CURRENT

ELECTRICITY
 Electric current and drift velocity

In previous chapters we have dealt largely with electrostatics that is,

charges at rest. In this chapter we will focus on electric currents, that is,
charges in motion.

Electric current

Rate of flow of charge through cross-section of a conductor is called

electric current.
If the
moving charges
moving are are
charges negative, thethe
positive, current is opposite
current to the direction
is in the direction of
of motion
motion.
of charge.
If a charge ∆𝑄 crosses an area in time ∆𝑡 then the average electric current
through the area, during this time is

∆𝐐 𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐧𝐞 𝐂

𝐢𝐚𝐯 = = = = = 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞
∆𝐭 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝐭 𝐒
Classification of Current

On the basis of source

Direct current Alternating current

Source: (Battery) Source:(generator)
i i

t t
P Q P Q
I → from P to Q always I → P to Q then Q to P & so on.

In this chapter we will deal with direct current.

 On the basis of nature

Average electric current Instantaneous current

If ∆𝐪 charge flows for ∆𝐭 The value of current at
time interval. particular instant

∆𝑞 𝑑𝑞
∆𝑞 𝑖 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
𝑖= ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡

𝒒 = න 𝒊𝒅𝒕
Some important points about current

Current is Scalar since it does not follow vector law of addition.

5𝐴
2𝐴
5𝐴 8𝐴
60°
3𝐴
3𝐴
Direction matters!

Direction of current is in the direction of flow of positive charge or we can

say opposite to the direction of flow negative charge.

Slope of q – t graph gives us current.

Area under i-t curve gives us total charge.

EXAMPLE Current I = (2 + 4 t) A where T is in seconds is flowing through a wire for 2
seconds. Find out amount of charge flowing through wire

Solution
𝑡
𝑞 = ‫׬‬0 𝑖𝑑𝑡

2
𝑞 = ‫׬‬0 2 + 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡

q = 12C

Alternate method
EXAMPLE Current I = (2 + 4 t) A where T is in seconds is flowing through a wire for 2
seconds. Find out amount of charge flowing through wire

Alternate method At t = 0, I = 2A and at t = 2, I = 10A

i

10

2
t
0 2

Area under curve = total charge = 1 2 + 10 × 2 = 12𝐶

2
EXAMPLE 20 A current flows through a cross-section of 20cm2 for 20 m sec. Find out
number of free e– cross through that area?

Q ne
Solution i= =
t t

i×t 20 × 20 × 10−3
n= = = 2.5 × 1018 electrons.
e 1.6 × 10−19
EXAMPLE In a discharge tube 3 × 1018 electrons/sec. are moving from right to left and
2 × 1018 (+ve) ions per second are moving from left to right. Then find current
through the discharge tube.

Solution
–
–
+
+

As current due to both type of charges

will be in same direction 𝒊 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 × 𝒆

(𝑵𝒆 𝒒𝒆 ) + (𝑵⊕ 𝒒⊕ ) 𝒊 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎–𝟏𝟗

𝒊=
𝒕
𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒆 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 × (𝒆) 𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝑨
𝒊=
𝟏
𝒊 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒆 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒆
EXAMPLE An e– revolving an a circular track of radius 1.6 cm with a constant speed of
3.14 × 106 m/s. Find out the current flowing in the circle.
𝑖
Solution
𝑖

2𝜋𝑟 𝑟
T = time period =
𝑉
𝑒 𝑒 𝑉
𝑖= = =𝑒
𝑇 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝑉
𝑖
(3.14 × 106 )
𝑖 = 1.6 × 10−19
2 × 3.14 × 1.6 × 10−2

𝑖 = 5 × 10−12 𝐴
EXAMPLE Graph of a current carrying wire versus time is given, find out the amount of
charge flowing through the wire in the time interval t = 2s to t = 12 s.
𝒊(𝑨)
Solution
10
t
Q = ‫׬‬t 2 Idt = Area under I-t graph
1 5

2 8 12 t(𝒔𝒆𝒄)
10
1
5 (5 + 10) (4)=30
2

30 q = A1 + A2 = 30+30=60C

2 8 12
 Assumptions about conductor

It is to be noted that we have to assume a conductor always of

cylinder(solid) shape, and every conductor is associated with numerous
free e–, so, we have to assume a term free e– density for every conductor.

𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓 & 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐

number of free 𝑒 −
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
‘n’ =free e– density or free charge density 𝑛 = =
volume of conductor 𝐦𝟑

This free e– density is independent of shape and size of conductor, and it

depends on nature of material.

Free e– density in conductor is 1028 to 1029 free electrons per unit volume.
 Mean Free Path (𝜆)

The distance travelled by free e¯ b/w two successive collision is

called free path. The average of all these free path is called mean
free path.

𝜆5

𝜆𝑁
𝜆2
𝜆1 𝜆4

𝜆3

𝜆1 + 𝜆2 . . . . . +𝜆𝑁
𝜆= Order of l = 10Å
𝑁
Mean Relaxation Time (t)

The time taken by free e– b/w two successive collision is called relaxation
time (t) and average of all these times is called mean relaxation time.

𝜏1 + 𝜏2 + 𝜏3 + ⋯ … 𝜏𝑁
𝜏= (Order of 𝝉 = 10–14 sec.)
𝑁
Before application of electric field between ends of conductor
After application of electric field between ends of conductor
Due to application of potential difference/Voltage across conductor an
electric field is produced inside the conductor.

Due to electric field, free electron experience force opposite to the

direction electric field.

Due to this force these electrons starts drifting in the opposite direction of
electric field and during motion they face many collision with heavy
positive ions in their path.

So, the velocity with which e– effectively displaced is called drift velocity.
Relation between drift velocity and current

Let us imagine at any time t = 0, any electron moving with initial

velocity Vth, now due to external. E, field it experience force
opposite to direction of E. field,

Fe = eE(−i)Ƹ …..(1)

eE
ae = (−i)Ƹ …..(2)
m
 eE
Now after time t1 (say) it will be having velocity V1 V1 = Vth + t1 −iƸ
m
Averaging over N electrons
eE
< V > =< Vth > + t −iƸ
m 1

𝑒𝐸𝜏 eEτ
𝑉𝑑 = 0 + − 𝑖Ƹ or Vd = −iƸ
𝑚 m

Note
This drift velocity is very low of order 10–4m but electrical appliances
immediately starts working just after switch is on because electric
field propagates with the speed of light in circuit and instantly exert
the fore on free electron at their own location.
Important points about current carrying conductor

All free e– moves with Vd (drift velocity)

There is no accumulation of charge in current carrying conductor

this implies charges entering at one end of conductor is equal to
the charge leaving from the other end.

Current carrying conductor is electrically neutral.

+ –

𝐸
E=0

+ –
Relation between drift velocity and current

𝒅𝒙
+ –
𝑟
𝑬
𝒗𝒅

𝒍 Radius r and area of CS A

+ –
Let ‘n’ represents number of free electron per unit volume or free
electron density.
dx N
Vd = (n = , free electrons density)
dt V
dV = Adx dq enAdx dx
i= = = enA
dt dt dt
dN = ndV = nAdx

dq = edN = enAdx I = neAvd

Current density ( J )

It is defined as current flowing per unit cross-sectional area of conductor.

It gives us information about magnitude & direction of current passing

through an area.

Current density is a vector quantity having direction of electric field or

direction of current flow.
 𝐈
from definition of current density 𝐉 =
𝐀

A
ԦJ I

A 𝐈
current density 𝐉 =
𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
θ
𝐈 = 𝐉 𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
Acosθ I
𝐈 = 𝐉. 𝐀

θ is angle between area vector and direction of current flow.

 For nonuniform distribution of current

𝑑𝐴

𝜃
𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 I

If dI is current flowing through small elementory area then,

𝑑𝐼
current density 𝐽 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽 (𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝒐𝒓 I = න J (dAcosθ)
 Ex. : For conductor of non uniform cross sectional area.

𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝑨𝟑
𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟏
Current through each area of cross section is same.
I I I
J1 = ; J2 = ; J3 =
A1 A2 A3

A3 < A2 < A1 ⟹ J1 < J2 < J3

01 EXAMPLE Find total current through the cross section.
r
if J = Jo
R l
Solution 𝑨 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝐈 𝒓
 Relation between current density & electric field

i neAVd
From J= = = neVd
A A

𝐉 = 𝐧𝐞𝐕𝐝

eEτ
Also Vd =
m

eEτ ne2 Eτ ne2 Eτ

J = ne = J=
m m m
 ne2 τ
J= E
m

ne2 τ
J = σE (σ = is conductivity of conductor)
m

Here σ is constant for any conductor, is independent of shape, size, volume of

conductor.
In vector form 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸 The relation is known as microscopic Ohm′ s law
𝜌 → resistivity
1
𝜎=𝜌
Resistance R
1
G=R
G = Conductance
 MOBILITY

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Where 𝜎 = is Conductivity of a material
𝑚

Conductivity is degree to which a material conducts electricity

1 𝑚
Also 𝜎 = 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 (ρ is resistivity of a material)

𝜎 & 𝜌 are independent of conductors shape and size depends on nature of

material and temperature.
MOBILITY

Ease of movement of charge carriers within a conductor known as mobility of

charge careers.

