical bulbs
Pparallel = nP
1
Note: Brightness  power consumed by bulb   Ps
R
Bulb of greater wattage will shine more.
V2 1
For same V, P = more power will be consumed in smaller resistance P 
R R
• Let two coil boil some amount of water in times t1 and t2 separately now these coils are connected in series and then
parallel then time required to boil same water
In series combination In parallel combination
1 1 1
= + 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
= + = +
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2
1 1 1
𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = +
𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑡=
𝑡1 +𝑡2
Illustration 1.
A coil boil some amount of H2O in 20 mins. Now this coil is cut into two equal parts and these are
connected in parallel then find time taken by this combination to boil same amount of water.
Solution.
𝑉 2𝑡
𝐻=
𝑅
As H and V are same

𝑡∝𝑅
𝑡
⇒ 𝑡′ = = 5min.
4
Illustration 2.
Two bulbs of specifications 25W, 100 V; 100W, 100 V are connected in series to a source of 100 V then find
(i) Resistance of each bulb
(ii) Power consumed by each bulb
(iii) Which bulb will have more brightness.
Solution.
𝑉𝑠2
(𝑖) 𝑅 =
𝑃𝑠
100×100
𝑅1 = = 400𝛺
25

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
100×100
𝑅2 = = 100𝛺
100
1
(ii) R 
PC
𝑃1 𝑅2 1
= =
𝑃2 𝑅1 4
4
(iii) VA1 = × 100 = 80V
5
1
VA2 = × 100 = 20V
5
VA1 2 80 × 80
PC1 = = = 16W
R1 400
VA2 2 20 × 20
PC2 = = = 4W
R1 100
As 25 watt bulb is consuming more power so it will have more brightness ( Brightness ∝ PC).
Illustration 3.
If in previous question 100 V source is replace by 300 V source then which bulb get fused.
Solution.
4
𝑉𝐴1 = × 300 = 240𝑉
5
1
𝑉𝐴2 = × 300 = 60𝑉
5
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑1 > 𝑉𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
 1st bulb will fuse
Illustration 4.
Compare brightness of the bulb before and after switch is closed.
Solution.
Let resistance of 80 W be R so resistance of 40 W be 2R.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
As A and D are in series

So PA > PD
and B and C are in parallel PB > PC
Here VA > VD > VC
𝑉𝐶2
𝑃𝐵 =
𝑅
𝑉𝐷2
𝑃𝐷 =
𝑅
𝑃𝐷 > 𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝐴 > 𝑃𝐷 > 𝑃𝐵 > 𝑃𝐶
After switch is closed bulbs B and C are short-circuited and they will die out but brightness's of the bulb A &
D increases due to increase in voltage.
Crux Pan
• Instruments based on heating effects of current, work with both A.C. and D.C. Equal values of A.C. (RMS) and
D.C. produce equal heating effect. Due to this reason, the brightness of bulb is same whether it is operated by
A.C. or an equivalent D.C.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Galvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter

Part - 16
Galvanometer
1. It is used to detect the current i.e. whether current is flowing or not and whether direction of current is reversed
or not.
2. Its working is based on torque on current carrying coil. (𝜃 ∝ 𝑖)
3. Measures small value of current.
4. Maximum value of current at which galvanometer shows maximum deflection or full scale deflection is known
as ‘ig’.
5. Sensitivity = Response/input
𝜃
(a) Current sensitivity =
𝐼
𝜃
(b) Voltage sensitivity =
𝑉
Ammeter
An ammeter is connected in series with a current carrying wire to measure current passing through it. Since it is
connected to the wire and has a finite amount of resistance, there will be some potential difference across it. This will
lead to the change in actual flow of current. In an ideal situation where the ammeter can measure the actual current
passing through a wire, there should be no voltage drop across it and hence its resistance should be zero.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is connected in parallel to the current carrying wire, to measure the potential difference between two points.
Since it is connected to the wire, a finite amount of current will pass through it. This will lead to the change in actual flow
of current and hence change in the actual potential difference. In an ideal situation where the voltmeter can measure
the actual potential difference across two points, there should be no current passing through it and hence its resistance
should be infinite.
Crux Pan
• The rate of variation of deflection depends upon the magnitude of deflection itself and hence on the accuracy
of the instrument.
• A suspended coil galvanometer can measure currents of the order of 10 –9 amperes.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter and Voltmeter
Part - 17
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter and Voltmeter
AMMETER
1. To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter a very small resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer
called SHUNT.
2. Resistance of an ammeter is very small and it is zero for ideal ammeter i.e. ideal ammeter behaves like conducting
wire.
3. Value of shunt.
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝐺
 (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 )𝑆 = 𝑖𝑔 𝐺
𝑖𝑔
 𝑆=[
𝑖−𝑖𝑔
]𝐺
1
 𝑆 =[𝑖 ]𝐺
−1
𝑖𝑔
𝐺
 𝑆=[
𝑛−1
]
𝑖
Where 𝑛 =
𝑖𝑔
Where
G – resistance of galvanometer
ig – range of galvanometer or current required to produce full deflection.
i – Range of ammeter [Max. current can be measured.]

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 1.
A galvanometer of resistance 99 Ω of range 10 mA is converted into an ammeter of range 10 A then
find required resistance.
Solution.
Galvanometer → Ammeter
G = 99 
Ig = 10 mA = 10-2
I = 10 A
10
𝑛 = −2 = 1000
10
𝐺 99
𝑆= = = 0.099Ω
(𝑛 − 1) 999
Illustration 2.
Resistance of a galvanometer is 45 Ω . If only 10% of the main current passes through the galvanometer
when it is connected to a shunt then find shunt resistance.
Solution.
10
𝑖𝑔 = 𝑖 = 0.1𝑖
100
𝑖
𝑛= = 10
𝑖𝑔
𝐺 45
𝑆= = = 5Ω
(𝑛 − 1) 9
VOLTMETER
1. To convert galvanometer into voltmeter, a high resistance is connect in series with a galvanometer.
2. Resistance of voltmeter is very high and it is infinite for ideal voltmeter.
so ideal voltmeter ⎯→ open circuit
Resistance R and (G+H) are in parallel between points A and B so we can write
𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝐻) = (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 )𝑅

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
𝑖𝑔 𝐺 + 𝑖𝑔 𝐻 = (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 )𝑅
𝑉𝑔 + 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉
 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑔
 𝑖𝑔 𝐻 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑔
𝑉𝑔
 𝐺
𝐻 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑔
 𝑉𝑔 𝐻 = (𝑉 − 𝑉𝑔 )𝐺
𝑉−𝑉𝑔 𝑉
 𝐻=(
𝑉𝑔
)𝐺 = (
𝑉𝑔
− 1) 𝐺
𝑉
𝐻=( − 1) 𝐺
𝑉𝑔
𝐻 = (𝑛 − 1)𝐺
V : Range of voltmeter
Vg : Range of galvanometer
𝑉
where 𝑛=
𝑉𝑔
Illustration 3.
Resistance of a galvanometer is 50  and its current sensitivity is 1 mA/div and it has 20 division. It is to
be converted into a voltmeter of 10V then find required resistance for the conversion.
Solution.
Ig = 20 × 1 = 2 × 10-2 A
Vg = ig G = 2 × 10-2 × 50 = 1V
10
𝐻 = ( − 1) × 50 = 450𝛺
1
Illustration 4.
Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit. Resistance of voltmeter is 1 k.
Solution.
90 3
Current passing through circuit I = = A
3000 100

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
2
current passing through voltmeter branch = A
100
2
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 1000 = 20𝑉
100
Illustration 5.
A voltmeter of 98  is used to measure emf of a cell 2v, 2. Find error in its reading.
Solution.
For ideal voltmeter :
When voltmeter of 98  is used to measure emf:

