Current Electricity
Current Electricity
Current Electricity
ELECTRICITY
Electric current and drift velocity
Electric current
t t
P Q P Q
I → from P to Q always I → P to Q then Q to P & so on.
∆𝑞 𝑑𝑞
∆𝑞 𝑖 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
𝑖= ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑡
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝒒 = න 𝒊𝒅𝒕
Some important points about current
5𝐴
2𝐴
5𝐴 8𝐴
60°
3𝐴
3𝐴
Direction matters!
Solution
𝑡
𝑞 = 0 𝑖𝑑𝑡
2
𝑞 = 0 2 + 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡
q = 12C
Alternate method
EXAMPLE Current I = (2 + 4 t) A where T is in seconds is flowing through a wire for 2
seconds. Find out amount of charge flowing through wire
10
2
t
0 2
Q ne
Solution i= =
t t
i×t 20 × 20 × 10−3
n= = = 2.5 × 1018 electrons.
e 1.6 × 10−19
EXAMPLE In a discharge tube 3 × 1018 electrons/sec. are moving from right to left and
2 × 1018 (+ve) ions per second are moving from left to right. Then find current
through the discharge tube.
Solution
–
–
+
+
2𝜋𝑟 𝑟
T = time period =
𝑉
𝑒 𝑒 𝑉
𝑖= = =𝑒
𝑇 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
𝑉
𝑖
(3.14 × 106 )
𝑖 = 1.6 × 10−19
2 × 3.14 × 1.6 × 10−2
𝑖 = 5 × 10−12 𝐴
EXAMPLE Graph of a current carrying wire versus time is given, find out the amount of
charge flowing through the wire in the time interval t = 2s to t = 12 s.
𝒊(𝑨)
Solution
10
t
Q = t 2 Idt = Area under I-t graph
1 5
2 8 12 t(𝒔𝒆𝒄)
10
1
5 (5 + 10) (4)=30
2
30 q = A1 + A2 = 30+30=60C
2 8 12
Assumptions about conductor
number of free 𝑒 −
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
‘n’ =free e– density or free charge density 𝑛 = =
volume of conductor 𝐦𝟑
Free e– density in conductor is 1028 to 1029 free electrons per unit volume.
Mean Free Path (𝜆)
𝜆5
𝜆𝑁
𝜆2
𝜆1 𝜆4
𝜆3
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 . . . . . +𝜆𝑁
𝜆= Order of l = 10Å
𝑁
Mean Relaxation Time (t)
The time taken by free e– b/w two successive collision is called relaxation
time (t) and average of all these times is called mean relaxation time.
𝜏1 + 𝜏2 + 𝜏3 + ⋯ … 𝜏𝑁
𝜏= (Order of 𝝉 = 10–14 sec.)
𝑁
Before application of electric field between ends of conductor
After application of electric field between ends of conductor
Due to application of potential difference/Voltage across conductor an
electric field is produced inside the conductor.
Due to this force these electrons starts drifting in the opposite direction of
electric field and during motion they face many collision with heavy
positive ions in their path.
So, the velocity with which e– effectively displaced is called drift velocity.
Relation between drift velocity and current
Fe = eE(−i)Ƹ …..(1)
eE
ae = (−i)Ƹ …..(2)
m
eE
Now after time t1 (say) it will be having velocity V1 V1 = Vth + t1 −iƸ
m
Averaging over N electrons
eE
< V > =< Vth > + t −iƸ
m 1
𝑒𝐸𝜏 eEτ
𝑉𝑑 = 0 + − 𝑖Ƹ or Vd = −iƸ
𝑚 m
Note
This drift velocity is very low of order 10–4m but electrical appliances
immediately starts working just after switch is on because electric
field propagates with the speed of light in circuit and instantly exert
the fore on free electron at their own location.
Important points about current carrying conductor
𝐸
E=0
+ –
Relation between drift velocity and current
𝒅𝒙
+ –
𝑟
𝑬
𝒗𝒅
+ –
Let ‘n’ represents number of free electron per unit volume or free
electron density.
dx N
Vd = (n = , free electrons density)
dt V
dV = Adx dq enAdx dx
i= = = enA
dt dt dt
dN = ndV = nAdx
A
ԦJ I
A 𝐈
current density 𝐉 =
𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
θ
𝐈 = 𝐉 𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
Acosθ I
𝐈 = 𝐉. 𝐀
𝑑𝐴
𝜃
𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 I
𝑑𝐼
current density 𝐽 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽 (𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒐𝒓 I = න J (dAcosθ)
Ex. : For conductor of non uniform cross sectional area.
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝑨𝟑
𝑨𝟐
𝑨𝟏
Current through each area of cross section is same.
I I I
J1 = ; J2 = ; J3 =
A1 A2 A3
i neAVd
From J= = = neVd
A A
𝐉 = 𝐧𝐞𝐕𝐝
eEτ
Also Vd =
m
ne2 τ
J = σE (σ = is conductivity of conductor)
m
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Where 𝜎 = is Conductivity of a material
𝑚
1 𝑚
Also 𝜎 = 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 (ρ is resistivity of a material)
𝑉𝑑 𝟏 𝐞𝐄𝛕 𝑒𝜏
𝜇= = Þm=
𝐸 𝐄 𝐦 𝑚
1
Electrons have more mobility than proton µ ∝ mass
Note
temperature ↑ , 𝛕 ↓,
𝐞𝐄𝛕
𝐕𝐝 = , 𝐕𝐝 ↓
𝐦
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
𝛔= , 𝛔 ↓, 𝛒 ↑
𝐦
𝐞𝛕
m= , 𝛍↓
𝐦
EXAMPLE The number of free e– per 10 mm of an ordinary copper wire is 2 × 1021. The
avg. drift speed of e– is 0.25 mm/sec. Calculate the current flow in the wire :
Solution
𝐴
N = Total no of free e–
ℓ
𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
N
𝑖= 𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑
Aℓ
N
𝑖= 𝑒𝑉𝑑
ℓ
2 × 1021
𝑖= × 1.6 × 10–19 (0.25) = 8𝐴
10
EXAMPLE Two wires each of radius of cross section r but of different materials
are connected together end to end (in series). If the densities of
charge carriers in the two wires are in the ratio 1 : 4, the drift velocity
of electrons in the two wires will be in the ratio:
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 2 : 1 (3) 4 : 1 (4) 1 : 4
Solution
I = neAvd
1
vd ∝
n
vd1 n2 4n1
= = =4∶1
vd2 n1 n1
EXAMPLE A current I flows through a uniform wire of diameter d then the electrons drift
velocity is v. The same current will flow through a wire of diameter d/2 made
of the same material, the drift velocity of the electrons in second wire is.
(1) v/4 (b) v/2 (c) 2v (4) 4v
Solution
I
j = = nevd
A
4I
= nevd1 … … … … … … . (i)
πd2
16I
= nevd2 … … … … … … . (ii)
πd2
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝐴2
𝐴1
Figure shown above is representing a current carrying wire with having non
uniform cross sectional area find out the relation between physical quantities
on their two ends.
(i) i (ii) 𝐕𝐝 (iii) J (iv) E
Solution
Solution
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝐴2
𝐴1
(1) Electric current is the rate flow of electric charge and that is
completely independent from the cross section of given figure.