It is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field

𝑉𝑑 𝟏 𝐞𝐄𝛕 𝑒𝜏
𝜇= = Þm=
𝐸 𝐄 𝐦 𝑚

µ is constant for a given material (If temperature is constant)

1
Electrons have more mobility than proton µ ∝ mass
 Note

On increasing temperature of conductor, frequency of collision increases and

hence average relaxation time decreases.

temperature ↑ , 𝛕 ↓,

𝐞𝐄𝛕
𝐕𝐝 = , 𝐕𝐝 ↓
𝐦
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
𝛔= , 𝛔 ↓, 𝛒 ↑
𝐦
𝐞𝛕
m= , 𝛍↓
𝐦
EXAMPLE The number of free e– per 10 mm of an ordinary copper wire is 2 × 1021. The
avg. drift speed of e– is 0.25 mm/sec. Calculate the current flow in the wire :

Solution
𝐴
N = Total no of free e–
ℓ
𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
N
𝑖= 𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
Aℓ

N
𝑖= 𝑒𝑉𝑑
ℓ
2 × 1021
𝑖= × 1.6 × 10–19 (0.25) = 8𝐴
10
EXAMPLE Two wires each of radius of cross section r but of different materials
are connected together end to end (in series). If the densities of
charge carriers in the two wires are in the ratio 1 : 4, the drift velocity
of electrons in the two wires will be in the ratio:
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 2 : 1 (3) 4 : 1 (4) 1 : 4

Solution

I = neAvd

1
vd ∝
n
vd1 n2 4n1
= = =4∶1
vd2 n1 n1
EXAMPLE A current I flows through a uniform wire of diameter d then the electrons drift
velocity is v. The same current will flow through a wire of diameter d/2 made
of the same material, the drift velocity of the electrons in second wire is.
(1) v/4 (b) v/2 (c) 2v (4) 4v

Solution
I
j = = nevd
A
4I
= nevd1 … … … … … … . (i)
πd2
16I
= nevd2 … … … … … … . (ii)
πd2

From equation (i) and (ii)

4I v d1
= Þ vd2 = 4vd1
16I vd2
EXAMPLE

𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝐴2

𝐴1
Figure shown above is representing a current carrying wire with having non
uniform cross sectional area find out the relation between physical quantities
on their two ends.
(i) i (ii) 𝐕𝐝 (iii) J (iv) E

Solution
 Solution

𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝐴2

𝐴1

(1) Electric current is the rate flow of electric charge and that is
completely independent from the cross section of given figure.
Hence I1 = I2
I I
(2) I = ne Avd , vd = , vd ∝ vd1 > vd2
neA A
(3) J = neVd , J ∝ vd J1 > J2
(4) J = σE , J ∝ E E1 > E2
Ohm’s Law

If physical quantities like temperature, pressure, volume, length, cross-

section or nature of the material kept constant then current through
conductor is directly proportional to potential difference applied across it.

V ∝I

V
= constant = R (Resistance)
I
 𝐈∝𝐕 𝐕∝𝐈
𝐈 = 𝐆𝐕 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑

G is constant called conductance of R is called resistance of

conductor conductor
S. I. unit of G ⟹ 𝐦𝐡𝐨(𝛀−𝟏 )/𝐒𝐢𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬 S. I. unit of R ⟹ Ohm(Ω)

𝑰 𝑽

𝜃 𝜃
𝑽 𝑰

𝐈 𝐕
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐆 𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐑
𝐕 𝐈
 Proof of Ohm’s law

I = neA𝐯𝒅 … (i)

o + at1 + o + at 2 +. . . . . . o + at n
vd =
N

𝑡𝑖 eEτ
vd =a ෍ = aτ =
N m

eEτ
∴ I = neAvd = neA
m
ne2 A V
I= τ
m l

V ml
= 2 =R
I ne Aτ
Ohm’s Law (other forms)

1) V = IR
V = IR
ρℓ
2) E = ρJ E ℓ =I A
E = Jρ
3) J = σE 1
ρ=σ
E
=J
ρ
J = σE
 Factors affecting R

𝟏. 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝒐𝐧 ℓ ⇒ 𝐑 ∝ ℓ
𝟏
𝟐. 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝒐𝐧 𝐀 ⇒ 𝐑 ∝
𝐀
𝟑. Temperature (T)

i) for metals – if T ↑ ⇒ 𝜏 ↓
⇒ R increases
∴ if T ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↑
ii) alloys = 𝑇 ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↑
iii) electrolytes = 𝑇 ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↓ due to ↓ in viscosity
iv) Semiconductors = 𝑇 ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↓
due to↑ in formation of e- & holes.
EXAMPLE For a conductor V-I graph is ploated at two temp 𝐓𝟏 and 𝐓𝟐 shown in figure.
Select the correct one V
𝐓𝟏

𝐓𝟐

𝛉𝟏

𝛉𝟐
I
𝟐
(1) 𝐓𝟏 = 𝐓𝟐 (2) 𝐓𝟏 < 𝐓𝟐 (3) 𝐓𝟏 > 𝐓𝟐 (4) 𝐓𝟏 = 𝟐

Solution 𝛉𝟏 > 𝛉𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉𝟏 > 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛉𝟐 ⇒ 𝐓𝟏 > 𝐓𝟐
 𝑅
EXAMPLE In the shown i-V curve 𝑅1 will be? 𝑰
2 R1
R2

60𝑜
Solution 30𝑜
𝑽
Slope of given graph gives conductance (G)
1 1
tan60° = G1 = 3 = , R1 =
R1 3
1 1
tan30° = G2 = = , R2 = 3
3 R 2

𝐑𝟏 𝟏Τ 𝟑 𝟏
= =
𝐑𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
 Note

Ohm’s law is not a universal law as it is not valid everywhere for example PN
junction diode/Semiconductor etc.
I

V
 Note
Resistance of conductor also depends on direction of flow of current.
𝜌ℓ
𝑅=
𝐴

Where ℓ is the length of conductor along which current is flowing.

And A is area of cross-sectional of conductor perpendicular to the direction
of current flow.
EXAMPLE Find R12, R34, R56 on the basis direction of current flow through different paths.

𝟔
𝟐
𝑎
𝟏
2𝑎 3𝑎 𝟓

Solution
𝟒
 Solution 𝟐
𝑎 ρ(3a) 3ρ
R12 = =
2a2 2𝑎
𝟏
3𝑎
2𝑎
𝟑

ρ(𝑎) ρ
R34 = = 𝟑
6𝑎2 6𝑎

𝑎
𝑎

3𝑎
2𝑎
ρ(2𝑎) 2ρ 2𝑎 3𝑎
R56 =
𝟒 3𝑎2 = 3𝑎 𝟒

R12 > R56 > R34

EXAMPLE Find out the resistance of the current flowing hollow cylindrical conductor.

𝑟1

𝑟2
𝒍
Solution
Electric current is flowing along the length of conductor through area of cross
section
𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟22 −𝑟12 )
𝜌𝑙
If 𝒍 is length of conductor along current flow From 𝑅 =
𝐴
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝟐 −𝒓𝟐𝟏 )
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE

Before stretching 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐴1 ℓ1 After stretching 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐴2 ℓ2

Volume of wire remains same in stretching
𝐴1 ℓ1 = 𝐴2 ℓ2

𝜌ℓ1 𝜌ℓ2
Initial resistance of wire : 𝑅1 = Final resistance of wire : 𝑅2 =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑅1 𝜌ℓ1 𝐴2 ℓ1 𝐴2 ℓ12
= × = × = 𝐑 ∝ ℓ𝟐
𝑅2 𝐴1 𝜌ℓ2 ℓ2 𝐴1 ℓ22
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE

If ℓ2 = 𝑛ℓ1

2 2
𝑅2 𝑙2 𝑛ℓ1
= = = 𝑛2 R 2 = n2 R 1
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝑙1

Also
2 2 4
𝑅2 𝑙2 𝐴1 𝑟1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= = = 𝐑 ∝ ∝ ∝
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝐴2 𝑟2 𝐀𝟐 𝐫𝟒 𝐃𝟒
EXAMPLE Three copper wires have their lengths in the ratio 5 : 3 : 1 and their masses are
in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5. Their electrical resistance will be in the ratio
(1) 5 : 3 : 1 (2) 1 : 3 : 5
(3) 125 : 15 : 1 (4) 1 : 15 : 125

Solution
l1 : l2 : l3 :: 5 : 3 : 1 And m1 : m2 : m3 :: 1 : 3 : 5

ρℓ ρℓ ρℓ2 ℓ2
𝑅= = 𝑙= (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) R
A V m m
∝
25 9 1
R1 : R2 : R3 = : : = 125 : 15 : 1
1 3 5
 Note

(1) On stretching: ℓ↑. A↓. R↑

(2) If percentage change in length is less than 5% than percentage fractional

change in resistance of wire will be

∆𝑹 ∆ℓ ∆ℓ
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧)
𝑹 ℓ ℓ
(3) Similarly for area

∆𝑹 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑨
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = −𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧)
𝑹 𝑨 𝑨
 Note

(4) Similarly for radius

∆𝑅 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
× 100% = −4 × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟

If percentage increase in dimensions is greater than 5% than percentage

fractional change in resistance will be

∆𝑅 𝑅𝑓 − 𝑅𝑖
× 100% = × 100%
𝑅 𝑅𝑖
EXAMPLE A wire is stretched by 30% of its original. Find % increase in resistance.