Reading = E – ir  error = ir
𝐸 2 i
Error = ( )𝑟 = ( ) × 2 = 0.04𝑉
𝑅+𝑟 98 + 2
E r
Crux Pan
• Ig is the current for full scale deflection. If the current corresponding to a deflection of one division on the
galvanometer scale is k and N is the total number of divisions on one side of the zero of galvanometer scale
then Ig = k × N.
• A ballastic galvanometer is a specially designed moving coil galvanometer used to measure charge flowing
through a circuit for a small time interval.
• To increase the range of an ammeter, a shunt is connected in parallel with the galvanometer.
• To convert an ammeter of range I amperes and resistance Rg  into an ammeter of range nI amperes, the value
Rg
of resistance to be connected in parallel will be .
n −1
• To increase the range of a voltmeter a high resistance is connected in series with it.
• To convert a voltmeter of resistance R g  and range V volts into a voltmeter of range nV volts, the value of
resistance to be connected in series will be (n – 1)Rg .
• Resistance of ideal ammeter is zero & resistance of ideal voltmeter is infinite.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Meter Bridge
Part - 18
Meter Bridge
(i) It is used to find unknown resistance in circuit.

(ii) Its working is based on WSB principle.
(iii) MB circuit :-
a. It has a wire of 1 m on which balancing point is to be search.
b. Resistance of copper-strips are negligible due to very low resistivity and greater cross-sectional area.
c. MB wire is taken of constantan or manganin due negligible temperature co-efficient of resistance . So
resistance of the wire doesn’t change during the experiment.
(iv) Working
Initially a resistance R is taken out from a resistance box and jockey is tapped on the wire. Find balancing point
B where deflection in galvanometer becomes zero. Distance of this point B from left end (A) is called balancing
length ‘ ’
In balancing condition
𝑃 𝑅 𝑅 𝑆
(a) = ⇒ = 𝜌(100−ℓ)
𝑄 𝑆 𝜌ℓ/𝐴
𝐴
100−ℓ
S=[ ]R
ℓ
(b) Balancing length is independent of the radius of the cross-section of the wire.
(c) Jockey should not be rubbed against the wire because rubbing action changes the cross-section of the wire.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
(d) END ERROR and END CORRECTION – this error occurs due to neglecting resistances at the connection point A
& C. End corrections e1 & e2 are the lengths corresponding to resistances at connection points so equation
becomes.
ℓ+𝑒1 𝑅
(100−ℓ)+𝑒2
= 𝑆
Illustration 1.
In meter bridge experiment, x  is connected in left side and 2  (< x) is connected in right side. Now
position of these two resistances interchanged and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm. Find value of x.
Solution.
𝑥 2
=
ℓ1 100 − ℓ1
2ℓ
 𝑥 = 100−ℓ
1
… . (1)
1
On inter changing
2 𝑥
=
ℓ1 100−ℓ2
2(100−ℓ2 )
 𝑥= ℓ2
… . (2)
∴ ℓ1 − ℓ2 = 20
Using (1) and (2) we get
ℓ1 + ℓ2 = 100
ℓ1 − ℓ2 = 20 (given)
2ℓ1 = 120
 ℓ1 = 60
2ℓ1 2(60)
𝑥= =
100−ℓ1 100−60
120
𝑥= = 3𝛺
40

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 2.
𝑷 𝓵𝟏
The metere bridge shown is in balanced position with = . If we now interchange the positions of
𝑸 𝓵𝟐
galvanometer and cell, will the bridge work? If yes, what will be balance condition?
Solution.
P Q P
=  = 1
1 2 Q 2
P
Yes, the bridge will work and the balance condition will = 1
Q 2
Illustration 3.
In metre bridge experiment, x resistance is connected in left gap and 10  is connected in right gap and
the balancing length is found to be 50 cm. Now a resistance R  is connected in parallel to x then
balancing length is shifted by 10 cm. Find value of R.
Solution.
𝑥 50
=
10 50
 x =10
10𝑅 1 40 𝑅 2
[ ] = ⇒ =
10+𝑅 10 60 10+𝑅 3
⇒ 3𝑅 = 20 + 2𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 = 20𝛺

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Crux Pan
• The meter bridge is also referred as the slide wire bridge.