Hence I1 = I2
I I
(2) I = ne Avd , vd = , vd ∝ vd1 > vd2
neA A
(3) J = neVd , J ∝ vd J1 > J2
(4) J = σE , J ∝ E E1 > E2
Ohm’s Law
V ∝I
V
= constant = R (Resistance)
I
𝐈∝𝐕 𝐕∝𝐈
𝐈 = 𝐆𝐕 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝑰 𝑽
𝜃 𝜃
𝑽 𝑰
𝐈 𝐕
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐆 𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 = = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐑
𝐕 𝐈
Proof of Ohm’s law
I = neA𝐯𝒅 … (i)
o + at1 + o + at 2 +. . . . . . o + at n
vd =
N
𝑡𝑖 eEτ
vd =a = aτ =
N m
eEτ
∴ I = neAvd = neA
m
ne2 A V
I= τ
m l
V ml
= 2 =R
I ne Aτ
Ohm’s Law (other forms)
1) V = IR
V = IR
ρℓ
2) E = ρJ E ℓ =I A
E = Jρ
3) J = σE 1
ρ=σ
E
=J
ρ
J = σE
Factors affecting R
𝟏. 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝒐𝐧 ℓ ⇒ 𝐑 ∝ ℓ
𝟏
𝟐. 𝐃𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐬 𝒐𝐧 𝐀 ⇒ 𝐑 ∝
𝐀
𝟑. Temperature (T)
i) for metals – if T ↑ ⇒ 𝜏 ↓
⇒ R increases
∴ if T ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↑
ii) alloys = 𝑇 ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↑
iii) electrolytes = 𝑇 ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↓ due to ↓ in viscosity
iv) Semiconductors = 𝑇 ↑ ⇒ 𝑅 ↓
due to↑ in formation of e- & holes.
EXAMPLE For a conductor V-I graph is ploated at two temp 𝐓𝟏 and 𝐓𝟐 shown in figure.
Select the correct one V
𝐓𝟏
𝐓𝟐
𝛉𝟏
𝛉𝟐
I
𝟐
(1) 𝐓𝟏 = 𝐓𝟐 (2) 𝐓𝟏 < 𝐓𝟐 (3) 𝐓𝟏 > 𝐓𝟐 (4) 𝐓𝟏 = 𝟐
Solution 𝛉𝟏 > 𝛉𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉𝟏 > 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛉𝟐 ⇒ 𝐓𝟏 > 𝐓𝟐
𝑅
EXAMPLE In the shown i-V curve 𝑅1 will be? 𝑰
2 R1
R2
60𝑜
Solution 30𝑜
𝑽
Slope of given graph gives conductance (G)
1 1
tan60° = G1 = 3 = , R1 =
R1 3
1 1
tan30° = G2 = = , R2 = 3
3 R 2
𝐑𝟏 𝟏Τ 𝟑 𝟏
= =
𝐑𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
Note
Ohm’s law is not a universal law as it is not valid everywhere for example PN
junction diode/Semiconductor etc.
I
V
Note
Resistance of conductor also depends on direction of flow of current.
𝜌ℓ
𝑅=
𝐴
𝟔
𝟐
𝑎
𝟏
2𝑎 3𝑎 𝟓
Solution
𝟒
Solution 𝟐
𝑎 ρ(3a) 3ρ
R12 = =
2a2 2𝑎
𝟏
3𝑎
2𝑎
𝟑
ρ(𝑎) ρ
R34 = = 𝟑
6𝑎2 6𝑎
𝑎
𝑎
3𝑎
2𝑎
ρ(2𝑎) 2ρ 2𝑎 3𝑎
R56 =
𝟒 3𝑎2 = 3𝑎 𝟒
𝑟1
𝑟2
𝒍
Solution
Electric current is flowing along the length of conductor through area of cross
section
𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟22 −𝑟12 )
𝜌𝑙
If 𝒍 is length of conductor along current flow From 𝑅 =
𝐴
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝟐 −𝒓𝟐𝟏 )
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE
𝜌ℓ1 𝜌ℓ2
Initial resistance of wire : 𝑅1 = Final resistance of wire : 𝑅2 =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑅1 𝜌ℓ1 𝐴2 ℓ1 𝐴2 ℓ12
= × = × = 𝐑 ∝ ℓ𝟐
𝑅2 𝐴1 𝜌ℓ2 ℓ2 𝐴1 ℓ22
EFFECT OF STRETCHING ON RESISTANCE OF WIRE
If ℓ2 = 𝑛ℓ1
2 2
𝑅2 𝑙2 𝑛ℓ1
= = = 𝑛2 R 2 = n2 R 1
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝑙1
Also
2 2 4
𝑅2 𝑙2 𝐴1 𝑟1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= = = 𝐑 ∝ ∝ ∝
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝐴2 𝑟2 𝐀𝟐 𝐫𝟒 𝐃𝟒
EXAMPLE Three copper wires have their lengths in the ratio 5 : 3 : 1 and their masses are
in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5. Their electrical resistance will be in the ratio
(1) 5 : 3 : 1 (2) 1 : 3 : 5
(3) 125 : 15 : 1 (4) 1 : 15 : 125
Solution
l1 : l2 : l3 :: 5 : 3 : 1 And m1 : m2 : m3 :: 1 : 3 : 5
ρℓ ρℓ ρℓ2 ℓ2
𝑅= = 𝑙= (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) R
A V m m
∝
25 9 1
R1 : R2 : R3 = : : = 125 : 15 : 1
1 3 5
Note
∆𝑹 ∆ℓ ∆ℓ
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧)
𝑹 ℓ ℓ
(3) Similarly for area
∆𝑹 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑨
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = −𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧)
𝑹 𝑨 𝑨
Note
∆𝑅 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
× 100% = −4 × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟
∆𝑅 𝑅𝑓 − 𝑅𝑖
× 100% = × 100%
𝑅 𝑅𝑖
EXAMPLE A wire is stretched by 30% of its original. Find % increase in resistance.
As we know 𝑅 ∝ ℓ2
2 2
𝑅2 𝑙2 1.3𝑙
= = = 1.69
𝑅1 𝑙1 𝑙
𝑅2 = 1.69 𝑅1
∆𝑅 1.69 𝑅1 − 𝑅1
× 100% = × 100% = 69%
𝑅 𝑅1
EXAMPLE A wire is stretched so that its radius is decreased by 3% find % change in its
resistance.
Solution
We know that here radius is decreased by 3% than % change in
resistance is given by the formula.
∆𝑅 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟
× 100% = −4 × 100% (use with sign)
𝑅 𝑟 𝑟
∆𝑅
× 100% = −4 −3 × 100 % = +12%
𝑅
EXAMPLE A metal wire of length ℓ has resistance 𝑅 half of its length is stretched
uniformly such that final length of wire becomes 2ℓ. The new resistance of
wire will be ?
(a) 2R (b) 3R (c) 4R (d) 5R
Solution
𝒍/𝟐 𝒍/𝟐
EXAMPLE A metal wire of length ℓ has resistance 𝑅 half of its length is stretched
uniformly such that final length of wire becomes 2ℓ. The new resistance of
wire will be ?