Solution Let original length be 100%, Final length will be 130%

Also if original length be l, Final length will be 1.3l

As we know 𝑅 ∝ ℓ2
2 2
𝑅2 𝑙2 1.3𝑙
= = = 1.69
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝑙

𝑅2 = 1.69 𝑅1

∆𝑅 1.69 𝑅1 − 𝑅1
× 100% = × 100% = 69%
𝑅 𝑅1
EXAMPLE A wire is stretched so that its radius is decreased by 3% find % change in its
resistance.

Solution
We know that here radius is decreased by 3% than % change in
resistance is given by the formula.

∆𝑅 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
× 100% = −4 × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟

∆𝑅
× 100% = −4 −3 × 100 % = +12%
𝑅
EXAMPLE A metal wire of length ℓ has resistance 𝑅 half of its length is stretched
uniformly such that final length of wire becomes 2ℓ. The new resistance of
wire will be ?
(a) 2R (b) 3R (c) 4R (d) 5R

Solution

𝒍/𝟐 𝒍/𝟐
EXAMPLE A metal wire of length ℓ has resistance 𝑅 half of its length is stretched
uniformly such that final length of wire becomes 2ℓ. The new resistance of
wire will be ?
(a) 2R (b) 3R (c) 4R (d) 5R

Solution

𝒍/2 𝟑𝒍/𝟐
Resistance of left part Resistance of right part
𝜌ℓ/2 𝜌ℓ 𝜌3ℓ/2 9𝜌ℓ
𝑅1 = = 𝑅2 = =
𝐴 2𝐴 𝐴/3 2𝐴

ρℓ 9ρℓ 5ρℓ
Net resistance R′ = + = = 5R
2A 2A A
 TEMPERATURE VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY / RESISTANCE

For conductors of Temperature ↑; τ ↓; ρ ↑

𝛒 = 𝛒𝐨 [𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓] and 𝐑 = 𝐑 𝐨 [𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓]

R → Resistance of observed temperature (T°C) or Resistance at any

temperature T°C
𝐑 𝐨 → Resistance of reference temperature (To °C)
(To = 0°C if stated otherwise)
𝚫𝐓 = 𝐓 − 𝐓𝐨 = change in temperature
𝛂 = temperature coefficient of resistivity
𝛂 = Fractional change in resistivity per unit rise in temperature.

𝚫𝛒 𝟏 𝟏 𝐝𝛒 𝟏 𝚫𝐑 𝟏 𝐝𝐑
𝛂= ∙ 𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐫 = 𝐒𝐈 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝛂 = °𝐂 −𝟏 𝐊 −𝟏
𝛒𝐨 𝚫𝐓 𝛒𝐨 𝐝𝐓 𝐑 𝐨 𝚫𝐓 𝐑 𝐨 𝐝𝐓
 On increasing the temperature value of resistance may ↑ or ↓ which
depends on value of 𝜶

∝ (𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐜𝐨 − 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭)

+𝐯𝐞 −𝐯𝐞 ≃𝟎
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 𝐂𝐮 𝐒𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐆𝐞, 𝐒𝐢) 𝐀𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐲
𝐓↑𝐑↑ 𝐓↑𝐑↑ (𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭, 𝐌𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐧,
𝐍𝐢𝐜𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐞)
𝐓 ↑ 𝐑𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞
EXAMPLE Resistance of a wire at 0°C temperature is 𝟏𝛀 its temperature coefficient is
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 per degree C and temperature at which resistance will become 𝟏. 𝟓𝛀

Solution

Using 𝐑 = 𝐑 𝐨 [𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓]

𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓

𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝐓)
𝟐

𝐓 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎°
 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟔𝛀 𝐚𝐭 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝐂 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓𝛀 𝐚𝐭 𝟓𝟎°𝐂
EXAMPLE
Resistance of wire at 0°C ?

Solution
Let resistance at 𝟎°𝑪 = 𝑹𝟎

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟔𝛀 = 𝐑 𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎)]
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓𝛀 = 𝐑 𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝟓𝟎 − 𝟎)]

𝟔 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝜶
= 𝟔 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝜶 = 𝟓 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝜶
𝟓 𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎𝜶

𝟏 −𝟏
𝛂= 𝐂 𝐣
𝟐𝟎𝟎
EXAMPLE If the temperature change for a metalic wire is 5°C then change in resistance
is 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝛀. If 𝛂 is 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 per °C calculate the resistance at 0°C

Solution
𝐑 𝐓 = 𝐑 𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐭)

𝐑𝐓
− 𝟏 = 𝛂𝚫𝐭
𝐑𝐨
𝐑𝐓 − 𝐑𝐨
= 𝛂𝚫𝐭
𝐑𝐨
𝚫𝐑
= 𝛂𝚫𝐭
𝐑𝐨

ΔR 8 × 10−5 −1 = 0.04Ω
Ro = = = 0.4 × 10
αΔt 4 × 10−4 × 5
KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW ( Kirchoff’s 1st law )

According to Kirchhoff algebric sum of all the currents entering or leaving at

any junction is always zero.
Or
Sum of currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the current
leaving the junction.
i2

At junction,
𝐢𝟏 + 𝐢𝟐 + 𝐢𝟑 = 𝐢𝟒
𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟒 = 𝟎
i1 i4 i3
𝚺𝐈 = 𝟎

𝚺𝐈 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 = 𝚺𝐈 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐠𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐠

𝚺𝐪𝐢𝐧 𝚺𝐪𝐨𝐮𝐭
=
𝐭 𝐭

𝚺𝐪𝐢𝐧 = 𝚺𝐪𝐨𝐮𝐭

𝚺𝐪 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞.

KCL in based or conservation of charge.

EXAMPLE What is the value of current I in the following circuit ?

4A 2A

3A 1.3 A

Solution
KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW ( Kirchoff’s 2nd law/kirchoff’s loop law )

According to kirchoff in any closed loop algebraic sum of e.m.f. &

potential drop across any element is always zero.
𝚺𝐕 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩 = 𝟎
V1
i

ΣV loop = 0
R2 R2

V2
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

𝐢 𝐕 𝐢 𝐕
𝐀 + –𝟏 𝐀 + –𝟏

+ + + +
𝐑𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 (V1 > V2 ) 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 (V1 > V2 )
– – – –
𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐

+ – + –
𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐

𝐕𝐀 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐕𝐀 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝟏 − 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 = 𝐕𝐀
𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎 𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

+ –
𝟏𝟐𝐕 𝟐𝐕
𝟏𝟎𝐕

𝐃. 𝐂. 𝐁𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲

𝟐𝐯 𝟓𝛀 𝐱
𝐄𝐱. (𝐚)
𝐢 = 𝟐𝐀

𝟐−𝐱=𝟐×𝟓
𝐨𝐫 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝐱

x = −8v
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

𝐄𝐱. (𝐛)
𝟐𝐯 𝟏𝛀 𝟐𝐯 𝟐𝐯
𝟓𝐯
(As = 2A) as battery is a source of energy not charge

𝟐𝛀
𝟏𝟎𝐯 + –
𝐄𝐱. (𝐜) + – 𝐁
𝟐𝐀 𝟐𝐀
𝟓𝐯

𝑉𝐴 − 4𝑉 − 5𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵

10 − 4V − 5V = VB ⇒ VB = 1V
 Find
3V 1W
02 EXAMPLE A B
i) I in all branches G
ii) VAC, VGH, VBE 1V 2W
F C
H
Solution
2W 5V
E D
I
 In the given figure find 2V 1Ω
10 EXAMPLE E B
(a) Current in all the branches. A
(b) VAC, VGB, VEF
1Ω
Solution 3V 2Ω

D C
G
2Ω 5V
 TO FIND CURRENT IN CLOSED COMPLEX CIRCUITS

To find current is closed complex circuits :

Trick

Assume 0 at one point (tip : assume or at a bottom point) Write 𝚫𝐕

𝐕
Across each resistance calculate I is various branches. 𝐈 = 𝐑 only for

resistance.
EXAMPLE Find current in the shown circuit.

Solution
10V 2Ω

i=?

20V 4Ω
 10V
–10
Solution 0
–10
0
𝟖 𝟒
i=? 6Ω 𝐈= 𝐀= 𝐀
𝟔 𝟑
0
0 –2 –2
2V
EXAMPLE Find current in each branch of given circuit ?

Solution

2Ω 2Ω
10V
4V
Solution
10 10 10
= 5A
2

2Ω 2Ω
10V 10 − 4
4 i= = 3A
4V 2
5A 8A 0
0 0 0
5A 3A
EXAMPLE Find current in all branches ?

Solution
4V
𝟒𝛀

2V 𝟐𝛀 𝟐𝛀
10V

0
Solution
4V
𝟒𝛀
x–4
2

2V 𝟐𝛀 𝟐𝛀
10V

𝐱 − 𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 − 𝟒 − 𝟎
+ + =𝟐
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

x=6
EXAMPLE If switch S is closed find current is each branch.