• While performing the meter bridge experiment, do NOT slide the jockey continually along the wire. Just lift the
jockey and TOUCH (not press) the constantan wire at specific points until you find the point of zero deflection.
If you apply pressure (unintentionally even), the cross-sectional area of the wire will change and the experiment
will be affected for the next student.
• The non-uniformity of the metal wire might lead to the generation of stray resistance and it will create an end
error.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Principle of Potentiometer
Part - 19
Potentiometer-Principle
Necessity of Potentiometer
Practically voltmeter has a finite resistance (Ideally it should be infinite). In other words, it draws certain current
from the circuit. To overcome this problem, a potentiometer is employed because at the instant of measurement,
it draws no current from the circuit.
• It is device which is used to measure potential difference accurately.

• It works in null deflection method.
Note :
(i) Potentiometer wire : Made up of alloys of manganin, constantan, Eureka.
(ii) Special properties of these alloys are high specific resistance, negligible temperature co-efficient of
resistance (). This results in invariability of resistance of potentiometer wire over a long period.
Circuit of potentiometer

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Potential gradient
Potential drop across wire per unit length as known is potential gradient.
𝜌ℓ
VAB = V= iR 𝑅𝐴𝐵 =
𝐴
𝑖𝜌ℓ 𝑖𝜌
𝑉= = ( )ℓ
𝐴 𝐴
𝑉 𝑖𝜌
Potential gradient P.G. = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
ℓ 𝐴
𝑉 𝑖𝜌
Slope = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = 𝑃𝐺
𝑙 𝐴
Working principle of potentiometer

If a constant current is flowing through a wire of uniform cross-section then potential drop across any length
of wire is directly proportional to the length of wire.
Potential gradient
• Current flowing in primary circuit
𝐸
𝑖=
𝑟 + 𝑅ℎ + 𝑅𝑤
𝑉𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑅𝑤 𝐸𝑅𝑤 1

𝑃. 𝐺. = = = ×
𝐿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐿 𝑟 + 𝑅ℎ + 𝑅𝑤 𝐿
• P.G. depends only on primary circuit.

• If we change secondary circuit then P.G. will remain unchanged.
Sensitivity :
• It is the ability of potentiometer to read very small value of potential difference easily.
1 L Length of wire
Sensitivity   
P.G. V potential drop across wire
• To improve the sensitivity, the length of wire used is 10 m.
• Rheostat is used as primary circuit to regulate sensitivity.
Imp. Points regarding connection error
(a) Positive terminals of cell 1 and cell 2 should be connected with end A.
(b) If same polarity of cell 1 and cell 2 are not connected with each other then balancing condition (null
deflection) cannot be obtained.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 1.
A cell of internal resistance 3 ohm and emf 10 volt is connected to a uniform wire of length 500 cm and
resistance 3 ohm. The potential gradient in the wire is
Solution.
e .R 10  3
Potential gradient = = . = 1V / m = 10 mV / cm.
(R + r). L (3 + 3)  5
Illustration 2.
Find value of balancing length ( ).
Solution.
2
Current passing through primary circuit 𝐼 = 𝐴
45
𝐼𝑅𝑤 2×40 16 𝑉
𝑃. 𝐺. = = =
𝐿 45×10 90 𝑚
5 1
Current passing through secondary circuit 𝑖 = = 𝐴
10 2
1 16
𝐸 − 𝑖𝑟 = 5 − × 1 = ×ℓ
2 90
9 16
 2
=
90
×ℓ
810
 ℓ= 32
Illustration 3.
Find balancing length corresponding to the potential difference between (1) A and B (2) B and C
(3) A and D.
Solution.
𝐸𝑃 𝑅𝑤
𝑥=
𝑅ℎ+𝑅𝑤+𝑟 𝐿
20 10
= × = 1𝑉/𝑚
7 + 10 + 3 10