(a) 2R (b) 3R (c) 4R (d) 5R
Solution
𝒍/2 𝟑𝒍/𝟐
Resistance of left part Resistance of right part
𝜌ℓ/2 𝜌ℓ 𝜌3ℓ/2 9𝜌ℓ
𝑅1 = = 𝑅2 = =
𝐴 2𝐴 𝐴/3 2𝐴
ρℓ 9ρℓ 5ρℓ
Net resistance R′ = + = = 5R
2A 2A A
TEMPERATURE VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY / RESISTANCE
𝚫𝛒 𝟏 𝟏 𝐝𝛒 𝟏 𝚫𝐑 𝟏 𝐝𝐑
𝛂= ∙ 𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐫 = 𝐒𝐈 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝛂 = °𝐂 −𝟏 𝐊 −𝟏
𝛒𝐨 𝚫𝐓 𝛒𝐨 𝐝𝐓 𝐑 𝐨 𝚫𝐓 𝐑 𝐨 𝐝𝐓
On increasing the temperature value of resistance may ↑ or ↓ which
depends on value of 𝜶
∝ (𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐜𝐨 − 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭)
+𝐯𝐞 −𝐯𝐞 ≃𝟎
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 𝐂𝐮 𝐒𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐆𝐞, 𝐒𝐢) 𝐀𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐲
𝐓↑𝐑↑ 𝐓↑𝐑↑ (𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭, 𝐌𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐧,
𝐍𝐢𝐜𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐞)
𝐓 ↑ 𝐑𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞
EXAMPLE Resistance of a wire at 0°C temperature is 𝟏𝛀 its temperature coefficient is
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 per degree C and temperature at which resistance will become 𝟏. 𝟓𝛀
Solution
Using 𝐑 = 𝐑 𝐨 [𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓]
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐓
𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝐓)
𝟐
𝐓 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎°
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟔𝛀 𝐚𝐭 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝐂 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓𝛀 𝐚𝐭 𝟓𝟎°𝐂
EXAMPLE
Resistance of wire at 0°C ?
Solution
Let resistance at 𝟎°𝑪 = 𝑹𝟎
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟔𝛀 = 𝐑 𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎)]
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓𝛀 = 𝐑 𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝜶(𝟓𝟎 − 𝟎)]
𝟔 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝜶
= 𝟔 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝜶 = 𝟓 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝜶
𝟓 𝟏 + 𝟓𝟎𝜶
𝟏 −𝟏
𝛂= 𝐂 𝐣
𝟐𝟎𝟎
EXAMPLE If the temperature change for a metalic wire is 5°C then change in resistance
is 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝛀. If 𝛂 is 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 per °C calculate the resistance at 0°C
Solution
𝐑 𝐓 = 𝐑 𝐨 (𝟏 + 𝛂𝚫𝐭)
𝐑𝐓
− 𝟏 = 𝛂𝚫𝐭
𝐑𝐨
𝐑𝐓 − 𝐑𝐨
= 𝛂𝚫𝐭
𝐑𝐨
𝚫𝐑
= 𝛂𝚫𝐭
𝐑𝐨
ΔR 8 × 10−5 −1 = 0.04Ω
Ro = = = 0.4 × 10
αΔt 4 × 10−4 × 5
KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW ( Kirchoff’s 1st law )
At junction,
𝐢𝟏 + 𝐢𝟐 + 𝐢𝟑 = 𝐢𝟒
𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊 𝟐 + 𝒊𝟑 − 𝒊𝟒 = 𝟎
i1 i4 i3
𝚺𝐈 = 𝟎
𝚺𝐈 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 = 𝚺𝐈 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐠𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐠
𝚺𝐪𝐢𝐧 𝚺𝐪𝐨𝐮𝐭
=
𝐭 𝐭
𝚺𝐪𝐢𝐧 = 𝚺𝐪𝐨𝐮𝐭
4A 2A
3A 1.3 A
Solution
KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW ( Kirchoff’s 2nd law/kirchoff’s loop law )
ΣV loop = 0
R2 R2
V2
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
𝐢 𝐕 𝐢 𝐕
𝐀 + –𝟏 𝐀 + –𝟏
+ + + +
𝐑𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 (V1 > V2 ) 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 (V1 > V2 )
– – – –
𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐
+ – + –
𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐕𝐀 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝟏 − 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 = 𝐕𝐀
𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎 𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟏 − 𝐢𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
+ –
𝟏𝟐𝐕 𝟐𝐕
𝟏𝟎𝐕
𝐃. 𝐂. 𝐁𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲
𝟐𝐯 𝟓𝛀 𝐱
𝐄𝐱. (𝐚)
𝐢 = 𝟐𝐀
𝟐−𝐱=𝟐×𝟓
𝐨𝐫 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝐱
x = −8v
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
𝐄𝐱. (𝐛)
𝟐𝐯 𝟏𝛀 𝟐𝐯 𝟐𝐯
𝟓𝐯
(As = 2A) as battery is a source of energy not charge
𝟐𝛀
𝟏𝟎𝐯 + –
𝐄𝐱. (𝐜) + – 𝐁
𝟐𝐀 𝟐𝐀
𝟓𝐯
𝑉𝐴 − 4𝑉 − 5𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵
10 − 4V − 5V = VB ⇒ VB = 1V
Find
3V 1W
02 EXAMPLE A B
i) I in all branches G
ii) VAC, VGH, VBE 1V 2W
F C
H
Solution
2W 5V
E D
I
In the given figure find 2V 1Ω
10 EXAMPLE E B
(a) Current in all the branches. A
(b) VAC, VGB, VEF
1Ω
Solution 3V 2Ω
D C
G
2Ω 5V
TO FIND CURRENT IN CLOSED COMPLEX CIRCUITS
Trick
resistance.
EXAMPLE Find current in the shown circuit.
Solution
10V 2Ω
i=?
20V 4Ω
10V
–10
Solution 0
–10
0
𝟖 𝟒
i=? 6Ω 𝐈= 𝐀= 𝐀
𝟔 𝟑
0
0 –2 –2
2V
EXAMPLE Find current in each branch of given circuit ?
Solution
2Ω 2Ω
10V
4V
Solution
10 10 10
= 5A
2
2Ω 2Ω
10V 10 − 4
4 i= = 3A
4V 2
5A 8A 0
0 0 0
5A 3A
EXAMPLE Find current in all branches ?
Solution
4V
𝟒𝛀
2V 𝟐𝛀 𝟐𝛀
10V
0
Solution
4V
𝟒𝛀
x–4
2
2V 𝟐𝛀 𝟐𝛀
10V
𝐱 − 𝟐 𝐱 − 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 − 𝟒 − 𝟎
+ + =𝟐
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
x=6
EXAMPLE If switch S is closed find current is each branch.