Solution
2V 4V

3Ω 4V
2Ω

2V
6V 5Ω

2Ω

10V
S
Voltage of Junction
I1 + I2 = I3
I1 I2
V1 −VJ V2 −VJ VJ −V3 1 2
+ = R1 R2
R1 R2 R3
σ Vi ΤRi VJ
VJ = i
1
෎ I3
Ri

Applicable for junction of n resistors. R3

3
 Combinations of Resistance

Circuit Analysis

Series Combination
Series Combination

Let's see circuit diagram and formulas used in series combination

Series Combination
R1 R eq
2 R3

𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟑

I
In series, 𝐈 → same
If V is P.D. of source and V1 ,V2 and V3 is potential drop across each resister
then
𝐕 = 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐕𝟑 Req= σ 𝑅𝑖
𝐈𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐈𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐈𝐑 𝟑 Req= ‫𝑅𝑑 ׬‬
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑
 Voltage divider rule
Since I is same ; V ∝ R (As V = IR)
𝐕𝟏 : 𝐕𝟐 : 𝐕𝟑 ⟹ 𝐑 𝟏 : 𝐑 𝟐 : 𝐑 𝟑
In series combination voltage drop across resistors is in the ratio of
resistance
Also, 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟏 , 𝐕𝟐 = and 𝐈 = 𝐕𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 /𝐑 𝐞𝐪 (R eq = R1 + R2)
𝐈𝐑 𝟐
R1 R1
V1 = × Vbattery V2 = × Vbattery
R eq R eq

For n identical resistances in series:

𝐕𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲
R eq = nR, V1 = V2 = V3 = Vn =
𝐧

𝐑 𝐞𝐪 > 𝐑 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

EXAMPLE In given network find out equivalent resistance of network also find P.D.
across each resistor. 3𝐴 5Ω 3𝐴 2Ω 3𝐴 3Ω
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑

Solution
3𝐴 3𝐴
30𝑉
𝐀𝐥𝐥 𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐬𝐨 𝐰𝐞 𝐮𝐬𝐞, 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑

𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟓 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝛀
30
Current supplying by source will be 𝐼 = 𝑉battery /𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝐼 = = 3𝐴
10

V1 = 3 × 5 = 15 Volt V2 = 3 × 2 = 6 Volt V3 = 3 × 3 = 9Volt

 Combinations of Resistance

Parallel Combination
Let's see circuit diagram and formulas used in parallel combination
Parallel Combination

In parallel V is same across all resistors but current will be different if all
resistors are different
If I1 , I2 and I3 are the currents through resistors R1, R2 and R3 then

𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑
 𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑

V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + or = + +
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 R eq R1 R 2 R 3

1 1 1 1 1 1
For n resistors in parallel Req
= R + R + R + ⋯ + R =෍ 𝑅
1 2 3 n 𝑖

1 1
or = න𝑑𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞

Current divider rule :

1 1 1 𝐼𝑅2 𝐼𝑅1
Since V is same, I ∝
1
I1 : I2 : I3 ⟹ R : R : R 𝐼1 = 𝑅 , 𝐼2 =
R 1 2 3 1 +𝑅2 𝑅
1 +𝑅2

In case of 2 resistance

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐
= + ⟹𝐑=
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐
If n equal resistance are connected in parallel then their equivalent
resistance will be R/n ,

Similarly,

𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝐧 =
𝐧

Req < (Rmin)combination

 In given network find out equivalent resistance 2Ω
EXAMPLE
of network also find current passing through
each resistor. 3Ω

Solution 24𝐴 24𝐴

6Ω

+ −
24𝐴
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟒𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕

1 1 1 1
All resistances are in parallel so = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏+𝟐+𝟑
= + + = ⟹ 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏𝛀
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝟔 𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
P.D. across each resistor will be 24V
 Solution P.D. across each resistor will be 24V
2Ω

12𝐴
3Ω

8𝐴
6Ω
4𝐴
+ −

𝐕 = 𝟐𝟒𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭
𝟐𝟒
Current through 2𝛀 resistor will be 𝐈𝟐𝛀 = = 𝟏𝟐𝐀
𝟐
𝟐𝟒
Current through 3𝛀 resistor will be 𝐈𝟑𝛀 = = 𝟖𝐀
𝟑
𝟐𝟒
Current through 6𝛀 resistor will be 𝐈𝟔𝛀 = = 𝟒𝐀
𝟔
Equivalent Resistivity (ρeq )

Series Combination Parallel Combination

Req = R1 + R2 1
=R +R
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1 2

ℓ1 +ℓ2 ρ 1 ℓ1 ρ2 ℓ2
ρeq = + A1 +A2 A A
A A A
ρ ℓ
= ρ 1ℓ + ρ 2ℓ
eq
1 2
ρ1 ℓ1 +ρ2 ℓ2
ρeq = A1 +A2 ρ1 ρ2
ℓ1 +ℓ2
ρeq = ρ1 A2 +ρ2 A1
ρ1 +ρ2
if ℓ1 = ℓ2; ρ2 = 2 If A1 = A2
2ρ1 ρ2
ρeq = ρ
1 +ρ2

l1 l2 l
A B 𝜌1 A
𝜌2 A
𝜌1 𝜌2
Drift Velocity at a Point(vd)
P
I = neAvd

𝐼 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
vd = 𝑛𝑒𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑅 = ρℓ = 𝑛𝑒ρℓ
𝑛𝑒𝐴 A

V
1
(i) ℓ = vd ∝ ℓ
(ii) A = vd ∝ A
(iii) V= vd ∝ V
(iv) E = vd ∝ E
Practice of Series and Parallel
EXAMPLE Find (1) R AB = ? 𝑅
𝐷 𝐶
(2) R AC = ? 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
Solution 𝐴 𝐵

R1 R 2 3R × R
R eq = =
R1 + R 2 3R + R

3𝑅
𝑅
𝟑𝐑
𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = 𝑅 𝑅
𝟒
𝑅
(2) 𝑹𝑨𝑪 = ?

Solution

𝐑 𝐀𝐂 = 𝐑
EXAMPLE Find (1) 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = ? 1Ω
𝐴

Solution 2Ω 2Ω
2Ω
4Ω
4Ω 4Ω

𝐵
8Ω

𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = 𝟐 + 𝟒 = 𝟔 𝛀
EXAMPLE Find : 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = ?
R R R
A ∞

R R

B ∞

Solution
Solution
R R R
∞

x R R R

x R x
Solution

xR R X + R + xR
x=R+ =
x+R x+R

x 2 + R2 + xR
x 2 − xR − R2 = 0

R ± R2 + 4.1. R2
α1 B ⇒
2×1

R ± 5R2
α1 B =
2

R + 5R2
=
2
 Find Req between A & B
04 EXAMPLE
1. All the given resistances are of R Ω. B

Solution
A

2. All the given resistances are of R Ω.

B
Solution
x
A
 If resistance of ring is R then find Req between A & B.
08 EXAMPLE
Solution

60°

A B
 Find Req across the terminals AB in the given figure shown.
06 EXAMPLE

Solution 4Ω
8Ω

6Ω

8Ω 3Ω
4Ω

3Ω B
A
 Find Req across the terminals AB in the given figure shown.
07 EXAMPLE

Solution 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
A

12Ω 12Ω 12Ω

12Ω
12Ω

B
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
 Find Req across the terminals AB in the given figure shown if all resistances are
09 EXAMPLE
of R Ω .
A
Solution
B
A B
A

B
Short Circuit

I′ Zero resistance path

R ∆V = 0

V V I=0
I

R = can be removed
 Find current in the circuit.
01 EXAMPLE
(a) Before S is closed. 5Ω 𝑉1 10Ω 𝑉
1
(b) After S is closed.

Solution
S

P Q
15V
 Find Req between A & B.
05 EXAMPLE
R R R
Solution A B
 Find I 7Ω
02 EXAMPLE

Solution

11Ω

10Ω

I I

5Ω 10V
 Find Req between A & B.
04 EXAMPLE

Solution R R
A B
R
 Find Req between A & B. R
03 EXAMPLE

Solution A R B
R
 Find Req between A & B.(All Resistances are R)
06 EXAMPLE

Solution

A B
 Find Req between A & B.
07 EXAMPLE 2Ω 3Ω 7Ω
A
Solution

8Ω
5Ω 1Ω

B
3Ω
Q. Find :
(i) I & V in all R 4Ω 2Ω
(ii) Heat in 𝟑𝛀 in 10 sec.
6Ω 3Ω 4Ω
4Ω 2Ω

20v
 Electric Cell

1. In converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

2. Internal resistance of the cell – it represents the obstruction offered by
the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of ions.
Load

𝐝𝐂
𝐫∝
𝐀𝐓

d : Separation between electrolytes

C : Concentration of electrolyte
A : Effective area of electrodes Electrode-1 Electrode-2

Electrolyte
Electro motive force (EMF) of the cell – It is the potential difference across
the terminals of the cell when it is in open circuit i.e. no current is flowing
through the cell.
Or
It is the work done in moving unit positive charge from low potential
terminal to high potential terminal inside the battery.

Unit of emf = not newton = volt or J/C.

A r
A B

[i=0]

𝐕𝐀 − 𝐄 + 𝟎 = 𝐕𝐁
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐄
TPD (Terminal potential Difference) of the cell –

It is a potential difference across the terminals of the cell when it is in

closed circuit i.e. when current is flowing through the cell.