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
𝑅𝐴 : 𝑅𝐵 : 𝑅𝐶
1:2:3
1
(1) VAB = ×12 = 2V
6
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥ℓ
2
ℓ𝐴𝐵 = = 2m
1
2
(2) 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = × 12 = 4𝑉
6
4
ℓ𝐵𝐶 = 1 = 4𝑚
6
(3) 𝑉𝐴𝐷 = × 12 = 12𝑉
6
𝑉𝐴𝐷 = 𝑥ℓ
ℓ𝐴𝐷 = 12𝑚
As ℓ𝐴𝐷 (12𝑚) > (10 𝑚) so balancing length will not be obtained.
Crux Pan
• The effective resistance of potentiometer is infinite.

• The rate of variation of deflection depends upon the magnitude of deflection itself and hence on the accuracy
of the instrument.

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Applications of potentiometer
Part - 20
Applications of Potentiometer
For measuring emf of a cell

The primary circuit of potentiometer is setup with a cell of emf E (unknown).
Vwire iR w
Potential gradient = x = =
Lwire L
E0 R w 1
x= 
R + Rh + R w L
To measure emf (E), the jockey is adjusted to touch

the wire at point C so that there is no deflection in
galvanometer.
The balancing length AC =
E=x
For measuring potential difference
To measure the potential difference between the points a and b, assume point a at higher potential and b at lower
potential. Suppose, the potential drop across ab is smaller than the potential drop across AB then there will be a point
P on AB which will have the same potential as b. If the jockey is made to touch the wire at this point P, the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero and there will be no current through it. The process of measurement is to
search for a point P so that there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
V = potential difference between A and B

V’ = potential difference between a and b
L = length of wire AB

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
= length of wire AP
V
Potential gradient x =
L
Potential difference between the points a and b is
V' = x …(i)
Now, emf of the standard cell E is used in place of ab and the potentiometer is balanced (no deflection in the
galvanometer) when AP’ = 0
E0
E=x …(ii)
0
( )
i
From eq. (i) and (ii) i P’
A
B
V'
= G
E 0
E,r c
a b
V' = E
0
Illustration 1.
Resistivity of wire of potentiometer is 10-7 m, cross-section of wire is 10-6 m2. If current flowing through
potentiometer wire is 0.5 A the find potential gradient.
Solution.
𝑖𝜌 10−7 1
𝑥= = × = 0.05 𝑉/𝑚.
𝐴 10−6 2
Illustration 2.
A cell of 2V is connected with a wire of length 10m and resistance 40  in primary circuit of
potentiometer. This setup is used to measure unknown emf of cell of internal resistance 0.2 . If
balancing length is 4 m then find unknown emf.
Solution.
Potential difference across potentiometer wire is 2V, so its potential gradient will be
2
𝑥= = 0.2𝑉/𝑚
10
As balancing length is 4m
From E = xl
E = 0.2 × 4 = 0.8V

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
For comparing EMF of two cells
Method – 1
Consider two cells of emf E1 and E2 having internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively. Initially both the switches 1 and 3
are open.
When switch is connected between 1 and 2 then balancing length is 1
E1 = x 1 …....(1)
When switch is connected between 2 and 3 then balancing length is 2
E2 = x 2 …....(2)
From (1) and (2) we get
E1
= 1
E2 2
Method – 2
If balancing length for is = If balancing length for is =

……….(1) ……….(2)

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
From (1) and (2) we get

𝜀1 + 𝜀2 ℓ1
=
𝜀1 − 𝜀2 ℓ2
ℓ1 + ℓ2 𝜀1
 =
ℓ1 − ℓ2 𝜀2
❖ The voltage of the secondary circuit which is to measured should not be greater than the maximum voltage
available on the wire.
Illustration 3.
Two cells when connected in series are balanced on 8m on a potentiometer. If the cells are connected
with polarities of one of the cell is reversed, they balance on 2m. The ratio of emf's of the two cells is
Solution.
E1 l1 + l2 (8 + 2) 5
= = =
E2 l1 − l2 (8 − 2) 3
For measuring of internal resistance of a cell
Assume we have a cell of emf E whose internal resistance