Solution
2V 4V
3Ω 4V
2Ω
2V
6V 5Ω
2Ω
10V
S
Voltage of Junction
I1 + I2 = I3
I1 I2
V1 −VJ V2 −VJ VJ −V3 1 2
+ = R1 R2
R1 R2 R3
σ Vi ΤRi VJ
VJ = i
1
I3
Ri
3
Combinations of Resistance
Circuit Analysis
Series Combination
Series Combination
𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟑
I
In series, 𝐈 → same
If V is P.D. of source and V1 ,V2 and V3 is potential drop across each resister
then
𝐕 = 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐕𝟑 Req= σ 𝑅𝑖
𝐈𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐈𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐈𝐑 𝟑 Req= 𝑅𝑑
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑
Voltage divider rule
Since I is same ; V ∝ R (As V = IR)
𝐕𝟏 : 𝐕𝟐 : 𝐕𝟑 ⟹ 𝐑 𝟏 : 𝐑 𝟐 : 𝐑 𝟑
In series combination voltage drop across resistors is in the ratio of
resistance
Also, 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐈𝐑 𝟏 , 𝐕𝟐 = and 𝐈 = 𝐕𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 /𝐑 𝐞𝐪 (R eq = R1 + R2)
𝐈𝐑 𝟐
R1 R1
V1 = × Vbattery V2 = × Vbattery
R eq R eq
𝐕𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲
R eq = nR, V1 = V2 = V3 = Vn =
𝐧
Solution
3𝐴 3𝐴
30𝑉
𝐀𝐥𝐥 𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐬𝐨 𝐰𝐞 𝐮𝐬𝐞, 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟓 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝛀
30
Current supplying by source will be 𝐼 = 𝑉battery /𝑅𝑒𝑞 , 𝐼 = = 3𝐴
10
Parallel Combination
Let's see circuit diagram and formulas used in parallel combination
Parallel Combination
In parallel V is same across all resistors but current will be different if all
resistors are different
If I1 , I2 and I3 are the currents through resistors R1, R2 and R3 then
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑
V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + or = + +
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 R eq R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
For n resistors in parallel Req
= R + R + R + ⋯ + R = 𝑅
1 2 3 n 𝑖
1 1
or = න𝑑𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞
In case of 2 resistance
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐
= + ⟹𝐑=
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐
If n equal resistance are connected in parallel then their equivalent
resistance will be R/n ,
Similarly,
𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝐧 =
𝐧
+ −
24𝐴
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟒𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕
1 1 1 1
All resistances are in parallel so = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏+𝟐+𝟑
= + + = ⟹ 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝟏𝛀
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝟔 𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
P.D. across each resistor will be 24V
Solution P.D. across each resistor will be 24V
2Ω
12𝐴
3Ω
8𝐴
6Ω
4𝐴
+ −
𝐕 = 𝟐𝟒𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭
𝟐𝟒
Current through 2𝛀 resistor will be 𝐈𝟐𝛀 = = 𝟏𝟐𝐀
𝟐
𝟐𝟒
Current through 3𝛀 resistor will be 𝐈𝟑𝛀 = = 𝟖𝐀
𝟑
𝟐𝟒
Current through 6𝛀 resistor will be 𝐈𝟔𝛀 = = 𝟒𝐀
𝟔
Equivalent Resistivity (ρeq )
Req = R1 + R2 1
=R +R
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1 2
ℓ1 +ℓ2 ρ 1 ℓ1 ρ2 ℓ2
ρeq = + A1 +A2 A A
A A A
ρ ℓ
= ρ 1ℓ + ρ 2ℓ
eq
1 2
ρ1 ℓ1 +ρ2 ℓ2
ρeq = A1 +A2 ρ1 ρ2
ℓ1 +ℓ2
ρeq = ρ1 A2 +ρ2 A1
ρ1 +ρ2
if ℓ1 = ℓ2; ρ2 = 2 If A1 = A2
2ρ1 ρ2
ρeq = ρ
1 +ρ2
l1 l2 l
A B 𝜌1 A
𝜌2 A
𝜌1 𝜌2
Drift Velocity at a Point(vd)
P
I = neAvd
𝐼 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
vd = 𝑛𝑒𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑅 = ρℓ = 𝑛𝑒ρℓ
𝑛𝑒𝐴 A
V
1
(i) ℓ = vd ∝ ℓ
(ii) A = vd ∝ A
(iii) V= vd ∝ V
(iv) E = vd ∝ E
Practice of Series and Parallel
EXAMPLE Find (1) R AB = ? 𝑅
𝐷 𝐶
(2) R AC = ? 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
Solution 𝐴 𝐵
R1 R 2 3R × R
R eq = =
R1 + R 2 3R + R
3𝑅
𝑅
𝟑𝐑
𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = 𝑅 𝑅
𝟒
𝑅
(2) 𝑹𝑨𝑪 = ?
Solution
𝐑 𝐀𝐂 = 𝐑
EXAMPLE Find (1) 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = ? 1Ω
𝐴
Solution 2Ω 2Ω
2Ω
4Ω
4Ω 4Ω
𝐵
8Ω
𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = 𝟐 + 𝟒 = 𝟔 𝛀
EXAMPLE Find : 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = ?
R R R
A ∞
R R
B ∞
Solution
Solution
R R R
∞
x R R R
x R x
Solution
xR R X + R + xR
x=R+ =
x+R x+R
x 2 + R2 + xR
x 2 − xR − R2 = 0
R ± R2 + 4.1. R2
α1 B ⇒
2×1
R ± 5R2
α1 B =
2
R + 5R2
=
2
Find Req between A & B
04 EXAMPLE
1. All the given resistances are of R Ω. B
Solution
A
60°
A B
Find Req across the terminals AB in the given figure shown.
06 EXAMPLE
Solution 4Ω
8Ω
6Ω
8Ω 3Ω
4Ω
3Ω B
A
Find Req across the terminals AB in the given figure shown.
07 EXAMPLE
Solution 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
A
B
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω
Find Req across the terminals AB in the given figure shown if all resistances are
09 EXAMPLE
of R Ω .
A
Solution
B
A B
A
B
Short Circuit
R ∆V = 0
V V I=0
I
R = can be removed
Find current in the circuit.
01 EXAMPLE
(a) Before S is closed. 5Ω 𝑉1 10Ω 𝑉
1
(b) After S is closed.
Solution
S
P Q
15V
Find Req between A & B.
05 EXAMPLE
R R R
Solution A B
Find I 7Ω
02 EXAMPLE
Solution
11Ω
10Ω
I I
5Ω 10V
Find Req between A & B.
04 EXAMPLE
Solution R R
A B
R
Find Req between A & B. R
03 EXAMPLE
Solution A R B
R
Find Req between A & B.(All Resistances are R)
06 EXAMPLE
Solution
A B
Find Req between A & B.
07 EXAMPLE 2Ω 3Ω 7Ω
A
Solution
8Ω
5Ω 1Ω
B
3Ω
Q. Find :
(i) I & V in all R 4Ω 2Ω
(ii) Heat in 𝟑𝛀 in 10 sec.
6Ω 3Ω 4Ω
4Ω 2Ω
20v
Electric Cell
𝐝𝐂
𝐫∝
𝐀𝐓
C : Concentration of electrolyte
A : Effective area of electrodes Electrode-1 Electrode-2
Electrolyte
Electro motive force (EMF) of the cell – It is the potential difference across
the terminals of the cell when it is in open circuit i.e. no current is flowing
through the cell.
Or
It is the work done in moving unit positive charge from low potential
terminal to high potential terminal inside the battery.
A r
A B
[i=0]
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐄 + 𝟎 = 𝐕𝐁
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐄
TPD (Terminal potential Difference) of the cell –
CASE 01
E = IR + Ir = V + Ir Þ V = E – Ir
TPD = VBA = E – Ir
Diagram
i E r
(b) A B
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐄 + 𝐢𝐫 = 𝐕𝐁
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐕+ − 𝐕— = 𝐄— 𝐢𝐫
TPD < E
Direction of i
Outside of the cell : +ve to –ve
Inside of the cell : –ve to +ve
V = E -Ir V=
E
r = R+r
ER
1+
E R
TPD = E − r ER
R−r R+r=
V
ER E
TPD = = E
R+r r r=R − 1
1+R V
TPD
If R = 0 then TPD = 0
If R = ∞ then TPD = E
i E r
(b) A B
VA – E – ir = VB
VA – VB = E + ir
TPD = E + ir
(d) Direction of i
r r
E E
r
i
- +
E
(i) V = E when i = 0
(ii) E > V 𝐸
i = 𝑅+𝑟
V = E – ir
V<E
(Discharging)
Discharging Charging
E E
r r
I – + I + -
V = E – Ir V = E + Ir
V V
I I
Internal Resistance of a Cell
𝐸
i = 𝑅+𝑟
R
V = E – Ir
𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑅 i
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝑅+𝑟 = 𝑅+𝑟 E r
𝐸𝑅
R+r= 𝑉
v
𝐸
r=R −1
𝑉
Combination of Cells
A. Series Combination
E1 r1 E2 r2 E3 r3 En rn Eeq. req.