CASE 01

TPD in Discharing (Discharging means output from cell)

E = IR + Ir = V + Ir Þ V = E – Ir

TPD = VBA = E – Ir
Diagram
 i E r
(b) A B

𝐕𝐀 − 𝐄 + 𝐢𝐫 = 𝐕𝐁
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐕+ − 𝐕— = 𝐄— 𝐢𝐫

TPD < E
Direction of i
Outside of the cell : +ve to –ve
Inside of the cell : –ve to +ve
 V = E -Ir V=
E
r = R+r
ER
1+
E R
TPD = E − r ER
R−r R+r=
V
ER E
TPD = = E
R+r r r=R − 1
1+R V

TPD

If R = 0 then TPD = 0
If R = ∞ then TPD = E
 i E r
(b) A B

VA – E – ir = VB

VA – VB = E + ir

TPD = E + ir

(c) TPD > E

(d) Direction of i

Outside the cell :- –ve to +ve

Inside the cell :- +ve to –ve
 EMF Terminal Potential Difference (𝑇𝑃𝐷)
R R

r r
E E
r
i
- +
E
(i) V = E when i = 0
(ii) E > V 𝐸
i = 𝑅+𝑟

V = E – ir

V<E
(Discharging)
 Discharging Charging

E E
r r
I – + I + -

V = E – Ir V = E + Ir

V V

I I
Internal Resistance of a Cell

𝐸
i = 𝑅+𝑟
R
V = E – Ir

𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑅 i
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝑅+𝑟 = 𝑅+𝑟 E r
𝐸𝑅
R+r= 𝑉
v
𝐸
r=R −1
𝑉
 Combination of Cells

A. Series Combination

E1 r1 E2 r2 E3 r3 En rn Eeq. req.
A B

=
i R
i C
D
R

𝐄 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 +. . . . +𝐄𝐧
Eeq. = E1 + E2 + E3 …… En 𝐢= =
𝐑 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 +. . . . +𝐫𝐧 + 𝐑
req. = r1 + r2 + r3 …….rn
If cells are identical, Eeq=nE, req
Req. = r1 + r2 + r3 ……rn + R
= nr 𝐢 = 𝐧𝐄
𝐧𝐫 + 𝐑
EXAMPLE When cell support each other

𝑟1 𝐸2 𝑟2
𝐸1
i

R
Solution

𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐
𝐈=
𝐑 + (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 )

T.P.D. of first cell Þ E1 – Ir1

T.P.D. of second cell Þ E2 – Ir2

EXAMPLE Reading of volt meter = ?
10V V
20𝛺

10𝛺 B
4V

Solution
1/5A
B 10 A
1/5A
4V
V

B A
4V 20Ω

𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒 𝟏
𝐈= = 𝐀 ⇒ 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝟖𝐕
𝟑𝟎 𝟓
 B. Parallel Combination

𝐸1 𝑟1
𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟏
𝐸2 𝑟2 𝐸𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞
i i i i
A B A B
𝒊𝟐
𝒊𝟐 𝒊𝟐

𝐸3 𝑟3
R
R
TPD = Eeq – ireq = V …(1)
E1 E2 E3
r1 + r2 + r3 . . . . . 1 1 1 1
Eeq =
1 1 1 Þ = + + .....
req r1 r2 r3
r1 r2 r3 . . . . .
+ +
For 2 cells in parallel
E1 r1
E1 r2 + E2 r1
Eeq =
r1 + r2

r1 r2
req =
r1 + r2
E2 r2

When cells are connected with opposite polarity

Let E1 > E2

E1 r1
E1 r2 − E2 r1
Eeq =
r1 + r2

r1 r2
req =
r1 + r2
E2 r2
 Note

If n identical cells are connected in parallel and then :-

E1 r

E1 r

n cells
R

EΤr E E
Eeq =n =E ⇒ Eeq = E i = R+req = r
nΤr R+
n
nE
r i = nR+r
req =
n
EXAMPLE If VB – VA = 4V then x will be ? 10𝛺 5V

A B
2V
Solution X𝛺

E2 r1 + E1 r2
VB − VA =
r1 + r2
5x + 20
4=
10 + x
4(10 + x) = 5x + 20

40 + 4x = 20 + 5x or x = 20
 2V 2𝛺
EXAMPLE Reading of Ammeter = ?

2𝛺
B A D
Solution

2V 2𝛺
2V 2𝛺 2V 1𝛺

2V 2𝛺
A A
2𝛺 2𝛺

𝟐
⇒ 𝑬𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝒗 ⇒ 𝑹𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟑𝜴 ⇒ 𝑰 = 𝑨
𝟑
EXAMPLE In the given diagram potential difference between A & B is 5V now terminals
of the 3V cell are reversed then find new potential difference between A & B.

6V 3𝛺
Solution
A B

X
E1 r2 + E2 r1 3V
Eeq =
r2 + r1

6x + 9
5= ⇒ 15 + 5x = 6x + 9
3+x
6=x
 Reversing the terminals

6V 3𝛺

A B

X=6
3V

𝟑𝟔 − 𝟗
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐄𝐞𝐪 =
𝟔+𝟑

𝟑𝟔 − 𝟗 𝟐𝟕
= = = 𝟑𝐕
𝟗 𝟗
 Short circuiting of the cell

When terminals of the cell are directly connected by a connecting wire

then it is short circuited and maximum current flows through it.

E r E r E r

i R=0

R→(load resistance)

If R=0

E E
i= Then i= = max If R = 0 → connecting wire
R+r r
EXAMPLE A current of 1A is flowing from (+ve) to (–ve) terminal inside the cell of emf
4.5 V and internal resistance 0.5W then find potential of the negative
terminal if potential of positive terminal is 10V.

Solution
Solution

4.5V 0.5Ω
+ –

TPD = E + ir

V+ – V– = 4.5 + 0.5 1

10 – V– = 5V

V1 = 5V
EXAMPLE Two cells X and Y are connected to a resistance of 10 Ω as shown in the
figure. The terminal voltage of cell Y is :

6V, 2Ω 4V, 8Ω
Solution
x
10Ω
Solution
10 10 1
V = E − Ir = 4 − ×8 = 0V(∵ I = = Aቇ
20 20 2
 If K cells (out of n cells each having emf E and internal resistance r) are wrongly
08 EXAMPLE
(oppositely) connected then find,
(a) Eeq
(b) Req

Solution

E r E r E r E r E r E r

n cells k cells
 Special Case
E1
𝐄𝟏 𝟎
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐄𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝐄𝐞𝐪 = = r1
𝟏 𝟏 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
+
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

Q. Find i in r2

(i) 𝟐𝛀
(ii) 𝟏𝛀

Sol.
4v
8v 2Ω

4Ω 1Ω
Q. 2 Find i in
(i) 4Ω
(ii) 1Ω

Sol. 4V 8V
4V
2Ω 4Ω

1Ω 2Ω
 E r E r E r
Mixed Combination
n times
Eeq = nE
m times
nr E r E r E r
req = m

nr
R eq = m
+R

nE mnE
i = nr = nr+mR DE Dr R
+R
m nr
nE m
Condition of Imax
DE Dr
When nr + mR → minimum
for that nr = mR m times
nE mE R
Imax = = Dr 2
2R 2r DE a+b = a− b + 2 ab

R a + b ⇒ min, when a = b
 Colour coding

Types of Resistors :

(1) Wire wound resistors : Resistors in which R ∝ ℓ

Example : rheostat resistance box
(2) Carbon Resistors :
COLOUR CODING OF CARBON RESISTORS

Color Number Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 10°
Brown 1 𝟏𝟎𝟏 ±1%
Red 2 𝟏𝟎𝟐 ±2%
Orange 3 𝟏𝟎𝟑
Yellow 4 𝟏𝟎𝟒
Green 5 𝟏𝟎𝟓
Blue 6 𝟏𝟎𝟔
Violet 7 𝟏𝟎𝟕
Grey 8 𝟏𝟎𝟖
White 9 𝟏𝟎𝟗
Gold - - ±5%
Silver - - ±10%
No Color - - ±20%
COLOUR CODING OF CARBON RESISTORS

R= — — × —  —
1 2 3 4

No. of color of I strip.

No. of color of II strip.

Multiplier color of III strip.

Tolerance color of IV strip.

EXAMPLE A carbon resistor has coloured strips as shown in figure.
What is its resistance ?
Violet Gold

Brown Red

(1) 𝟒𝟏𝟎𝛀 ± 𝟐% (2) 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝛀 ± 𝟓% (3) 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝛀 ± 𝟑% (4) 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝛀 ± 𝟐%

Solution
𝟒𝟕𝟎 ± 𝟓%, 𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝟐)
EXAMPLE A carbon resistor (47±4.7) 𝐤𝛀 is to be marked with rings of different colours for
its identification. The colour code sequence will be :
(1) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver
(2) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
(3) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold
(4) Green – Orange – Violet – Gold

Solution
𝐑 = 𝟒𝟕 ± 𝟒. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟒𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ± 𝟏𝟎%𝛀
As per color code, 4-Yellow, 7-Violet, 3-Orange, 10%-Silver
 Heating effects of current

When current passes through the conductor then drifting electrons

transfer their energy to atoms in collisions which increases thermal
energy of the conductor, results in increase in temperature. Energy is lost
in surroundings in form of heat.