r is to be measured. Connect the cell in the circuit of
potentiometer as shown in figure.
If K → open
Balancing length will be obtained for emf of cell
connected in secondary circuit
If 1 is balancing length then
E=x 1 …………...(1)
When K → closed
If Balancing length is 2
V=x 2
 E – ir = x 2 = iR
𝐸
Where current in secondary circuit, 𝑖 = 𝑟+𝑅
𝐸
P.D. across R, 𝑖𝑅 = (𝑟+𝑅) 𝑅
This P.D. must be equal to P.D. across length 2 of potentiometer wire

𝐸𝑅
= 𝑥ℓ2 ………(2)
𝑟+𝑅
Now put the value of E by eq (1)

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
(𝑥ℓ1 )𝑅
= 𝑥ℓ2
𝑟+𝑅
 R 1 = (r + R) 2
ℓ1 −ℓ2
 𝑟=(
ℓ2
)𝑅
For comparing value of 2 unknown resistance

Assume we have cell of emf E and R1 and R2 are two unknown resistance. Connect the cell in the circuit of
potentiometer as shown in figure.
If switch is connected between 1 and 2 then balancing length

obtained at ℓ1
𝑖𝑅1 = 𝑥ℓ1 ……………….(1)
When switch is connected between 2 and 3 then balancing length is ℓ2
𝑖(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = 𝑥ℓ2 ……………….(2)
From (1) & (2) we get
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ℓ2
=
𝑅1 ℓ1
𝑅2 ℓ2 −ℓ1
 =
𝑅1 ℓ1
Illustration 4.
The emf of a standard cell balances across 150 cm length of a wire of potentiometer. When a resistance
of 2  is connected as a shunt with the cell, the balance point is obtained at 100cm. The internal resistance
of the cell is -
Solution.
 l1   150 
Using r = R  − 1  = 2  − 1  = 1
 l2   100 

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

vh
Illustration 5.
In the given figure, battery E is balanced on 55 cm length of potentiometer wire but when a resistance
of 10  is connected in parallel with the battery then it balances on 50 cm length of the potentiometer
wire then internal resistance r of the battery is
Solution.
l −l 
r =  1 2 R
 l2 
 55 − 50 
r=   10 = 1
 50 

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
RC Circuits
Part-21
RC Circuits
An electric circuit consisting of resistor(s) and capacitor(s) only is known as RC circuit.
Charging of a capacitor/condenser:
(i) In the following circuit, if key is closed then the condenser gets charged. Finite time is taken in the charging
process.
R
E C
The quantity of charge at any instant of time t is given by q = q 0[1 – e–(t/RC)]
Where q0 = maximum/final value of charge = value of charge at t = 
According to the above equation, the quantity of charge on the condenser increases exponentially with
increase in time.
(ii) If t = RC =  then
1
q = q0 [1 – e–(RC/RC)] = q0 [1 − ]
e
 q = q0 (1 – 0.37) = 0.63 q0 = 63% of q0
(iii) Time t = RC is known as time constant.
i.e. the time constant is that time during which the charge rises on the condenser plate to 63% of its
maximum value.
(iv) The potential difference across the condenser plate at any instant of time is given by
VC = V0[1 – e–(t/RC)]
Where V0 = maximum/final value of potential difference across the condenser plate = value of potential
difference across the condenser plate at t = 
(v) The potential curve is also similar to that of charge. During charging process an electric current flows in the
circuit for a small interval of time which is known as the transient current. The value of this current at any
instant of time is given by
 = 0[e–(t/RC)]
Where I0 = maximum/initial value of current in the circuit = value of current in the circuit at t = 
(vi) If t = RC =  = Time constant
Ι0
 = 0e(–RC/RC) = = 0.37 0
e
= 37% of 0
i.e. time constant is that time during which current in the circuit falls to 37% of its maximum value.
 Digital Pvt. Ltd. [1]