A B
=
i R
i C
D
R
𝐄 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 +. . . . +𝐄𝐧
Eeq. = E1 + E2 + E3 …… En 𝐢= =
𝐑 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 +. . . . +𝐫𝐧 + 𝐑
req. = r1 + r2 + r3 …….rn
If cells are identical, Eeq=nE, req
Req. = r1 + r2 + r3 ……rn + R
= nr 𝐢 = 𝐧𝐄
𝐧𝐫 + 𝐑
EXAMPLE When cell support each other
𝑟1 𝐸2 𝑟2
𝐸1
i
R
Solution
𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐
𝐈=
𝐑 + (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 )
10𝛺 B
4V
Solution
1/5A
B 10 A
1/5A
4V
V
B A
4V 20Ω
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒 𝟏
𝐈= = 𝐀 ⇒ 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝟖𝐕
𝟑𝟎 𝟓
B. Parallel Combination
𝐸1 𝑟1
𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟏
𝐸2 𝑟2 𝐸𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞
i i i i
A B A B
𝒊𝟐
𝒊𝟐 𝒊𝟐
𝐸3 𝑟3
R
R
TPD = Eeq – ireq = V …(1)
E1 E2 E3
r1 + r2 + r3 . . . . . 1 1 1 1
Eeq =
1 1 1 Þ = + + .....
req r1 r2 r3
r1 r2 r3 . . . . .
+ +
For 2 cells in parallel
E1 r1
E1 r2 + E2 r1
Eeq =
r1 + r2
r1 r2
req =
r1 + r2
E2 r2
E1 r1
E1 r2 − E2 r1
Eeq =
r1 + r2
r1 r2
req =
r1 + r2
E2 r2
Note
E1 r
E1 r
n cells
R
EΤr E E
Eeq =n =E ⇒ Eeq = E i = R+req = r
nΤr R+
n
nE
r i = nR+r
req =
n
EXAMPLE If VB – VA = 4V then x will be ? 10𝛺 5V
A B
2V
Solution X𝛺
E2 r1 + E1 r2
VB − VA =
r1 + r2
5x + 20
4=
10 + x
4(10 + x) = 5x + 20
40 + 4x = 20 + 5x or x = 20
2V 2𝛺
EXAMPLE Reading of Ammeter = ?
2𝛺
B A D
Solution
2V 2𝛺
2V 2𝛺 2V 1𝛺
2V 2𝛺
A A
2𝛺 2𝛺
𝟐
⇒ 𝑬𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝒗 ⇒ 𝑹𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟑𝜴 ⇒ 𝑰 = 𝑨
𝟑
EXAMPLE In the given diagram potential difference between A & B is 5V now terminals
of the 3V cell are reversed then find new potential difference between A & B.
6V 3𝛺
Solution
A B
X
E1 r2 + E2 r1 3V
Eeq =
r2 + r1
6x + 9
5= ⇒ 15 + 5x = 6x + 9
3+x
6=x
Reversing the terminals
6V 3𝛺
A B
X=6
3V
𝟑𝟔 − 𝟗
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐁 = 𝐄𝐞𝐪 =
𝟔+𝟑
𝟑𝟔 − 𝟗 𝟐𝟕
= = = 𝟑𝐕
𝟗 𝟗
Short circuiting of the cell
E r E r E r
i R=0
R→(load resistance)
If R=0
E E
i= Then i= = max If R = 0 → connecting wire
R+r r
EXAMPLE A current of 1A is flowing from (+ve) to (–ve) terminal inside the cell of emf
4.5 V and internal resistance 0.5W then find potential of the negative
terminal if potential of positive terminal is 10V.
Solution
Solution
4.5V 0.5Ω
+ –
TPD = E + ir
V+ – V– = 4.5 + 0.5 1
10 – V– = 5V
V1 = 5V
EXAMPLE Two cells X and Y are connected to a resistance of 10 Ω as shown in the
figure. The terminal voltage of cell Y is :
6V, 2Ω 4V, 8Ω
Solution
x
10Ω
Solution
10 10 1
V = E − Ir = 4 − ×8 = 0V(∵ I = = Aቇ
20 20 2
If K cells (out of n cells each having emf E and internal resistance r) are wrongly
08 EXAMPLE
(oppositely) connected then find,
(a) Eeq
(b) Req
Solution
E r E r E r E r E r E r
n cells k cells
Special Case
E1
𝐄𝟏 𝟎
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐄𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝐄𝐞𝐪 = = r1
𝟏 𝟏 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
+
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
Q. Find i in r2
(i) 𝟐𝛀
(ii) 𝟏𝛀
Sol.
4v
8v 2Ω
4Ω 1Ω
Q. 2 Find i in
(i) 4Ω
(ii) 1Ω
Sol. 4V 8V
4V
2Ω 4Ω
1Ω 2Ω
E r E r E r
Mixed Combination
n times
Eeq = nE
m times
nr E r E r E r
req = m
nr
R eq = m
+R
nE mnE
i = nr = nr+mR DE Dr R
+R
m nr
nE m
Condition of Imax
DE Dr
When nr + mR → minimum
for that nr = mR m times
nE mE R
Imax = = Dr 2
2R 2r DE a+b = a− b + 2 ab
R a + b ⇒ min, when a = b
Colour coding
Types of Resistors :
R= — — × — —
1 2 3 4
Brown Red
Solution
𝟒𝟕𝟎 ± 𝟓%, 𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝟐)
EXAMPLE A carbon resistor (47±4.7) 𝐤𝛀 is to be marked with rings of different colours for
its identification. The colour code sequence will be :
(1) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver
(2) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
(3) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold
(4) Green – Orange – Violet – Gold
Solution
𝐑 = 𝟒𝟕 ± 𝟒. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟒𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ± 𝟏𝟎%𝛀
As per color code, 4-Yellow, 7-Violet, 3-Orange, 10%-Silver
Heating effects of current
Heat energy released from the conductor is equal to work done by the
battery .
Heat & Power R
I
Heat = Energy = V. q
= V(It)
V2 E
H = VIt = t = I2 Rt
R
2
H V
Power = = VI = I2R =
t R
If I = variable
1A I2
10V
Heating effects of current
V 2t
If I = constant H = i2 Rt = = Vit
R
Power delivered to the load resistance.
dw i2 Rdt 2
V2
P= = =i R= = Vi
dt dt R
EXAMPLE A coil boils some amount of H2O in 20 mins. Now this coil is cut into two
equal parts, and these are connected in parallel then find time taken by this
combination to boil same amount of water.
Solution
V2t
H=
R 𝐑ൗ
𝟐
As H and V are some 𝐑ൗ 𝐑ൗ
𝟐 𝟐
⇒R∝t = 𝐑ൗ𝟒
t
⇒ t′ = = 5min.