Heat energy released from the conductor is equal to work done by the
battery .
 Heat & Power R
I
Heat = Energy = V. q
= V(It)

V2 E
H = VIt = t = I2 Rt
R

2
H V
Power = = VI = I2R =
t R

If I = variable

then 𝐻 = න𝐼2 𝑅𝑑𝑡

 Find
05 EXAMPLE I1 6Ω
(a) Potential difference in 3Ω resistor.
(b) Heat in 6Ω resistor in 10 sec.
8Ω
Solution
1A
3Ω

1A I2

10V
 Heating effects of current

Let voltage 'V' is applied across the conductor of resistance R and a

charge dq flows through it in time dt the done by the battery is

dW = dq V = idt V = idt iR = i2 Rdt

‫ ׬‬dW = ‫ ׬‬i2 Rdt

H = ‫ ׬‬i2 Rdt (as H = heat released = W)

V 2t
If I = constant H = i2 Rt = = Vit
R
Power delivered to the load resistance.

dw i2 Rdt 2
V2
P= = =i R= = Vi
dt dt R
EXAMPLE A coil boils some amount of H2O in 20 mins. Now this coil is cut into two
equal parts, and these are connected in parallel then find time taken by this
combination to boil same amount of water.

Solution

V2t
H=
R 𝐑ൗ
𝟐
As H and V are some 𝐑ൗ 𝐑ൗ
𝟐 𝟐
⇒R∝t = 𝐑ൗ𝟒

t
⇒ t′ = = 5min.
4 𝐑ൗ
𝟐
EXAMPLE If power consumed by 4W resistance is 36 watt then find :
(i) Power consumed b by 3W resistance
(ii) Value of E
(iii) Total power consumed in the circuit

Solution

4𝛺
3𝛺

6𝛺 6𝛺

𝐸
 Solution
V2
P=
R

V2
36 =
4

V = 12 V E= 12 + 12 = 24

VA2 144
P3Ω = = = 48
R 3

2
Vtotal (24)2
Ptotal = = = 96W
R total 3 + 3
 Some specific parameters

Ps = power specified

VS = voltage specified

VA = applied voltage

PC = consumed power

If VA > VS , then electrical device will not work or will be fused.

 Some specific parameters

Vs2 VA2 VS2 VA2

R= = =
Ps PC PS PC

2
VA
PC = PS
VS

1
As VS = constant ⇒ R ∝ P
S

𝐏𝐒 ↑ 𝐑 ↓ thickness of filament ↑

For example : R40W > R100w

Series combination

𝑅1 𝑅2

R = R1 + R 2 𝑉
𝑉
V12 V22 V32 (When rated voltage is not given take it equal to applied
= +
P P1 P2 voltage)
1 1 1
= +
P P1 P2

In case of n-identical bulbs

𝐏
𝐏𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 =
𝐧
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝑅2
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

𝐏 𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
= + 𝑅1
𝐕𝐬𝟐 𝐕𝐬𝟐 𝐕𝐬𝟐

P = P1 + P 2
𝑉 𝑉
Pparallel = nP
When bulbs of different power rating connected in series brightness of
bulb having large power rating will be less and vise of versa.

Resistance of an electrical device

𝟏
As ⇒ 𝐑 ∝
𝐏𝐒

PS ↑ R ↓ thickness of filament ↑

For example : R40W > R100w

 𝐏𝐬 = 𝟓𝟎𝐖
𝐏𝐬 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐖 𝐏𝐬 = 𝟐𝟓𝐖

𝐈𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝑷𝐜 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹
EXAMPLE Two bulbs of specifications 25W, 100 V; 100W, 100 V are connected in series
to a source of 100 V. Then find
(i) Resistance of each bulb
(ii) Power consumed by each bulb
(iii) Which bulb will have more brightness.

Solution

Vs2
i R=
Ps
100 × 100
R1 = = 400Ω
25
100 × 100
R2 = = 100Ω
100
Solution
1
(𝐢𝐢) R ∝
P
4 25W 100W 25W 100W
VA1 = × 100 = 80
5

4
VA2 = × 100 = 20
5 100V 100V
𝐏𝟏: 𝐏𝟐 𝟏 ∶𝟒
VA2 80 × 80 −
PC1 = = = 16W
R1 400 𝐑𝟏 ∶ 𝐑𝟐 − 𝟒 ∶ 𝟏

VA2 20 × 20
PC2 = = = 4W
R1 100
 Solution
(iii) as 25-watt bulb is consuming more power so it will have more
brightness because.

Brightness  PC
So, if bulbs are connected in series, then lesser watt bulb will have more
brightness and if they are connected in parallel then greater watt bulb
will have more brightness.
EXAMPLE Compare brightness of the bulb before and after switch is closed.

80W
B R

40W 40W 80W

2R R 2R

A C D 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

Solution
Let resistance of 80 W be R so resistance of 40 W be 2R.
As A and D are in series
So, PA > PD
and B and C are in parallel PB > PC
→ VA > VD > VC
Solution

VC2
PB =
R
VD2
PD =
R

PD > PB

PA > PD > PB > PC

After the switch is closed bulbs B and C are short-circuited

Solution
80W
VC2 B R
PB =
R 40W 40W 80W
2R 2R R
VD2
PD = A C D 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
R

PD > PB

PA > PD > PB > PC

after switch is closed bulbs B and C are 2R R

short-circuited and they will die out but 𝑉1 𝑉3
brightness's of the bulb A & D ↑ses due to ↑
in voltage.
Maximum Power Transfer theorem R
pmax

E
I= I
R+r
V = E – Ir Er
Pcell = V. I = E − Ir . I
Pcell = EI − I2 r
E2R
PR = I R =
2
2
R+r

For PR→ max

dPR
=0
dR

E 2 R + r 2 . 1 − 2R R + r
=0
[ 𝑅 + 𝑟 2]2
(R+r) [R+r-2R]= 0 or R=r R=r
 R
For PR→ max

dPR I
=0
dR
Er
E 2 R + r 2 . 1 − 2R R + r
=0
[ R + r 2]2
(R+r) [R+r-2R]= 0 or R=r R=r

E E E
I= = =
R + r vR vr

E2R E2 E2
PR max = R + R 2
= =
4R 4r
 P

E2 E2
Pmax = =
4r 4R

r
O
Also Pcell = EI – I2r …(ii)

dPcell
= 0= E−2Ir
dI

E
I=
2r

E E2 E2
Pmax cell = E. − =
2r 4r 4r
 Wheatstone Bridge

It is used to find unknown resistance in circuit.

R1 R2

A G R5 B

R3 R4

None of the shown resistance are in series and none of them are in a parallel.
 Balancing condition

R1 R3
If = than bridge is said to be balanced, in this case:
R2 R4

𝐕𝐱 = 𝐕𝐲

Thus, no current flows in xy branch. 𝒙

𝑅1 𝑅2

𝐴 G 𝑅5 𝐵

𝑅3 𝑅4

𝒚
Proof

In balancing condition
𝐱
ig = 0 i.e., x = y 𝐢𝟏
R1 R2
⇒ V−x=V−y
𝐢𝟏 𝐢𝐠 = 𝟎
i1 R1 = i2 R 3 𝐕 A B 𝟎
G R5
⇒ x − 0 = y − 0 = i1 R 2 = i2 R 4 𝐈
𝐢𝟐
On dividing we get R3 R4
R1 R3 𝐢𝟐
= 𝐲
R2 R4

R1 R 3
or = 𝐕
R2 R4

or R1 R 4 = R 2 R 3
EXAMPLE If reading of galvanometer of V is zero find equivalent resistance between A
and B 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 . x
5Ω
Solution
20Ω
𝐴 G 𝐵

7Ω 21Ω
Solution
20𝑥
5 20 + 𝑥
=
7 21
20𝑥
⇒ 3×5=
20 + 𝑥
⇒ 300 + 15𝑥 = 20𝑥

⇒ 300 = 5𝑥

⇒ 𝑥 = 60Ω
EXAMPLE A balanced WSB is shown if we interchange the position of battery and
galvanometer then find current in galvanometer :
B
Solution 4Ω 6Ω

A G C

2Ω 3Ω
D

V
 Solution

After exchange it will remains balance WSB so there is no current flowing through
G
 Balancing condition

R1 R3
If = than bridge is said to be balanced, in this case:
R2 R4

𝐕𝐱 = 𝐕𝐲

Thus, no current flows in xy branch. 𝒙

𝑅1 𝑅2

𝐴 G 𝑅5 𝐵

𝑅3 𝑅4

𝒚
EXAMPLE All resistances of network are R, Find 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = ? 𝑪

Solution

𝐴
𝐵
𝑫
Solution

𝐑𝐀𝐁 = 𝐑
Q.4 Find Req across A & B

2R R
10R
A B

6R 3R

R 2R
Q.5 Find Req across A & B 5R
A B
7R
2R 4R
Extended Wheatstone Bridge

Q. Find Req across A and B.

R 2R 4R

A 7R 10R B

2R 4R 8R
Important Points
1. If all resistance = R ⇒ Req = R (Balanced Wheatstone Bridge).
2. If (G) & battery are interchanged, then there is no effect on Wheatstone
Bridge.
3. Battery key is pressed first & then the galvanometer key [to avoid (G)
wire from burning due to EMI(electromagnetic induction)]
4. Wheatstone Bridge is most sensitive when all R are equal or nearly
equal.
𝐑 𝐑 R1 R3
5. If 𝐑𝟏 > 𝐑𝟑 ⇒ I from D to C. C
𝟐 𝟒

A R5 B

R2 D R4
 Metre Bridge
(i) It used to find unknown resistance in circuit.
(ii) Its working is based on WSB principle.
(iii) MB circuit R S
RB

D
A C

Thick copper Left gap Right gap

strip
l cm. (100- l ) cm.