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Derivation of formulae for charging of capacitor

It is given that initially capacitor is uncharged.
Let at any time charge on capacitor is q.
R i R
+q
E C E C
–q
At t = 0 At any time t
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at time t

q
E – iR – =0
C
EC−q
 iR =
C
EC−q
 i=
RC
dq EC−q  dq 
 =  i=
dt RC  dt 
RC
 dq = dt
EC−q
q dq t dt
 ∫O = ∫O
EC−q RC
t
 – ln (EC – q) + ln EC =
RC
q
EC t
 ln = q0
EC−q RC
0.37q0
 C – q = Ce–t/RC
O t=RC t
 q = C(1 – e–t/RC)
After one time constant
 1
q = C  1 − 
 e
= C (1 – 0.37)
= 0.63 C
Current at any time t i
dq 1
i= = EC [−e−t/RC (− )]
dt RC
E −t/RC
= e O t = RC
R t

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Potential difference across condenser plates at any time t VC
q E
VC =
C
(
= E 1 − e− t/RC )
0.37E
O t=RC t
VR
Potential difference across resistor at any time t
E
VR = iR = e–t/RC
0.37E
O t = RC t
Heat dissipated
From energy conservation,
Heat dissipated = work done by battery – Ucapacitor

1
= C() – ( C2 – 0)
2
1
= C2
2
Alternatively:
∞
Heat dissipated, H = ∫0 i2 Rdt
2t
∞ E2
= ∫0 e−RC R dt
R2
E2 ∞
=
R
∫0 e−2t/RC dt
2t ∞
−
E2 e RC
= [
R −2/RC
]
0
2t ∞
E2 RC
= – [e−RC ]
2R 0
1
= E2C
2
Note:
VC
E
1
0.37E 2
O t
In the figure time constant of (2) is more than (1)

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Illustration 1:
Find out current in the circuit and charge on capacitor which is initially uncharged in the following situations.
(a) Just after the switch is closed.

(b) A long time after the switch was closed.
Solution:
(a) Here t = 0 [Just after the switch of closed]
E
i = e−t/RC
R
E 10
= = = 5A
R 2
q = C(1 – e–t/RC) = 0
(b) Here t =  (A long time after the switch was closed)
E
i = e−t/RC = 0
R
q = C(1 – e–t/RC)
q = EC = 10 × 3 = 30 C
Discharging of a condenser
(i) In the circuit shown below, if key is closed then the condenser gets discharged by the time.
R C (Initial charge on capacitor = q0)
(ii) The quantity of charge on the condenser at any instant of time t is given by q = q 0 e–(t/RC)
Where q0 = maximum/initial value of charge = value of charge at t = 
According to the above equation, the quantity of charge on the condenser decreases exponentially with
increase in time.
q0
(iii) If t = RC =  = time constant, then q = = 0.37q0 = 37% of q0
e
i.e., the time constant is that time during which the charge on condenser plates in discharge process, falls to
37% of initial charge.
1
(iv) The dimensions of RC are those of time i.e. M0L0T1 and the dimensions of are those of frequency i.e.
RC
M0L0T–1.
(v) The potential difference across the condenser plates at any instant of time t is given by V = V 0e–(t/RC)
Where V0 = maximum/initial value of potential difference across the condenser plate = value of potential
difference across the condenser plate at t = 
(vi) The transient current at any instant of time is given by I = I0e–(t/RC)
Where I0 = maximum/initial value of current in the circuit = value of current in the circuit at t = 

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Derivation of equation of discharging circuit

i
+q0 +q
R C R C
–q0 –q
At time t = 0 At any time t
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at any time t

q
+ − iR = 0
C
q
 i=
RC
dq q dq
 − = ( current is decreasing  i = − )
dt RC dt
q –dq t dt
q
 ∫q = ∫0
0 q RC
q0
q t
 –ln =+
q0 RC 0.37q0
 q = q0e −t/RC
O t=RC t
dq q0
Current at any time, i = – = e −t/RC
dt RC
i
O t = RC t
q q0 − t/RC
Potential difference across the condenser at any time, VC = = e
C C
VC
O t = RC t
q0 − t/RC
Potential difference across the resistor at any time, VR = iR = e
C
VR
O t = RC t