4 𝐑ൗ
𝟐
EXAMPLE If power consumed by 4W resistance is 36 watt then find :
(i) Power consumed b by 3W resistance
(ii) Value of E
(iii) Total power consumed in the circuit
Solution
4𝛺
3𝛺
6𝛺 6𝛺
𝐸
Solution
V2
P=
R
V2
36 =
4
V = 12 V E= 12 + 12 = 24
VA2 144
P3Ω = = = 48
R 3
2
Vtotal (24)2
Ptotal = = = 96W
R total 3 + 3
Some specific parameters
Ps = power specified
VS = voltage specified
VA = applied voltage
PC = consumed power
2
VA
PC = PS
VS
1
As VS = constant ⇒ R ∝ P
S
𝐏𝐒 ↑ 𝐑 ↓ thickness of filament ↑
𝑅1 𝑅2
R = R1 + R 2 𝑉
𝑉
V12 V22 V32 (When rated voltage is not given take it equal to applied
= +
P P1 P2 voltage)
1 1 1
= +
P P1 P2
𝐏
𝐏𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 =
𝐧
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝑅2
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝐏 𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
= + 𝑅1
𝐕𝐬𝟐 𝐕𝐬𝟐 𝐕𝐬𝟐
P = P1 + P 2
𝑉 𝑉
Pparallel = nP
When bulbs of different power rating connected in series brightness of
bulb having large power rating will be less and vise of versa.
PS ↑ R ↓ thickness of filament ↑
𝐈𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝑷𝐜 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹
EXAMPLE Two bulbs of specifications 25W, 100 V; 100W, 100 V are connected in series
to a source of 100 V. Then find
(i) Resistance of each bulb
(ii) Power consumed by each bulb
(iii) Which bulb will have more brightness.
Solution
Vs2
i R=
Ps
100 × 100
R1 = = 400Ω
25
100 × 100
R2 = = 100Ω
100
Solution
1
(𝐢𝐢) R ∝
P
4 25W 100W 25W 100W
VA1 = × 100 = 80
5
4
VA2 = × 100 = 20
5 100V 100V
𝐏𝟏: 𝐏𝟐 𝟏 ∶𝟒
VA2 80 × 80 −
PC1 = = = 16W
R1 400 𝐑𝟏 ∶ 𝐑𝟐 − 𝟒 ∶ 𝟏
VA2 20 × 20
PC2 = = = 4W
R1 100
Solution
(iii) as 25-watt bulb is consuming more power so it will have more
brightness because.
Brightness PC
So, if bulbs are connected in series, then lesser watt bulb will have more
brightness and if they are connected in parallel then greater watt bulb
will have more brightness.
EXAMPLE Compare brightness of the bulb before and after switch is closed.
80W
B R
A C D 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3
Solution
Let resistance of 80 W be R so resistance of 40 W be 2R.
As A and D are in series
So, PA > PD
and B and C are in parallel PB > PC
→ VA > VD > VC
Solution
VC2
PB =
R
VD2
PD =
R
PD > PB
PD > PB
E
I= I
R+r
V = E – Ir Er
Pcell = V. I = E − Ir . I
Pcell = EI − I2 r
E2R
PR = I R =
2
2
R+r
dPR
=0
dR
E 2 R + r 2 . 1 − 2R R + r
=0
[ 𝑅 + 𝑟 2]2
(R+r) [R+r-2R]= 0 or R=r R=r
R
For PR→ max
dPR I
=0
dR
Er
E 2 R + r 2 . 1 − 2R R + r
=0
[ R + r 2]2
(R+r) [R+r-2R]= 0 or R=r R=r
E E E
I= = =
R + r vR vr
E2R E2 E2
PR max = R + R 2
= =
4R 4r
P
E2 E2
Pmax = =
4r 4R
r
O
Also Pcell = EI – I2r …(ii)
dPcell
= 0= E−2Ir
dI
E
I=
2r
E E2 E2
Pmax cell = E. − =
2r 4r 4r
Wheatstone Bridge
R1 R2
A G R5 B
R3 R4
None of the shown resistance are in series and none of them are in a parallel.
Balancing condition
R1 R3
If = than bridge is said to be balanced, in this case:
R2 R4
𝐕𝐱 = 𝐕𝐲
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐴 G 𝑅5 𝐵
𝑅3 𝑅4
𝒚
Proof
In balancing condition
𝐱
ig = 0 i.e., x = y 𝐢𝟏
R1 R2
⇒ V−x=V−y
𝐢𝟏 𝐢𝐠 = 𝟎
i1 R1 = i2 R 3 𝐕 A B 𝟎
G R5
⇒ x − 0 = y − 0 = i1 R 2 = i2 R 4 𝐈
𝐢𝟐
On dividing we get R3 R4
R1 R3 𝐢𝟐
= 𝐲
R2 R4
R1 R 3
or = 𝐕
R2 R4
or R1 R 4 = R 2 R 3
EXAMPLE If reading of galvanometer of V is zero find equivalent resistance between A
and B 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 . x
5Ω
Solution
20Ω
𝐴 G 𝐵
7Ω 21Ω
Solution
20𝑥
5 20 + 𝑥
=
7 21
20𝑥
⇒ 3×5=
20 + 𝑥
⇒ 300 + 15𝑥 = 20𝑥
⇒ 300 = 5𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 60Ω
EXAMPLE A balanced WSB is shown if we interchange the position of battery and
galvanometer then find current in galvanometer :
B
Solution 4Ω 6Ω
A G C
2Ω 3Ω
D
V
Solution
After exchange it will remains balance WSB so there is no current flowing through
G
Balancing condition
R1 R3
If = than bridge is said to be balanced, in this case:
R2 R4
𝐕𝐱 = 𝐕𝐲
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐴 G 𝑅5 𝐵
𝑅3 𝑅4
𝒚
EXAMPLE All resistances of network are R, Find 𝐑 𝐀𝐁 = ? 𝑪
Solution
𝐴
𝐵
𝑫
Solution
𝐑𝐀𝐁 = 𝐑
Q.4 Find Req across A & B
2R R
10R
A B
6R 3R
R 2R
Q.5 Find Req across A & B 5R
A B
7R
2R 4R
Extended Wheatstone Bridge
R 2R 4R
A 7R 10R B
2R 4R 8R
Important Points
1. If all resistance = R ⇒ Req = R (Balanced Wheatstone Bridge).
2. If (G) & battery are interchanged, then there is no effect on Wheatstone
Bridge.
3. Battery key is pressed first & then the galvanometer key [to avoid (G)
wire from burning due to EMI(electromagnetic induction)]
4. Wheatstone Bridge is most sensitive when all R are equal or nearly
equal.
𝐑 𝐑 R1 R3
5. If 𝐑𝟏 > 𝐑𝟑 ⇒ I from D to C. C
𝟐 𝟒
A R5 B
R2 D R4
Metre Bridge
(i) It used to find unknown resistance in circuit.
(ii) Its working is based on WSB principle.
(iii) MB circuit R S
RB
D
A C
A B C
Jockey MB wire
scale
(constantan
or manganin)
R S
RB
A D C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm.
A B C
A D C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm.
A B C
(iv) Working
A D C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm.