A B C

Jockey MB wire
scale
(constantan
or manganin)
 R S
RB

A D C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm.

A B C

a. It has a wire of 1 m or 100 cm. on which balancing point is to be search.

b. Resistance of copper-strips are negligible due to very low resistivity and

greater cross-sectional area.

c. MB wire is taken of constantan or manganin due negligible temperature

co-efficient a. So resistance of the wire doesn’t change during the
experiment.
 R S
RB

A D C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm.

A B C

(iv) Working

Initially a resistance R is taken out from a resistance box and jockey is

tapped on the wire find balancing point B where deflection in
galvanometer becomes zero. distance of this pt. B from left end is called
balancing length ‘l’
 R S
RB

A D C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm.

A B C

In balancing condition

P R R S 100 − ℓ
(a) = ⇒ =
Q S ρℓ/A ρ(100 − ℓ) S= R
ℓ
A
b. Balancing length is independent of the radius of the cross-section of the
wire.

c. Jockey should not be rubbed against the wire because rubbing action
changes the cross-section of the wire.

d. END ERROR and END CORRECTION – this error occurs due to neglecting
resistances at the connection point A & C. end corrections e1 & e2 are the
lengths corresponding to resistances at connection points so equation
becomes.

ℓ + 𝑒1 𝑅
=
(100 − ℓ) + 𝑒2 𝑆
EXAMPLE In meter bridge experiment x W is connected in left side and 2 W (< x) is
connected in right side now position of these two resistances interchanged
and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm find value of x.

Solution

x 2W
RB
X 2
A D C
Left gap Right gap G
l cm. (100- l ) cm.
𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
A B C
In meter bridge experiment x W is connected in left side and 2 W (< x) is
connected in right side now position of these two resistances interchanged
and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm find value of x.

Solution

x 2W
RB

A D C X D 2
A C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm. G

A B C A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
EXAMPLE In meter bridge experiment x W is connected in left side and 2 W (< x) is
connected in right side now position of these two resistances interchanged
and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm find value of x.
X 2
Solution A
D
C

x 2 G
=
ℓ1 100 − ℓ1 A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
2ℓ1
x= … . (1)
100 − ℓ1
X D 2
On inter changing A C

G
A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
Solution X D 2
A C
x 2
= G
ℓ1 100 − ℓ1
A C
2ℓ1 𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
x= … . (1)
100 − ℓ1

On inter changing

2 x
=
ℓ1 100 − ℓ2 2 D X
A C
2(100 − ℓ2 )
x= … . (2)
ℓ2 G
∴ ℓ1 − ℓ2 = 20 A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
Using (1) and (2) we get ℓ1 + ℓ2 = 100
Solution
ℓ1 + ℓ2 = 100
ℓ1 − ℓ2 = 20
2ℓ1 = 120

or ℓ1 = 60

2ℓ1 2(60)
x= =
100 − ℓ1 100 − 60
120
x= = 3Ω
40
Post Office Box
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000

1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50

D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
 P.O. Box
A B B
Only 3 resistors C
R1 R3
10Ω, 100Ω, 1000Ω A
G
C
A → B = R1 G
E R2 R4
B → C =R3
D
BD → C =R2 D
Metal Strip K2 E Unknow
K1
resistance{X}
R1 R 3
It is a balanced Wheat Stone’s Bridge ⇒ =
R2 R4
Battery → between A & C
Galvanometer → between B & D
⊗→ between C & D
 X

P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000

–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50

D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
 X

P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000

–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50

D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
 Post Office Box

A post office box can measure the value of the unknown resistance correctly up
to 2nd decimal place
x

A
1000 100 10
B 10 100 1000 C B
P Q
P Q
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50 G
+
A C
R ¥ K
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100  R
D – X
D
k1 k2

G V
(a)
 Working

The working of the post office box involves broadly the following four steps
:

(1) Keeping R zero, each of the resistances P and Q are made equal to 10
ohm by taking out suitable plugs from the arms AB and BC respectively.
After pressing the battery key first and then the galvanometer key, the
direction of deflection of the galvanometer coil is noted. Now, making R
infinity, the direction of deflection is again noted. If the direction is
opposite to that in the first case, then the connections are correct.
(2) Keeping both P and Q equal to 10W, the value of R is adjusted, beginning
from 1W, till the direction of deflection reverses . The 'unknown' resistance
clearly lies somewhere between the two final values of R.

𝐗=𝐑
𝐐
=𝐑
𝟏𝟎 B
𝐏 𝟏𝟎
P Q
G
A C
K
R X
D

V
 X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000

–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50

D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

𝐊 𝟏 \ 𝐀’ 𝐊 𝟐 \ 𝐁’

𝐑 = 𝟒𝛀 → 𝟓𝛀
(3) Making P 100 W and keeping Q 10 W, we again find those values of R
between which direction of deflection is reversed. Clearly, the resistance
in the arm AD will be 10 times the resistance X of the wire.

𝐐 𝟏𝟎 𝐑
𝐗=𝐑 =𝐑 =
𝐏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎
B
Now R should lie between 40W and 50W P Q
G
A C
K
R X
D

V
 X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000

–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50

D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟐𝜴 → 𝟒𝟑𝜴
(4) Now, P is made 1000 W and Q is kept at 10 W. The resistance in the arm
AD will now be 100 times the 'unknown' resistance.

𝟏𝟎 𝐑
𝐗=𝐑 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

B
Now R should lie between 420W and 430W P Q
G
A C
K
R X
D

V
 X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000

–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50

D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

𝐊 𝟏 \ 𝐀’ 𝐊 𝟐 \ 𝐁’

𝐑 = 𝟒𝟐𝟒𝛀 → 𝟒𝟐𝟔𝛀
 Galvanometer

It is used to detect the current i.e., current is flowing or not or direction of

current is reversed or not.
Its working is based on torque on current carrying coil.

𝜽∝𝒊

Measures small value of current.

 Galvanometer

Maximum value of current at which galvanometer shows maximum

deflection or full-scale deflection is known as ‘ig’.
Sensitivity = Response/input

𝜽
(a) Current sensitivity =
𝑰

𝜽
(b) Voltage sensitivity =
𝑽
 Ammeter

An ammeter is connected in series with a current carrying wire, to

measure current passing through it. Since it is connected to the wire and
has a finite amount of resistance, there will be some potential difference
across it. This will lead to the change in actual flow of current. In an ideal
situation, where the ammeter can measure the actual current passing
through a wire, there should be no voltage drop across it, and hence its
resistance should be zero.
 Voltmeter

A voltmeter is connected in parallel to the current carry wire, to measure

the potential difference between two points. Since it is connected to the
wire, a finite amount of current will pass through it. This will lead to the
change in actual flow of current, and hence, change in the actual
potential difference. In an ideal situation, where the voltmeter can
measure the actual potential difference across two points, there should
be no current passing through it, and hence its resistance should be
infinite.
 Ammeter

To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter a very small resistance is

connected in parallel to the galvanometer called SHUNT.

Resistance of an ammeter is very small, and it is zero for ideal ammeter

i.e., ideal ammeter behave like conducting wire.

Value of shunt.

i-𝑖𝑔 S
SG
≡ A ⇒ RA =
i S+G
G
i 𝑖𝑔 Ammeter of
Range ( 0-i)
 Ammeter

To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter a very small resistance is

connected in parallel to the galvanometer called SHUNT.

Resistance of an ammeter is very small, and it is zero for ideal ammeter

i.e., ideal ammeter behave like conducting wire.

Value of shunt.

i-𝑖𝑔 S
SG
≡ A ⇒ RA =
i S+G
G
i 𝑖𝑔 Ammeter of
Range ( 0-i)
 𝐕𝐒 = 𝐕𝐆

ig
𝐢 − 𝐢𝐠 𝐒 = 𝐢𝐠 𝐆 S= G
i − ig

1 G 𝐢
S= G S= 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐧 =
i n−1 𝐢𝐠
ig − 1

Where ,

G - resistance of galvanometer

ig - range of galvanometer Or current required to produce full deflection.

I - Range of ammeter [Current of be measured.]

EXAMPLE A galvanometer of resistance 99 W of range is 10 mA is converted into an
ammeter of range 10 A then find required resistance.

Solution
Galvanometer → Ammeter
G = 99

Ig = 10 mA = 10-2

I = 10 A
10
𝑛= = 1000
10−2
𝐺 99
𝑆= = = 0.099Ω
(𝑛 − 1) 999
EXAMPLE Resistance of a galvanometer is 45 W if only 10% of the main current passes
through the galvanometer when it is connected to a shunt find shunt
resistance.

Solution

𝟏𝟎
𝐢𝐠 = 𝐢 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝐢
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝐢
𝐧 = = 𝟏𝟎
𝐢𝐠

𝐆 𝟒𝟓
𝐒= = = 𝟓𝛀
(𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝟗
 Voltmeter

To convert galvanometer into voltmeter a high resistance is connect in

series with a galvanometer.