TG: @Chalnaayaaar
Illustration 2:
A capacitor of capacitance 1F is connected in a closed series circuit with a resistance of 10 7 ohms, an open key and
a cell of 2 V with negligible internal resistance:
(i) When the key is switched on at time t = 0, find;
(a) The time constant for the circuit.
(b) The charge on the capacitor at steady state.
(ii) If after completely charging the capacitor, the cell is shorted by zero resistance at time t = 0, find the charge
on the capacitor at t = 50 s. (Given: e–5 = 6.73 × 10–3, ln2 = 0.693)
Solution:
(i) (a) Time constant  = RC = 107 × 1 × 10–6
= 10 sec.
(b) q0 = CV = 1 × 10–6 × 2 = 2 C
(ii) q = q0e–t/RC = 2 × 10–6 e–50/10 = 2 × 10–6 e–5 = 1.348 × 10–8 C.
Illustration 3:
Figure shows, the graph of the current in a discharging circuit of a capacitor through a resistor of resistance
10  :
i(A)
(i) Find the initial potential difference across the capacitor. 10
(ii) Find the capacitance of the capacitor.

2.5
(iii) Find the total heat produced in the circuit.
O 2 t(s)
Solution:
(i) Initial voltage V0 = i0R = 10 × 10 = 100 V [from graph i0 = 10]
(ii) The equation of current at time t is i(t) = i0e–t/RC

i
or et/RC = 0
i
t i 
 = In  0 
RC  i 
t
 C=
i 
RIn  0 
 i
From the graph, i0 = 10, at t = 2, i = 2.5
2 1 1 1
So C = = = = F
 10  5 In4 5 In22 10 In2
10 In  
 2.5 
(iii) As the energy from the source is 50% stored in capacitor and 50% loss so
1 1 1 500
Heat produced = energy stored in capacitor = CV02 =   (100)2 = J
2 2 10 In2 In2

Current Electricity Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Current Electricity Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Current Electricity Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TG: @Chalnaayaaar

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [1]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

∆𝑄 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑛𝑒 𝐶

On the basis of source

Direct current Alternating current

In this chapter we will deal with direct current.

On the basis of nature

Average electric current Instantaneous current

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [2]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

Some important points about current

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [3]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

As current due to both type of charges will be in same direction

3 × 1018 (𝑒) + 2 × 1018 × (𝑒)

𝑖 = 5 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10–19

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [4]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

Flow of Electric charge in a Metallic Conductor

Classification of Materials according to Conductivity

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [5]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

Assumptions about conductor

radius = r & cross-sectional Area = r2

number of free 𝑒 − number

Where ‘n’ =free e– density or free charge density

Number of atoms = nNA

 200 g material having number of atom = NA

Discussion on conductor at room temperature: (without potential diff.)

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [6]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-01

Thermal velocity (Vth)

3𝐾𝑇 3×1.38×10−23 ×300 𝑘𝑚

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [7]

Current Density, Drift Velocity and Relaxation Time

Mean Free Path (𝜆)

Behavior of conductor on applying potential difference across it at room temperature

Path is straight line between two successive collisions

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [1]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-02

➢ After application of electric field between ends of conductor

Path is curved between two successive collisions

Relaxation time and their relation with electric current

Mean Relaxation Time (𝝉)

Relation between relaxation time and current

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [2]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-02

Drift Velocity and Mobility

Now after time t1 (say) it will be having velocity V1

Averaging over N electrons

Important points about current carrying conductor

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [3]

CURRENT ELECTRICITY – Part-02

• Current carrying conductor is electrically neutral.

Relation between drift velocity and current

Different formulas of current

(1) If 1 atom releases only 1 e–

No. of atom (N) = No. of free e–