A B C
In balancing condition
P R R S 100 − ℓ
(a) = ⇒ =
Q S ρℓ/A ρ(100 − ℓ) S= R
ℓ
A
b. Balancing length is independent of the radius of the cross-section of the
wire.
c. Jockey should not be rubbed against the wire because rubbing action
changes the cross-section of the wire.
d. END ERROR and END CORRECTION – this error occurs due to neglecting
resistances at the connection point A & C. end corrections e1 & e2 are the
lengths corresponding to resistances at connection points so equation
becomes.
ℓ + 𝑒1 𝑅
=
(100 − ℓ) + 𝑒2 𝑆
EXAMPLE In meter bridge experiment x W is connected in left side and 2 W (< x) is
connected in right side now position of these two resistances interchanged
and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm find value of x.
Solution
x 2W
RB
X 2
A D C
Left gap Right gap G
l cm. (100- l ) cm.
𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
A B C
In meter bridge experiment x W is connected in left side and 2 W (< x) is
connected in right side now position of these two resistances interchanged
and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm find value of x.
Solution
x 2W
RB
A D C X D 2
A C
Left gap Right gap
l cm. (100- l ) cm. G
A B C A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
EXAMPLE In meter bridge experiment x W is connected in left side and 2 W (< x) is
connected in right side now position of these two resistances interchanged
and balancing length is shifted by 20 cm find value of x.
X 2
Solution A
D
C
x 2 G
=
ℓ1 100 − ℓ1 A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
2ℓ1
x= … . (1)
100 − ℓ1
X D 2
On inter changing A C
G
A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
Solution X D 2
A C
x 2
= G
ℓ1 100 − ℓ1
A C
2ℓ1 𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
x= … . (1)
100 − ℓ1
On inter changing
2 x
=
ℓ1 100 − ℓ2 2 D X
A C
2(100 − ℓ2 )
x= … . (2)
ℓ2 G
∴ ℓ1 − ℓ2 = 20 A C
𝑙1 B (100 − 𝑙1 )
Using (1) and (2) we get ℓ1 + ℓ2 = 100
Solution
ℓ1 + ℓ2 = 100
ℓ1 − ℓ2 = 20
2ℓ1 = 120
or ℓ1 = 60
2ℓ1 2(60)
x= =
100 − ℓ1 100 − 60
120
x= = 3Ω
40
Post Office Box
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
P.O. Box
A B B
Only 3 resistors C
R1 R3
10Ω, 100Ω, 1000Ω A
G
C
A → B = R1 G
E R2 R4
B → C =R3
D
BD → C =R2 D
Metal Strip K2 E Unknow
K1
resistance{X}
R1 R 3
It is a balanced Wheat Stone’s Bridge ⇒ =
R2 R4
Battery → between A & C
Galvanometer → between B & D
⊗→ between C & D
X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000
–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000
–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
Post Office Box
A post office box can measure the value of the unknown resistance correctly up
to 2nd decimal place
x
A
1000 100 10
B 10 100 1000 C B
P Q
P Q
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50 G
+
A C
R ¥ K
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100 R
D – X
D
k1 k2
G V
(a)
Working
The working of the post office box involves broadly the following four steps
:
(1) Keeping R zero, each of the resistances P and Q are made equal to 10
ohm by taking out suitable plugs from the arms AB and BC respectively.
After pressing the battery key first and then the galvanometer key, the
direction of deflection of the galvanometer coil is noted. Now, making R
infinity, the direction of deflection is again noted. If the direction is
opposite to that in the first case, then the connections are correct.
(2) Keeping both P and Q equal to 10W, the value of R is adjusted, beginning
from 1W, till the direction of deflection reverses . The 'unknown' resistance
clearly lies somewhere between the two final values of R.
𝐗=𝐑
𝐐
=𝐑
𝟏𝟎 B
𝐏 𝟏𝟎
P Q
G
A C
K
R X
D
V
X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000
–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
𝐊 𝟏 \ 𝐀’ 𝐊 𝟐 \ 𝐁’
𝐑 = 𝟒𝛀 → 𝟓𝛀
(3) Making P 100 W and keeping Q 10 W, we again find those values of R
between which direction of deflection is reversed. Clearly, the resistance
in the arm AD will be 10 times the resistance X of the wire.
𝐐 𝟏𝟎 𝐑
𝐗=𝐑 =𝐑 =
𝐏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎
B
Now R should lie between 40W and 50W P Q
G
A C
K
R X
D
V
X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000
–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
𝑲𝟏 \ 𝑨’ 𝑲𝟐 \ 𝑩’
𝑹 = 𝟒𝟐𝜴 → 𝟒𝟑𝜴
(4) Now, P is made 1000 W and Q is kept at 10 W. The resistance in the arm
AD will now be 100 times the 'unknown' resistance.
𝟏𝟎 𝐑
𝐗=𝐑 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
B
Now R should lie between 420W and 430W P Q
G
A C
K
R X
D
V
X
P Q
A B C
1000 100 10 10 100 1000
–+
1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50
D R
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
𝐊 𝟏 \ 𝐀’ 𝐊 𝟐 \ 𝐁’
𝐑 = 𝟒𝟐𝟒𝛀 → 𝟒𝟐𝟔𝛀
Galvanometer
𝜽∝𝒊
𝜽
(a) Current sensitivity =
𝑰
𝜽
(b) Voltage sensitivity =
𝑽
Ammeter
Value of shunt.
i-𝑖𝑔 S
SG
≡ A ⇒ RA =
i S+G
G
i 𝑖𝑔 Ammeter of
Range ( 0-i)
Ammeter
Value of shunt.
i-𝑖𝑔 S
SG
≡ A ⇒ RA =
i S+G
G
i 𝑖𝑔 Ammeter of
Range ( 0-i)
𝐕𝐒 = 𝐕𝐆
ig
𝐢 − 𝐢𝐠 𝐒 = 𝐢𝐠 𝐆 S= G
i − ig
1 G 𝐢
S= G S= 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐧 =
i n−1 𝐢𝐠
ig − 1
Where ,
G - resistance of galvanometer
Solution
Galvanometer → Ammeter
G = 99
Ig = 10 mA = 10-2
I = 10 A
10
𝑛= = 1000
10−2
𝐺 99
𝑆= = = 0.099Ω
(𝑛 − 1) 999
EXAMPLE Resistance of a galvanometer is 45 W if only 10% of the main current passes
through the galvanometer when it is connected to a shunt find shunt
resistance.
Solution
𝟏𝟎
𝐢𝐠 = 𝐢 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝐢
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢
𝐧 = = 𝟏𝟎
𝐢𝐠
𝐆 𝟒𝟓
𝐒= = = 𝟓𝛀
(𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝟗
Voltmeter
𝒊𝒈 H Voltmeter
G
𝒊𝒈
R
i A (𝒊 − 𝒊𝒈 ) B
Resistance R and (G+H) are in parallel between points A and B so we can
write
ig G + H = i − ig R
ig G + ig H = i − ig R = V
Vg + VH = V or VH = V − Vg
or VH = V − Vg
or ig H = V − Vg
Vg
or H = V − Vg
G
or Vg H = (V − Vg )G
𝒊𝒈 H Voltmeter
V − Vg V G
or H= G= −1 G
Vg Vg 𝒊𝒈
V i R
H= −1 G
Vg
V : Range of voltmeter
Vg : Range of galvanometer
H= n−1 G
V
where n =
Vg
EXAMPLE Resistance of a galvanometer is 50 W and its current sensitivity is 1 mA/div
and it has 20 division it is to be converted into a voltmeter of 10V then find
required resistance for the conversion.