Resistance of voltmeter is very high, and it is  for ideal voltmeter so ideal

voltmeter ⎯→ open circuit.

𝒊𝒈 H Voltmeter
G
𝒊𝒈
R
i A (𝒊 − 𝒊𝒈 ) B
Resistance R and (G+H) are in parallel between points A and B so we can
write
ig G + H = i − ig R

ig G + ig H = i − ig R = V

Vg + VH = V or VH = V − Vg

or VH = V − Vg

or ig H = V − Vg

Vg
or H = V − Vg
G
or Vg H = (V − Vg )G
 𝒊𝒈 H Voltmeter
V − Vg V G
or H= G= −1 G
Vg Vg 𝒊𝒈

V i R
H= −1 G
Vg

V : Range of voltmeter

Vg : Range of galvanometer

H= n−1 G

V
where n =
Vg
EXAMPLE Resistance of a galvanometer is 50 W and its current sensitivity is 1 mA/div
and it has 20 division it is to be converted into a voltmeter of 10V then find
required resistance for the conversion.

Solution
Ig = 20 × 1 = 2 × 10-2 A

Vg = ig G = 2 × 10-2 × 50 = 1V

𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏
𝐇= × 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝛀
𝟏
EXAMPLE Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit resistance of voltmeter is 1 kW.

Solution 2000𝛺
V
6000𝛺
1000𝛺

90V
2000𝛺 1000𝛺
1000𝛺
6000𝛺

90V
Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit resistance of voltmeter is 1 kW.

Solution

𝟗𝟎 𝟑
current passing through circuit 𝐈 = = 𝐀
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
 Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit resistance of voltmeter is 1 kW.

Solution

2 2
current passing through voltmeter branch = A Vreading = × 1000 = 20V
100 100
Potentiometer

It is a device which is used to measure potential difference accurately.

\ It does not draw any current from the circuit.
potentiometer
potentiometer
Circuit of potentiometer

Known
E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
Primary circuit
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B
Secondary circuit
Jockey Potentiometer wire
G

Galvanometer
Unknown
Circuit of potentiometer

Known
E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
Primary circuit
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B
Circuit of potentiometer E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
Primary circuit
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B

Potential gradient

Potential drop across wire per unit length is known is potential gradient.
I, A, ρ
𝐕
A i=const. B
ρℓ
VAB = V= iR R AB =
A
iρℓ = iρ ℓ 𝛉
V= 𝐥
A A

V iρ V iρ
PG = = = constant Slope = tanθ = = = PG
ℓ A l A
Working principle of potentiometer

If a constant current is flowing through a wire of uniform cross-section area,

then potential drop across any length of wire is directly proportional to the
length of wire.

E r (S) Rh
Rheostat

J
A B
l
V∝l
Potential gradient

Current flowing in primary circuit

E
i=
r + Rh + Rw

E r (S) Rh
Rheostat

𝑅𝑤 , L
A B

Vwire iR w ER w 1
P. G. = = = ×
Lwire L r + Rh + R w L

P.G. depends on only primary circuit.

If we change secondary circuit then P.G. will remain unchanged.

 Imp. Points regarding connection error

positive terminals of cell 1 and cell 2 should be connected with end A.

If same polarity of cell 1 and cell 2 are not connected with each other
then balancing condition (null deflection) cannot be obtained.
 Applications

1. To find emf of cell

V
Potential gradient = x =
L
E = xℓ
EXAMPLE A cell of emf 20V and internal resistance 1 ohm is connected to a
potentiometer wire of resistance 9 ohm and length 10m, then find potential
gradient

Solution
EXAMPLE A cell of 2V is connected with a wire of length 10 m and resistance 40W in
primary circuit of potentiometer, this setup is used to measure unknown emf
of cell of internal resistance 0.2W, if balancing length is 4 m, then find
unknown emf.

Solution
Potential difference across potentiometer wire is 2V, so its potential gradient
will be

2
x= = 0.2V/m
10

As balancing length is 4m
𝐅𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐄 = 𝐱𝐥

E = 0.2 × 4 = 0.8V
 Compare Emf of 2 cells

When switch is connected between 1 and 2 then balancing length is = l1

𝐄𝟏 = 𝐱𝓵𝟏 …………………....(1)
 When switch is connected between 2 and 3

When switch is connected between 2 and 3 then balancing length is = l2

E2 = xℓ2 …………………....(1)
From (1) and (2) we get E1 ℓ1
=
E2 ℓ2
 Find internal resistance of a cell

If K → open

Balancing length will be obtained for emf of cell connected in secondary circuit.

If l1 is balancing length, then

E = xl1 …………...(1)
If Balancing length is l2

When K → closed

V = x l2

E – ir = 𝑥ℓ2 = iR

current in secondary circuit

E
i=
r+R

P. D. across R

E
iR = R
r+R
This P. D. must be equal to P. D. across length ℓ2 of potentiometer wire

ER
= xℓ2 ………(2)
r+R
 𝐄𝐑
= 𝐱𝓵𝟐 ………(2)
𝐫+𝐑

Now put the value of E by (1) E = 𝑥ℓ1

(𝐱𝓵𝟏 )𝐑
= 𝐱𝓵𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝓵𝟏 𝐑 = (𝐫 + 𝐑)𝓵𝟐
𝐫+𝐑

ℓ1 − ℓ2
r= R
ℓ2
EXAMPLE A potentiometer wire is 100 cm long and a constant potential difference is
maintained across it. Two cells are connected in series first to support one
another and then in opposite direction. The balance points are obtained at
50 cm and 10 cm from the positive end of the wire in the two cases. The ratio
of emf’s is :-
(1) 5 : 1 (2) 5 : 4
(3) 3 : 4 (4) 3 : 2

Solution
 2V 1𝛺 4𝛺
EXAMPLE Find value of balancing length (l).

10m Rω = 40𝛺

l
5V G
1𝛺
9𝛺
Solution
2
current passing through primary circuit 𝐼 =
45
𝐼𝑅𝑤 2 × 40 16
𝑃. 𝐺. = = =
𝐿 45 × 10 90
5 1
current passing through secondary circuit 𝑖 = = 𝐴
10 2
1 16 9 16 810
𝐸 − 𝑖𝑟 = 5 − × 1 = ×ℓ 𝑜𝑟 = ×ℓ 𝑜𝑟 ℓ =
2 90 2 90 32
EXAMPLE A potentiometer circuit has been set up for finding the internal resistance of
a given cell. The main battery, used across the potentiometer wire, ha an
emf of 2.0 V and a negligible internal resistance. The potentiometer wire
itself is 4m long, when a resistance R, connected across the given cell, has
values of ,
(i) Infinity (ii) 9.5 W
The balancing lengths on the potentiometer wire are found to be 3m and
2.85 m respectively. The value of internal resistance of the cell is :-
(1) 0.25 W (2) 0.95 W
(3) 0.5 W (4) 0.75 W

Solution
Symmetry Circuits
 2 2

I
R

2 2
 2 2

I
R

2 2
 2 2

I
R

2 2
EXAMPLE Find Req ? RW

RW RW RW
RW

I RW

Solution RW
RW

RW RW RW
RW

RW RW 𝟖𝑹
I 𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
𝟕
 RW
EXAMPLE Find Req ?
RW RW RW
RW RW
A B
RW RW
RW RW RW
RW

𝟒𝑹
𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
𝟓
 B
EXAMPLE Find Req between?
(i) A & C (ii) A & O (iii) A & B R
R
R

R R
A C
O

R
R
R

D
EXAMPLE All 12 Resistance, each of RW. Find Req between :-
(i) A & C → Face diagonal B
(ii) A & E → Edge
(iii) A & G → Body diagonal
F

E G
A C

D
Earthing
 Earthing

5v
A B
1. Find VA, VB, VC & VD 1Ω

13Ω
D C
2. Find I through 3Ω.
2Ω 3Ω

10v 2Ω 3Ω
Half Deflection Method

It is used to determine resistance of a Galvanometer (G)

E R E R
I1 I
Ig
G G
S
E
I1 = = Kθ
R+G

K → figure of merit E IS Kθ
I= GS ⇒ Ig = G+S =
R+G+S 2

E G+S S 1 E
× = 2 × R+G
R G+S +GS G+S

RS
G = R−S
 5 5

I
5

5 5
 2 4

I
2

4 2
 2W 4W Node Method
x

2W

I y
4W 2W

10v
Star ⇌ Delta Method
(i) Star → Delta

R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Z1 =
R1

R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Z2 =
R2
Star
Delta
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Z3 =
R3
R1
Z3 Z2
R2
R3

Z1
 Star ⇌ Delta Method
(ii) Delta → Star

R2R3 R1 R2
Z1 = Z3
R1 + R 2 + R 3
Z2 Z1
R 3 R1
Z2 =
R1 + R 2 + R 3 R3

R1 R 2
Z3 =
R1 + R 2 + R 3
 2 4

I
2

4 2
EXAMPLE Find Req ? 1
5W Ω
2

A 1W B

Solution 4W 3
Ω
5
1 1
Ω Ω
2 2
2W
A 1W B

2 3
Ω Ω
5 5

𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐 + = 𝟐. 𝟓𝛀
𝟐