Solution
Ig = 20 × 1 = 2 × 10-2 A
Vg = ig G = 2 × 10-2 × 50 = 1V
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏
𝐇= × 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝛀
𝟏
EXAMPLE Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit resistance of voltmeter is 1 kW.
Solution 2000𝛺
V
6000𝛺
1000𝛺
90V
2000𝛺 1000𝛺
1000𝛺
6000𝛺
90V
Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit resistance of voltmeter is 1 kW.
Solution
𝟗𝟎 𝟑
current passing through circuit 𝐈 = = 𝐀
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Find reading of voltmeter in the given circuit resistance of voltmeter is 1 kW.
Solution
2 2
current passing through voltmeter branch = A Vreading = × 1000 = 20V
100 100
Potentiometer
Known
E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
Primary circuit
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B
Secondary circuit
Jockey Potentiometer wire
G
Galvanometer
Unknown
Circuit of potentiometer
Known
E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
Primary circuit
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B
Circuit of potentiometer E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
Primary circuit
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B
Potential gradient
Potential drop across wire per unit length is known is potential gradient.
I, A, ρ
𝐕
A i=const. B
ρℓ
VAB = V= iR R AB =
A
iρℓ = iρ ℓ 𝛉
V= 𝐥
A A
V iρ V iρ
PG = = = constant Slope = tanθ = = = PG
ℓ A l A
Working principle of potentiometer
E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
J
A B
l
V∝l
Potential gradient
E
i=
r + Rh + Rw
E r (S) Rh
Rheostat
𝑅𝑤 , L
A B
Vwire iR w ER w 1
P. G. = = = ×
Lwire L r + Rh + R w L
If same polarity of cell 1 and cell 2 are not connected with each other
then balancing condition (null deflection) cannot be obtained.
Applications
V
Potential gradient = x =
L
E = xℓ
EXAMPLE A cell of emf 20V and internal resistance 1 ohm is connected to a
potentiometer wire of resistance 9 ohm and length 10m, then find potential
gradient
Solution
EXAMPLE A cell of 2V is connected with a wire of length 10 m and resistance 40W in
primary circuit of potentiometer, this setup is used to measure unknown emf
of cell of internal resistance 0.2W, if balancing length is 4 m, then find
unknown emf.
Solution
Potential difference across potentiometer wire is 2V, so its potential gradient
will be
2
x= = 0.2V/m
10
As balancing length is 4m
𝐅𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐄 = 𝐱𝐥
E = 0.2 × 4 = 0.8V
Compare Emf of 2 cells
𝐄𝟏 = 𝐱𝓵𝟏 …………………....(1)
When switch is connected between 2 and 3
If K → open
Balancing length will be obtained for emf of cell connected in secondary circuit.
E = xl1 …………...(1)
If Balancing length is l2
When K → closed
V = x l2
E – ir = 𝑥ℓ2 = iR
P. D. across R
E
iR = R
r+R
This P. D. must be equal to P. D. across length ℓ2 of potentiometer wire
ER
= xℓ2 ………(2)
r+R
𝐄𝐑
= 𝐱𝓵𝟐 ………(2)
𝐫+𝐑
(𝐱𝓵𝟏 )𝐑
= 𝐱𝓵𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝓵𝟏 𝐑 = (𝐫 + 𝐑)𝓵𝟐
𝐫+𝐑
ℓ1 − ℓ2
r= R
ℓ2
EXAMPLE A potentiometer wire is 100 cm long and a constant potential difference is
maintained across it. Two cells are connected in series first to support one
another and then in opposite direction. The balance points are obtained at
50 cm and 10 cm from the positive end of the wire in the two cases. The ratio
of emf’s is :-
(1) 5 : 1 (2) 5 : 4
(3) 3 : 4 (4) 3 : 2
Solution
2V 1𝛺 4𝛺
EXAMPLE Find value of balancing length (l).
10m Rω = 40𝛺
l
5V G
1𝛺
9𝛺
Solution
2
current passing through primary circuit 𝐼 =
45
𝐼𝑅𝑤 2 × 40 16
𝑃. 𝐺. = = =
𝐿 45 × 10 90
5 1
current passing through secondary circuit 𝑖 = = 𝐴
10 2
1 16 9 16 810
𝐸 − 𝑖𝑟 = 5 − × 1 = ×ℓ 𝑜𝑟 = ×ℓ 𝑜𝑟 ℓ =
2 90 2 90 32
EXAMPLE A potentiometer circuit has been set up for finding the internal resistance of
a given cell. The main battery, used across the potentiometer wire, ha an
emf of 2.0 V and a negligible internal resistance. The potentiometer wire
itself is 4m long, when a resistance R, connected across the given cell, has
values of ,
(i) Infinity (ii) 9.5 W
The balancing lengths on the potentiometer wire are found to be 3m and
2.85 m respectively. The value of internal resistance of the cell is :-
(1) 0.25 W (2) 0.95 W
(3) 0.5 W (4) 0.75 W
Solution
Symmetry Circuits
2 2
I
R
2 2
2 2
I
R
2 2
2 2
I
R
2 2
EXAMPLE Find Req ? RW
RW RW RW
RW
I RW
Solution RW
RW
RW RW RW
RW
RW RW 𝟖𝑹
I 𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
𝟕
RW
EXAMPLE Find Req ?
RW RW RW
RW RW
A B
RW RW
RW RW RW
RW
𝟒𝑹
𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
𝟓
B
EXAMPLE Find Req between?
(i) A & C (ii) A & O (iii) A & B R
R
R
R R
A C
O
R
R
R
D
EXAMPLE All 12 Resistance, each of RW. Find Req between :-
(i) A & C → Face diagonal B
(ii) A & E → Edge
(iii) A & G → Body diagonal
F
E G
A C
D
Earthing
Earthing
5v
A B
1. Find VA, VB, VC & VD 1Ω
13Ω
D C
2. Find I through 3Ω.
2Ω 3Ω
10v 2Ω 3Ω
Half Deflection Method
E R E R
I1 I
Ig
G G
S
E
I1 = = Kθ
R+G
K → figure of merit E IS Kθ
I= GS ⇒ Ig = G+S =
R+G+S 2
E G+S S 1 E
× = 2 × R+G
R G+S +GS G+S
RS
G = R−S
5 5
I
5
5 5
2 4
I
2
4 2
2W 4W Node Method
x
2W
I y
4W 2W
10v
Star ⇌ Delta Method
(i) Star → Delta
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Z1 =
R1
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Z2 =
R2
Star
Delta
R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3 R1
Z3 =
R3
R1
Z3 Z2
R2
R3
Z1
Star ⇌ Delta Method
(ii) Delta → Star
R2R3 R1 R2
Z1 = Z3
R1 + R 2 + R 3
Z2 Z1
R 3 R1
Z2 =
R1 + R 2 + R 3 R3
R1 R 2
Z3 =
R1 + R 2 + R 3
2 4
I
2
4 2
EXAMPLE Find Req ? 1
5W Ω
2
A 1W B
Solution 4W 3
Ω
5
1 1
Ω Ω
2 2
2W
A 1W B
2 3
Ω Ω
5 5
𝟏
𝐀𝐧𝐬. 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐 + = 𝟐. 𝟓𝛀
𝟐